Brain Imaging of Multiple Sclerosis: the Next 10 Years

Neuroimaging Clinics of North America

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 101-112

  Matthews, Paul M ^a,b  

^a HAMMERSMITH HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Functional MR imaging; Imaging; Inflammation; MR imaging; Multiple sclerosis; Myelin; Positron emission tomography

Indexed keywords

CONTRAST MEDIUM; MYELIN;

ANATOMY; BRAIN; BRAIN CORTEX; CHEMISTRY; COMPREHENSION; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIFFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENOMICS; GRAY MATTER; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HUMAN; INDUSTRY; MAGNET; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MOLECULAR IMAGING; MOLECULE; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NERVE FIBER; NEUROIMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTON NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; REVIEW; SCIENCE; TECHNOLOGY;

BRAIN; FORECASTING; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY;

EID: 57049185774     PISSN: 10525149     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.nic.2008.08.003     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Young I.R., Hall A.S., Pallis C.A., et al. Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in multiple sclerosis. Lancet 2 8255 (1981) 1063-1066
2. McDonald W.I., Compston A., Edan G., et al. Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines from the International Panel on the Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis. Ann Neurol 50 1 (2001) 121-127
3. Miller D.H., Filippi M., Fazekas F., et al. Role of magnetic resonance imaging within diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 56 2 (2004) 273-278
4. Korteweg T., Barkhof F., Uitdehaag B.M., et al. How to use spinal cord magnetic resonance imaging in the McDonald diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 57 4 (2005) 606-607
5. Polman C.H., Reingold S.C., Edan G., et al. Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2005 revisions to the "McDonald Criteria.". Ann Neurol 58 6 (2005) 840-846
6. Caramanos Z., Matthews P.M., and Arnold D.L. Axonal pathology in patients with multiple sclerosis: evidence from in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In: Cohen J., and Rudick R. (Eds). Multiple sclerosis therapeutics (2007) Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press
7. Bo L., Geurts J.J., Ravid R., et al. Magnetic resonance imaging as a tool to examine the neuropathology of multiple sclerosis. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 30 2 (2004) 106-117
8. Lycklama a Nijeholt G., and Barkhof F. Differences between subgroups of MS: MRI findings and correlation with histopathology. J Neurol Sci 206 2 (2003) 173-174
9. Smith M.E., Stone L.A., Albert P.S., et al. Clinical worsening in multiple sclerosis is associated with increased frequency and area of gadopentetate dimeglumine-enhancing magnetic resonance imaging lesions. Ann Neurol 33 5 (1993) 480-489
10. Arnold D.L., and Matthews P.M. MRI in the diagnosis and management of multiple sclerosis. Neurology 58 8 Suppl 4 (2002) S23-S31
11. Fisniku L.K., Chard D.T., Jackson J.S., et al. Gray matter atrophy is related to long-term disability in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 63 3 (2008) 247-254
12. Bakshi R., Thompson A.J., Rocca M.A., et al. MRI in multiple sclerosis: current status and future prospects. Lancet Neurol 7 7 (2008) 615-625
13. Hickman S.J. Optic nerve imaging in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimaging 17 Suppl 1 (2007) 42S-45S
14. Wattjes M.P., Lutterbey G.G., Harzheim M., et al. Higher sensitivity in the detection of inflammatory brain lesions in patients with clinically isolated syndromes suggestive of multiple sclerosis using high field MRI: an intraindividual comparison of 1.5 T with 3.0 T. Eur Radiol 16 9 (2006) 2067-2073
15. Available at:. www.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/ Accessed October 17, 2008
