Immunology of mercury

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1143, Issue , 2008, Pages 240-267

  Vas, Jaya ^a   Monestier, Marc ^a  

^a TEMPLE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Autoimmunity; Heavy metals; Mercury

Indexed keywords

ANTINUCLEAR ANTIBODY; AUTOANTIBODY; CADMIUM; COSMETIC; FIBRILLARIN; GAMMA INTERFERON; GLUTATHIONE; GOLD; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 6; MERCURY DERIVATIVE; METHYLMERCURY; NITRIC OXIDE; PHENYLMERCURY DERIVATIVE; PLATINUM; PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE; SILVER; THIOMERSAL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AUTOIMMUNITY; B LYMPHOCYTE; CELL CULTURE; CELL DEATH; CELL FUNCTION; CELL LINE; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; CYTOTOXICITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENZYME ACTIVATION; ENZYME REGULATION; ENZYME SYNTHESIS; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC REGULATION; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GLOMERULONEPHRITIS; HEALTH HAZARD; HELPER CELL; HUMAN; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOCOMPETENT CELL; IMMUNOGLOBULIN BLOOD LEVEL; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOSTIMULATION; LETHAL DOSE; LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION; MERCURIALISM; METAL BINDING; MOLECULAR MECHANICS; MONOCYTE; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; T LYMPHOCYTE; TOXICOKINETICS;

ANIMALIA; MUS; RATTUS;

EID: 56549110179     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1196/annals.1443.022     Document Type: Review

References (258)

1. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry [ATSDR]. 1999. Toxicological profile for mercury. Centers for Disease Control. Atlanta, Georgia, TP-93/10.
2. Clarkson, T.W., J.B. Vyas & N. Ballatori. 2007. Mechanisms of mercury disposition in the body. Am. J. Ind. Med. 50 : 757 764.
3. Swain, E.B. et al. 2007. Socioeconomic consequences of mercury use and pollution. Ambio 36 : 45 61.
4. Taueg, C. et al. 1992. Acute and chronic poisoning from residential exposures to elemental mercury-Michigan, 1989-1990. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. v30 : 63.
5. Clarkson, T.W. 2001. The three modern faces of mercury. Environ. Health Perspect. 110 : 11 23.
6. da Costa, G.M. et al. 2008. Mercury toxicity in Amazon gold miners: Visual dysfunction assessed by retinal and cortical electrophysiology. Environ. Res. 107 : 98 107.
7. Mniszek, W. 2001. Exposure assessment to mercury vapor in Chloralkali Industry. Environ. Monit. Assess. 68 : 197 207.
8. Brownawell, A.M. et al. 2005. The potential adverse health effects of dental amalgam. Toxicol Rev. 24 : 1 10.
9. Ball, L.K., R. Ball & R.D. Pratt. 2001. An assessment of thimerosal use in childhood vaccines. Pediatrics 107 : 1147 1154.
10. National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI). 2007. Thimerosal: updated statement. An Advisory Committee Statement (ACS). Can. Commun. Dis. Rep. 33 : 1 13.
11. Clarkson, T.W., L. Magos & G.J. Myers. 2003. The toxicology of mercury-current exposures and clinical manifestations. N. Engl. J. Med. 349 : 1731 1737.
12. Siegler, R.W., D.W. Nierenberg & W.F. Hickey. 1999. Fatal poisoning from liquid dimethylmercury: A neuropathologic study. Human Pathol. 30 : 720 723.
13. Magos, L. et al. 1985. The comparative toxicology of ethyl- and methylmercury. Arch. Toxicol. 57 : 260 267.
14. Elhassani, E.B. 1982. The many faces of methylmercury poisoning. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 19 : 875 906.
15. Jalili, M.A. & A.H. Abbasi. 1961. Poisoning by ethyl mercury toluene sulphonanilide. Br. J. Ind. Med. 18 : 303 308.
16. Clarkson, T.W. & J.J. Strain. 2003. Nutritional factors may modify the toxic action of methyl mercury in fish-eating populations. J. Nutr. 133 : 1539S 1543S.
17. Zhang, J. 1984. Clinical observations in ethyl mercury chloride poisoning. Am. J. Ind. Med. 251 258.
18. Sager, P.R., M. Aschner & P.M. Rodier. 1984. Persistent, differential alterations in developing cerebellar cortex of male and female mice after methylmercury exposure. Brain Res. 314 : 1 11.
19. Hammond, A.L. 1971. Mercury in the Environment: Natural and Human Factors. Science 171 : 788 789.
20. Daston, G.P. et al. 1984. Toxicity of mercuric chloride to the developing rat kidney. II. Effect of increased dosages on renal function in suckling pups. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 74 : 35 45.
21. Frustaci, A. et al. 1999. Marked elevation of myocardial trace elements in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy compared with secondary cardiac dysfunction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 33 : 1578 1583.
22. [WHO] World Health Organization. 1990. Methylmercury. International Program on Chemical Safety, pp. 1 144. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland 101. Environmental Health Criteria.
23. Havarinasab, S. & P. Hultman. 2005. Organic mercury compounds and autoimmunity. Autoimmun. Rev. 4 : 270 275.
24. Descotes, J. 1986. Immunotoxicology of drugs and chemicals. Elsevier. Amsterdam 296 381.
25. Bariety, J. et al. 1971. Glomerulonephritis with g- and b1 C-globulin deposits induced in rats by mercuric chloride. Am. J. Pathol. 65 : 293 302.
26. Druet, P. et al. 1978. Immune type glomerulonephritis induced by HgCl2 in the Brown Norway rat. Ann. Immunol. 129 : 777 792.
27. Druet, P. et al. 1988. Mercury-induced autoimmune glomerulonephritis in animals. Contrib. Nephrol. 61 : 120 130.
28. Pusey, C.D. et al. 1990. Kinetics and pathogenicity of autoantibodies induced by mercuric chloride in the Brown Norway rat. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 81 : 76 82.
29. Marriott, J.B., F. Qasim & D.B. Oliveira. 1994. Anti-phospholipid antibodies in the mercuric chloride treated brown Norway rat. J. Autoimmun. 7 : 457 467.
30. Mathieson, P.W., S. Thiru & D.B. Oliveira. 1992. Mercuric chloride-treated brown Norway rats develop widespread tissue injury including necrotizing vasculitis. Lab. Invest. 67 : 121 129.
31. Mathieson, P.W. et al. 1991. Immunoregulation of mercuric chloride-induced autoimmunity in Brown Norway rats: a role for CD8+ T cells revealed by in vivo depletion studies. Eur. J. Immunol. 21 : 2105 2109.
32. Bowman, C. et al. 1984. Autoregulation of autoantibody synthesis in mercuric chloride nephritis in the Brown Norway rat. I. A role for T suppressor cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 14 : 464 470.
33. Castedo, M. et al. 1993. Mercury-induced autoreactive anti-class II T cell line protects from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by the bias of CD8 +antiergotypic cells in Lewis rats. J. Exp. Med. 177 : 881 889.
34. Pelletier, L. et al. 1990. Role of CD8+ T cells in mercury-induced autoimmunity or immunosuppression in the rat. Scand. J. Immunol. 31 : 65 74.