16. Available at:. www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/ Accessed October 17, 2008
17. Kieseier B.C., Wiendl H., Hemmer B., et al. Treatment and treatment trials in multiple sclerosis. Curr Opin Neurol 20 3 (2007) 286-293
18. Confavreux C., and Vukusic S. Natural history of multiple sclerosis: a unifying concept. Brain 129 Pt 3 (2006) 606-616
19. Lucchinetti C., Bruck W., Parisi J., et al. Heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis lesions: implications for the pathogenesis of demyelination. Ann Neurol 47 6 (2000) 707-717
20. Pathak S.D., Ng L., Wyman B., et al. Quantitative image analysis: software systems in drug development trials. Drug Discov Today 8 10 (2003) 451-458
21. Pike G.B., De Stefano N., Narayanan S., et al. Multiple sclerosis: magnetization transfer MR imaging of white matter before lesion appearance on T2-weighted images. Radiology 215 3 (2000) 824-830
22. Wu Y., Warfield S.K., Tan I.L., et al. Automated segmentation of multiple sclerosis lesion subtypes with multichannel MRI. Neuroimage 32 3 (2006) 1205-1215
23. Trusheim M.R., Berndt E.R., and Douglas F.L. Stratified medicine: strategic and economic implications of combining drugs and clinical biomarkers. Nat Rev Drug Discov 6 4 (2007) 287-293
24. Booth B., and Zemmel R. Quest for the best. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2 10 (2003) 838-841
25. Fox E.J., Vartanian T.K., and Zamvil S.S. The immunogenicity of disease-modifying therapies for multiple sclerosis: clinical implications for neurologists. Neurologist 13 6 (2007) 355-362
26. Coles A.J., Wing M.G., Molyneux P., et al. Monoclonal antibody treatment exposes three mechanisms underlying the clinical course of multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 46 3 (1999) 296-304
27. Polman C.H., O'Connor P.W., Havrdova E., et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of natalizumab for relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 354 9 (2006) 899-910
28. Liu L., Meier D., Polgar-Turcsanyi M., et al. Multiple sclerosis medical image analysis and information management. J Neuroimaging 15 4 Suppl (2005) 103S-117S
29. Bosnell R., Wegner C., Kincses Z.T., et al. Reproducibility of fMRI in the clinical setting: implications for trial designs. Neuroimage (2008)
30. Held U., Heigenhauser L., Shang C., et al. Predictors of relapse rate in MS clinical trials. Neurology 65 11 (2005) 1769-1773
31. Schach S., Scholz M., Wolinsky J.S., et al. Pooled historical MRI data as a basis for research in multiple sclerosis-a statistical evaluation. Mult Scler 13 4 (2007) 509-516
32. De Stefano N., Cocco E., Lai M., et al. Imaging brain damage in first-degree relatives of sporadic and familial multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 59 4 (2006) 634-639
33. Ollier W., Sprosen T., and Peakman T. UK Biobank: from concept to reality. Pharmacogenomics 6 6 (2005) 639-646
34. Smith S.M., Zhang Y., Jenkinson M., et al. Accurate, robust, and automated longitudinal and cross-sectional brain change analysis. Neuroimage 17 1 (2002) 479-489
35. Stevenson V.L., Smith S.M., Matthews P.M., et al. Monitoring disease activity and progression in primary progressive multiple sclerosis using MRI: sub-voxel registration to identify lesion changes and to detect cerebral atrophy. J Neurol 249 2 (2002) 171-177
36. Smith S.M., Rao A., De Stefano N., et al. Longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis of atrophy in Alzheimer's disease: cross-validation of BSI, SIENA and SIENAX. Neuroimage 36 4 (2007) 1200-1206
37. Gottesman II, and Gould T.D. The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. Am J Psychiatry 160 4 (2003) 636-645
38. Zivadinov R., Weinstock-Guttman B., Benedict R., et al. Preservation of gray matter volume in multiple sclerosis patients with the Met allele of the rs6265 (Val66Met) SNP of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Hum Mol Genet 16 22 (2007) 2659-2668