35. Goter Robinson, C.J., A.A. Abraham & T. Balazs. 1984. Induction of anti-nuclear antibodies by mercuric chloride in mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 58 : 300 306.
36. Bagenstose, L.M., P. Salgame & M. Monestier. 1999. Murine mercury-induced autoimmunity: a model of chemically related autoimmunity in humans. Immunol. Res. 20 : 67 78.
37. Hultman, P. et al. 1992. Murine susceptibility to mercury. I. Autoantibody profiles and systemic immune deposits in inbred, congenic, and intra-H-2 recombinant strains. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 65 : 98 109.
38. Hultman, P. et al. 1993. Murine susceptibility to mercury. II. autoantibody profiles and renal immune deposits in hybrid, backcross, and H-2d congenic mice. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 68 : 9 20.
39. Pollard, K.M., P. Hultman & D.H. Kono. 2005. Immunology and genetics of induced systemic autoimmunity. Autoimmun. Rev. 4 : 282 288.
40. s mice. J. Immunol. 152 : 667 675.
41. Pollard, K.M. et al. 1997. The autoimmunity-inducing xenobiotic mercury interacts with the autoantigen fibrillarin and modifies its molecular and antigenic properties. J. Immunol. 158 : 3521 3528.
42. Pollard, K.M. et al. 2000. Proteolytic cleavage of a self-antigen following xenobiotic-induced cell death produces a fragment with novel immunogenic properties. J. Immunol. 165 : 2263 2270.
43. Hultman, P. et al. 1989. Anti-fibrillarin antibodies in mercury-treated mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 78 : 470 477.
44. Hultman, P., S.J. Turley, S. Enestrom, U. Lindh & K.M. Pollard. 1996. Murine genotype influences the specificity, magnitude and persistence of murine mercury-induced autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 9 : 139 146.
45. Goldman, M., P. Druet & E. Gleichmann. 1991. TH2 cells in systemic autoimmunity: insights from allogeneic diseases and chemically-induced autoimmunity. Immunol. Today 12 : 223 227.
46. Oram, P.D. et al. 1996. The Formation Constants of Mercury(II)- Glutathione Complexes. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 9 : 709 712.
47. Passow, H., A. Rothstein & T.W. Clarkson. 1961. The general pharmacology of the heavy metals. Pharmacol. Rev. 13 : 185 224.
48. Ben Ozer, E.Y. et al. 2000. Mercuric chloride damages cellular DNA by a non-apoptotic mechanism. Mut. Res. 470 : 19 27.
49. Lash, L.H. et al. 2007. Interactive toxicity of inorganic mercury and trichloroethylene in rat and human proximal tubules: Effects on apoptosis, necrosis, and glutathione status. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 221 : 349 362.
50. Kim, S.H. & R.P. Sharma. 2003. Cytotoxicity of inorganic mercury in murine T and B lymphoma cell lines: involvement of reactive oxygen species, Ca2+ homeostasis, and cytokine gene expression. Toxicol. In Vitro 17 : 385 395.
51. Araragi, S. et al. 2003. Mercuric chloride induces apoptosis via a mitochondrial-dependent pathway in human leukemia cells. Toxicology 184 : 1 9.
52. Kim, S.H. & R.P. Sharma. 2004. Mercury-induced apoptosis and necrosis in murine macrophages: role of calcium-induced reactive oxygen species and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 196 : 47 57.
53. Yole, M., M. Wickstrom & B. Blakley. 2007. Cell death and cytotoxic effects in YAC-1 lymphoma cells following exposure to various forms of mercury. Toxicology 231 : 40 57.
54. Shenker, B.J. et al. 1992. Immunotoxic effects of mercuric compounds on human lymphocytes and monocytes. II. Alterations in cell viability. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 14 : 555 577.
55. Shenker, B.J. et al. 1993. Immunotoxic effects of mercuric compounds on human lymphocytes and monocytes.III. Alterations in B-cell function and viability. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 15 : 87 112.
56. Baggett, J.M. & W.O. Berndt. 1986. The effect of depletion of nonprotein sulfhydryls by diethyl maleate plus buthionine sulfoximine on renal uptake of mercury in the rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 83 : 556 562.
57. Berndt, W.O. et al. 1985. Renal glutathione and mercury uptake by kidney. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 5 : 832 839.
58. Burton, C.A. et al. 1995. Glutathione Effects on Toxicity and Uptake of Mercuric Chloride and Sodium Arsenite in Rabbit Renal Cortical Slices. Environ. Health. Perspect. 103 : 81 84.
59. De Ceaurriz, J. et al. 1994. Role of extracellular glutathione and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase in the disposition and kidney toxicity of inorganic mercury in rats. J. Appl. Toxicol. 14 : 201 206.
60. Girardi, G. & M.M. Elias. 1993. Effect of different renal glutathione levels on renal mercury disposition and excretion in the rat. Toxicology 81 : 57 67.
61. Lash, L.H., D.A. Putt & R.K. Zalups. 1999. Influence of exogenous thiols on inorganic mercury-induced injury in renal proximal and distal tubular cells from normal and uninephrectomized rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 291 : 492 502.
62. Zalups, R.K. & L.H. Lash. 1997. Depletion of glutathione in the kidney and the renal disposition of administered inorganic mercury. Drug Metab. Dispos. 25 : 516 523.