39. van Veen T., Nielsen J., Berkhof J., et al. CCL5 and CCR5 genotypes modify clinical, radiological and pathological features of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 190 1-2 (2007) 157-164
40. Chanock S.J., Manolio T., Boehnke M., et al. Replicating genotype-phenotype associations. Nature 447 7145 (2007) 655-660
41. Meyer-Lindenberg A., and Weinberger D.R. Intermediate phenotypes and genetic mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 7 10 (2006) 818-827
42. Sturzebecher S., Wandinger K.P., Rosenwald A., et al. Expression profiling identifies responder and non-responder phenotypes to interferon-beta in multiple sclerosis. Brain 126 Pt 6 (2003) 1419-1429
43. Sibson N.R., Blamire A.M., Bernades-Silva M., et al. MRI detection of early endothelial activation in brain inflammation. Magn Reson Med 51 2 (2004) 248-252
44. Bulte J.W., Duncan I.D., and Frank J.A. In vivo magnetic resonance tracking of magnetically labeled cells after transplantation. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 22 8 (2002) 899-907
45. Trivedi R.A., Mallawarachi C., U-king-Im J.M., et al. Identifying inflamed carotid plaques using in vivo USPIO-enhanced MR imaging to label plaque macrophages. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 26 7 (2006) 1601-1606
46. Trivedi R.A., U-king-Im J.M., Graves M.J., et al. In vivo detection of macrophages in human carotid atheroma: temporal dependence of ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide-enhanced MRI. Stroke 35 7 (2004) 1631-1635
47. Bellin M.F., Roy C., Kinkel K., et al. Lymph node metastases: safety and effectiveness of MR imaging with ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particles-initial clinical experience. Radiology 207 3 (1998) 799-808
48. Dousset V., Brochet B., Deloire M.S., et al. MR imaging of relapsing multiple sclerosis patients using ultra-small-particle iron oxide and compared with gadolinium. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 27 5 (2006) 1000-1005
49. Querol M., and Bogdanov Jr. A. Amplification strategies in MR imaging: activation and accumulation of sensing contrast agents (SCAs). J Magn Reson Imaging 24 5 (2006) 971-982
50. Ge Y., Zohrabian V.M., and Grossman R.I. Seven-tesla magnetic resonance imaging: new vision of microvascular abnormalities in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol 65 6 (2008) 812-816
51. Olafsen T., Kenanova V.E., and Wu A.M. Tunable pharmacokinetics: modifying the in vivo half-life of antibodies by directed mutagenesis of the Fc fragment. Nat Protoc 1 4 (2006) 2048-2060
52. Arnold D.L., Matthews P.M., Francis G., et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of human brain in vivo in the evaluation of multiple sclerosis: assessment of the load of disease. Magn Reson Med 14 1 (1990) 154-159
53. Fu L., Matthews P.M., De Stefano N., et al. Imaging axonal damage of normal-appearing white matter in multiple sclerosis. Brain 121 Pt 1 (1998) 103-113
54. De Stefano N., Matthews P.M., Fu L., et al. Axonal damage correlates with disability in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Results of a longitudinal magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Brain 121 Pt 8 (1998) 1469-1477
55. Matthews P.M., De Stefano N., Narayanan S., et al. Putting magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies in context: axonal damage and disability in multiple sclerosis. Semin Neurol 18 3 (1998) 327-336
56. Ramnani N., Behrens T.E., Penny W., et al. New approaches for exploring anatomical and functional connectivity in the human brain. Biol Psychiatry 56 9 (2004) 613-619
57. Song S.K., Yoshino J., Le T.Q., et al. Demyelination increases radial diffusivity in corpus callosum of mouse brain. Neuroimage 26 1 (2005) 132-140
58. Song S.K., Sun S.W., Ju W.K., et al. Diffusion tensor imaging detects and differentiates axon and myelin degeneration in mouse optic nerve after retinal ischemia. Neuroimage 20 3 (2003) 1714-1722
59. Zhu B., Moore G.R., Zwimpfer T.J., et al. Axonal cytoskeleton changes in experimental optic neuritis. Brain Res 824 2 (1999) 204-217
60. Behrens T.E., Woolrich M.W., Jenkinson M., et al. Characterization and propagation of uncertainty in diffusion-weighted MR imaging. Magn Reson Med 50 5 (2003) 1077-1088
61. Wakana S., Jiang H., Nagae-Poetscher L.M., et al. Fiber tract-based atlas of human white matter anatomy. Radiology 230 1 (2004) 77-87
62. Catani M., Jones D.K., and ffytche D.H. Perisylvian language networks of the human brain. Ann Neurol 57 1 (2005) 8-16
63. Schmahmann J.D., and Pandya D.N. Cerebral white matter-historical evolution of facts and notions concerning the organization of the fiber pathways of the brain. J Hist Neurosci 16 3 (2007) 237-267
64. Tomassini V., Jbabdi S., Klein J.C., et al. Diffusion-weighted imaging tractography-based parcellation of the human lateral premotor cortex identifies dorsal and ventral subregions with anatomical and functional specializations. J Neurosci 27 38 (2007) 10259-10269
65. Johansen-Berg H., Behrens T.E., Robson M.D., et al. Changes in connectivity profiles define functionally distinct regions in human medial frontal cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101 36 (2004) 13335-13340
66. Behrens T.E., Johansen-Berg H., Woolrich M.W., et al. Non-invasive mapping of connections between human thalamus and cortex using diffusion imaging. Nat Neurosci 6 7 (2003) 750-757
67. Smith S.M., Jenkinson M., Johansen-Berg H., et al. Tract-based spatial statistics: voxelwise analysis of multi-subject diffusion data. Neuroimage 31 4 (2006) 1487-1505
68. Ciccarelli O., Behrens T.E., Altmann D.R., et al. Probabilistic diffusion tractography: a potential tool to assess the rate of disease progression in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Brain 129 Pt 7 (2006) 1859-1871
69. Ciccarelli O., Toosy A.T., Hickman S.J., et al. Optic radiation changes after optic neuritis detected by tractography-based group mapping. Hum Brain Mapp 25 3 (2005) 308-316
70. Ciccarelli O., Behrens T.E., Johansen-Berg H., et al. Investigation of white matter pathology in ALS and PLS using tract-based spatial statistics. Hum Brain Mapp (2008) in press
71. Matthews P.M., Andermann F., and Arnold D.L. A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study of focal epilepsy in humans. Neurology 40 6 (1990) 985-989
72. Moffett J.R., Ross B., Arun P., et al. N-acetylaspartate in the CNS: from neurodiagnostics to neurobiology. Prog Neurobiol 81 2 (2007) 89-131
73. Dautry C., Vaufrey F., Brouillet E., et al. Early N-acetylaspartate depletion is a marker of neuronal dysfunction in rats and primates chronically treated with the mitochondrial toxin 3-nitropropionic acid. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20 5 (2000) 789-799
74. Smith K.J., and Lassmann H. The role of nitric oxide in multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol 1 4 (2002) 232-241
75. De Stefano N., Narayanan S., Francis G.S., et al. Evidence of axonal damage in the early stages of multiple sclerosis and its relevance to disability. Arch Neurol 58 1 (2001) 65-70
76. Wylezinska M., Cifelli A., Jezzard P., et al. Thalamic neurodegeneration in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Neurology 60 12 (2003) 1949-1954
77. De Stefano N., Matthews P.M., and Arnold D.L. Reversible decreases in N-acetylaspartate after acute brain injury. Magn Reson Med 34 5 (1995) 721-727
78. Cader S., Johansen-Berg H., Wylezinska M., et al. Discordant white matter N-acetylaspartate and diffusion MRI measures suggest that chronic metabolic dysfunction contributes to axonal pathology in multiple sclerosis. Neuroimage 36 1 (2007) 19-27
79. Narayanan S., De Stefano N., Francis G.S., et al. Axonal metabolic recovery in multiple sclerosis patients treated with interferon beta-1b. J Neurol 248 11 (2001) 979-986
80. Kalra S., Cashman N.R., Genge A., et al. Recovery of N-acetylaspartate in corticomotor neurons of patients with ALS after riluzole therapy. Neuroreport 9 8 (1998) 1757-1761
81. Parry A., Corkill R., Blamire A.M., et al. Beta-interferon treatment does not always slow the progression of axonal injury in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 250 2 (2003) 171-178
82. Peterson J.W., Bo L., Mork S., et al. Transected neurites, apoptotic neurons, and reduced inflammation in cortical multiple sclerosis lesions. Ann Neurol 50 3 (2001) 389-400
83. Wegner C., Esiri M.M., Chance S.A., et al. Neocortical neuronal, synaptic, and glial loss in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 67 6 (2006) 960-967
84. Pomeroy I.M., Matthews P.M., Frank J.A., et al. Demyelinated neocortical lesions in marmoset autoimmune encephalomyelitis mimic those in multiple sclerosis. Brain 128 Pt 11 (2005) 2713-2721
85. Magliozzi R., Howell O., Vora A., et al. Meningeal B-cell follicles in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis associate with early onset of disease and severe cortical pathology. Brain 130 Pt 4 (2007) 1089-1104
86. Chen J.T., Narayanan S., Collins D.L., et al. Relating neocortical pathology to disability progression in multiple sclerosis using MRI. Neuroimage 23 3 (2004) 1168-1175
87. Cifelli A., Arridge M., Jezzard P., et al. Thalamic neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 52 5 (2002) 650-653
88. Zhu B., Luo L., Moore G.R., et al. Dendritic and synaptic pathology in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Am J Pathol 162 5 (2003) 1639-1650
89. Wegner C., and Matthews P.M. A new view of the cortex, new insights into multiple sclerosis. Brain 126 Pt 8 (2003) 1719-1721
90. Bagnato F., Butman J.A., Gupta S., et al. In vivo detection of cortical plaques by MR imaging in patients with multiple sclerosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 27 10 (2006) 2161-2167
91. Bridge H., Clare S., Jenkinson M., et al. Independent anatomical and functional measures of the V1/V2 boundary in human visual cortex. J Vis 5 2 (2005) 93-102
92. Deoni S.C., Peters T.M., and Rutt B.K. High-resolution T1 and T2 mapping of the brain in a clinically acceptable time with DESPOT1 and DESPOT2. Magn Reson Med 53 1 (2005) 237-241
93. Fischl B., Sereno M.I., and Dale A.M. Cortical surface-based analysis. II: inflation, flattening, and a surface-based coordinate system. Neuroimage 9 2 (1999) 195-207
94. Dale A.M., Fischl B., and Sereno M.I. Cortical surface-based analysis. I. Segmentation and surface reconstruction. Neuroimage 9 2 (1999) 179-194
95. De Stefano N., Matthews P.M., Filippi M., et al. Evidence of early cortical atrophy in MS: relevance to white matter changes and disability. Neurology 60 7 (2003) 1157-1162
96. Sicotte N.L., Kern K.C., Giesser B.S., et al. Regional hippocampal atrophy in multiple sclerosis. Brain 131 Pt 4 (2008) 1134-1141
97. Wong E.C., Buxton R.B., and Frank L.R. Quantitative perfusion imaging using arterial spin labeling. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 9 2 (1999) 333-342
98. Rashid W., Parkes L.M., Ingle G.T., et al. Abnormalities of cerebral perfusion in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 75 9 (2004) 1288-1293
99. Wong E.C., Luh W.M., Liu T.T., et al. Arterial spin labeling with higher SNR and temporal resolution. Magn Reson Med 44 4 (2000) 511-515
100. Luh W.M., Wong E.C., Bandettini P.A., et al. QUIPSS II with thin-slice TI1 periodic saturation: a method for improving accuracy of quantitative perfusion imaging using pulsed arterial spin labeling. Magn Reson Med 41 6 (1999) 1246-1254
101. Nestor P.J., Caine D., Fryer T.D., et al. The topography of metabolic deficits in posterior cortical atrophy (the visual variant of Alzheimer's disease) with FDG-PET. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74 11 (2003) 1521-1529
102. Matthews P.M., Honey G.D., and Bullmore E.T. Applications of fMRI in translational medicine and clinical practice. Nat Rev Neurosci 7 9 (2006) 732-744
103. Lee M., Reddy H., Johansen-Berg H., et al. The motor cortex shows adaptive functional changes to brain injury from multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 47 5 (2000) 606-613
104. Reddy H., Narayanan S., Matthews P.M., et al. Relating axonal injury to functional recovery in MS. Neurology 54 1 (2000) 236-239
105. Reddy H., Narayanan S., Arnoutelis R., et al. Evidence for adaptive functional changes in the cerebral cortex with axonal injury from multiple sclerosis. Brain 123 Pt 11 (2000) 2314-2320
106. Rocca M.A., Colombo B., Falini A., et al. Cortical adaptation in patients with MS: a cross-sectional functional MRI study of disease phenotypes. Lancet Neurol 4 10 (2005) 618-626
107. Mainero C., Caramia F., Pozzilli C., et al. fMRI evidence of brain reorganization during attention and memory tasks in multiple sclerosis. Neuroimage 21 3 (2004) 858-867
108. Logothetis N.K. What we can do and what we cannot do with fMRI. Nature 453 7197 (2008) 869-878
109. Cifelli A., and Matthews P.M. Cerebral plasticity in multiple sclerosis: insights from fMRI. Mult Scler 8 3 (2002) 193-199
110. Rocca M.A., and Filippi M. Functional MRI in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimaging 17 Suppl 1 (2007) 36S-41S
111. Manson S.C., Wegner C., Filippi M., et al. Impairment of movement-associated brain deactivation in multiple sclerosis: further evidence for a functional pathology of interhemispheric neuronal inhibition. Exp Brain Res 187 1 (2008) 25-31
112. Manson S.C., Palace J., Frank J.A., et al. Loss of interhemispheric inhibition in patients with multiple sclerosis is related to corpus callosum atrophy. Exp Brain Res 174 4 (2006) 728-733
113. Morgen K., Kadom N., Sawaki L., et al. Training-dependent plasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis. Brain 127 Pt 11 (2004) 2506-2517
114. Cader S., Cifelli A., Abu-Omar Y., et al. Reduced brain functional reserve and altered functional connectivity in patients with multiple sclerosis. Brain 129 Pt 2 (2006) 527-537
115. Agosta F., Valsasina P., Caputo D., et al. Tactile-associated recruitment of the cervical cord is altered in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neuroimage 39 4 (2008) 1542-1548
116. Matthews P.M., Johansen-Berg H., and Reddy H. Non-invasive mapping of brain functions and brain recovery: applying lessons from cognitive neuroscience to neurorehabilitation. Restor Neurol Neurosci 22 3-5 (2004) 245-260
117. Johansen-Berg H., Dawes H., Guy C., et al. Correlation between motor improvements and altered fMRI activity after rehabilitative therapy. Brain 125 Pt 12 (2002) 2731-2742
118. Buchli A.D., and Schwab M.E. Inhibition of Nogo: a key strategy to increase regeneration, plasticity and functional recovery of the lesioned central nervous system. Annu Mediaev 37 8 (2005) 556-567
119. Martino G. How the brain repairs itself: new therapeutic strategies in inflammatory and degenerative CNS disorders. Lancet Neurol 3 6 (2004) 372-378
120. Saini S., DeStefano N., Smith S., et al. Altered cerebellar functional connectivity mediates potential adaptive plasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75 6 (2004) 840-846
121. Rocca M.A., Pagani E., Absinta M., et al. Altered functional and structural connectivities in patients with MS: a 3-T study. Neurology 69 23 (2007) 2136-2145
122. Wegner C., Filippi M., Korteweg T., et al. Relating functional changes during hand movement to clinical parameters in patients with multiple sclerosis in a multi-centre fMRI study. Eur J Neurol 15 2 (2008) 113-122
123. Laule C., Vavasour I.M., Kolind S.H., et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of myelin. Neurotherapeutics 4 3 (2007) 460-484
124. Laule C., Leung E., Lis D.K., et al. Myelin water imaging in multiple sclerosis: quantitative correlations with histopathology. Mult Scler 12 6 (2006) 747-753
125. Laule C., Vavasour I.M., Moore G.R., et al. Water content and myelin water fraction in multiple sclerosis. A T2 relaxation study. J Neurol 251 3 (2004) 284-293
126. McGowan J.C., Filippi M., Campi A., et al. Magnetisation transfer imaging: theory and application to multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 64 Suppl 1 (1998) S66-S69
127. Chen J.T., Collins D.L., Atkins H.L., et al. Magnetization transfer ratio evolution with demyelination and remyelination in multiple sclerosis lesions. Ann Neurol 63 2 (2008) 254-262
128. Stankoff B., Wang Y., Bottlaender M., et al. Imaging of CNS myelin by positron-emission tomography. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 24 (2006) 9304-9309
129. Herholz K. Cognitive dysfunction and emotional-behavioural changes in MS: the potential of positron emission tomography. J Neurol Sci 245 1-2 (2006) 9-13
130. Bakshi R., Miletich R.S., Kinkel P.R., et al. High-resolution fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography shows both global and regional cerebral hypometabolism in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimaging 8 4 (1998) 228-234
131. Sorensen P.S., Jonsson A., Mathiesen H.K., et al. The relationship between MRI and PET changes and cognitive disturbances in MS. J Neurol Sci 245 1-2 (2006) 99-102
132. Blinkenberg M., Jensen C.V., Holm S., et al. A longitudinal study of cerebral glucose metabolism, MRI, and disability in patients with MS. Neurology 53 1 (1999) 149-153
133. Radu C.G., Shu C.J., Shelly S.M., et al. Positron emission tomography with computed tomography imaging of neuroinflammation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104 6 (2007) 1937-1942
134. Venneti S., Lopresti B.J., and Wiley C.A. The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (translocator protein 18kDa) in microglia: from pathology to imaging. Prog Neurobiol 80 6 (2006) 308-322
135. Vowinckel E., Reutens D., Becher B., et al. PK11195 binding to the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor as a marker of microglia activation in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurosci Res 50 2 (1997) 345-353
136. Banati R.B., Newcombe J., Gunn R.N., et al. The peripheral benzodiazepine binding site in the brain in multiple sclerosis: quantitative in vivo imaging of microglia as a measure of disease activity. Brain 123 Pt 11 (2000) 2321-2337
137. Vas A., Shchukin Y., Karrenbauer V.D., et al. Functional neuroimaging in multiple sclerosis with radiolabelled glia markers: preliminary comparative PET studies with [11C]vinpocetine and [11C]PK11195 in patients. J Neurol Sci 264 1-2 (2008) 9-17
138. Fujita M., Imaizumi M., Zoghbi S.S., et al. Kinetic analysis in healthy humans of a novel positron emission tomography radioligand to image the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor, a potential biomarker for inflammation. Neuroimage 40 1 (2008) 43-52
139. Evangelou N., Konz D., Esiri M.M., et al. Size-selective neuronal changes in the anterior optic pathways suggest a differential susceptibility to injury in multiple sclerosis. Brain 124 Pt 9 (2001) 1813-1820
140. Dutta R., McDonough J., Yin X., et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction as a cause of axonal degeneration in multiple sclerosis patients. Ann Neurol 59 3 (2006) 478-489
141. Lingford-Hughes A., Hume S.P., Feeney A., et al. Imaging the GABA-benzodiazepine receptor subtype containing the alpha5-subunit in vivo with [11C]Ro15 4513 positron emission tomography. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 22 7 (2002) 878-889
142. Pike V.W., Halldin C., Crouzel C., et al. Radioligands for PET studies of central benzodiazepine receptors and PK (peripheral benzodiazepine) binding sites-current status. Nucl Med Biol 20 4 (1993) 503-525
143. Lendvai G., Velikyan I., Estrada S., et al. Biodistribution of 68Ga-labeled LNA-DNA mixmer antisense oligonucleotides for rat chromogranin-A. Oligonucleotides 18 1 (2008) 33-49
144. Holt L.J., Herring C., Jespers L.S., et al. Domain antibodies: proteins for therapy. Trends Biotechnol 21 11 (2003) 484-490