63. Shenker, B.J. et al. 1993. Immunotoxic effects of mercuric compounds on human lymphocytes and monocytes. IV. Alterations in cellular glutathione content. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 15 : 273 90.
64. Hultberg, B., A. Andersson & A. Isaksson. 1998. Alterations of thiol metabolism in human cell lines induced by low amounts of copper, mercury or cadmium ions. Toxicology 126 : 203 212.
65. Woods, J.S. & M.E. Ellis. 1995. Up-regulation of glutathione synthesis in rat kidney by methyl mercury: Relationship to mercury-induced oxidative stress. Biochem. Pharmacol. 50 : 1719 1724.
66. Mondal, T.K. et al. 2005. Mercury impairment of mouse thymocyte survival in vitro: involvement of cellular thiols. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part A 68 : 535 556.
67. Nakashima, I. et al. 1994. Redox mechanism as alternative to ligand binding for receptor activation delivering disregulated cellular signals. J. Immunol. 152 : 1064 1071.
68. McCabe, M.J.J., R.P. Santini & A.J. Rosenspire. 1999. Low and nontoxic levels of ionic mercury interfere with the regulation of cell growth in the WEHI-231 B-cell lymphoma. Scand. J. Immunol. 50 : 233 241.
69. Kim, S.H., V.J. Johnson & R.P. Sharma. 2002. Mercury inhibits nitric oxide production but activates proinflammatory cytokine expression in murine macrophage: differential modulation of NF-[kappa]B and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. Nitric Oxide 7 : 67 74.
70. Tian, L. & D.A. Lawrence. 1996. Metal-Induced Modulation of Nitric Oxide Production in vitro by murine macrophages: lead, nickel, and cobalt utilize different mechanisms. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 141 : 540 547.
71. Eckhardt, W., K. Bellmann & H. Kolb. 1999. Regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in beta cells by environmental factors: heavy metals. Biochem. J. 338 : 695 700.
72. Dieguez-Acuna, F.J. et al. 2001. Mercuric ion attenuates Nuclear Factor-[kappa]B activation and dna binding in normal rat kidney epithelial cells: implications for mercury-induced nephrotoxicity. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 173 : 176 187.
73. Yeh, J.H. et al. 2004. Mercury-induced Ca2+ increase and cytotoxicity in renal tubular cells. Life Sci. 74 : 2075 2083.
74. 2-induced interleukin-4 gene expression in T cells involves a protein kinase C-dependent calcium influx through L-type calcium channels. J. Biol. Chem. 272 : 32411 32418.
75. Tan, X.X. et al. 1993. Effects of inorganic and organic mercury on intracellular calcium levels in rat T lymphocytes. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 38 : 159 170.
76. Gassó, S. et al. 2001. Antioxidant compounds and Ca2+ pathway blockers differentially protect against methylmercury and mercuric chloride neurotoxicity. J. Neurosci. Res. 66 : 135 145.
77. Lund, B.O., D.M. Miller & J.S. Woods. 1993. Studies on Hg(II)-induced H2O2 formation and oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro in rat kidney mitochondria. Biochem. Pharmacol. 45 : 2017 2024.
78. Sartorius, U., I. Schmitz & P.H. Krammer. 2001. Molecular mechanisms of death-receptor-mediated apoptosis. Chem. Bio. Chem. 2 : 20 29.
79. Dhein, J. et al. 1995. Autocrine T-cell suicide mediated by APO-1/(Fas/CD95). Nature 373 : 438 441.
80. Brunner, T. et al. 1995. Cell-autonomous Fas (CD95)/Fas-ligand interaction mediates activation-induced apoptosis in T-cell hybridomas. Nature 373 : 441 444.
81. Ju, S.T. et al. 1995. Fas(CD95)/FasL interactions required for programmed cell death after T-cell activation. Nature 373 : 444 448.
82. Alderson, M.R. et al. 1995. Fas ligand mediates activation-induced cell death in human T lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 181 : 71 77.
83. Watanabe-Fukunaga, R. et al. 1992. Lymphoproliferation disorder in mice explained by defects in Fas antigen that mediates apoptosis. Nature 356 : 314 317.
84. Zhang, J. et al. 2001. Impaired fas signaling pathway is involved in defective t cell apoptosis in autoimmune murine arthritis. J. Immunol. 166 : 4981 4986.
85. Martin, D.A. et al. 1999. Defective CD95/APO-1/Fas signal complex formation in the human autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome, type Ia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 96 : 4552 4557.
86. Algeciras-Schimnich, A. et al. 2002. Molecular Ordering of the Initial Signaling Events of CD95. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22 : 207 220.
87. Kischkel, F.C. et al. 1995. (Fas/CD95)-associated proteins form a death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) with the receptor. EMBO J. 14 : 5579 5588.
88. Scaffidi, C. et al. 1999. Apoptosis signaling in lymphocytes. Current Opinion Immunol. 11 : 277 285.
89. Chinnaiyan, A.M. et al. 1995. FADD, a novel death domain-containing protein, interacts with the death domain of FAS and initiates apoptosis. Cell 81 : 505 512.
90. Whitekus, M.J. et al. 1999. Protection against CD95-mediated apoptosis by inorganic mercury in Jurkat T cells. J. Immunol. 162 : 7162 7170.
91. Ziemba, S.E., J. McCabe & A.J. Rosenspire. 2005. Inorganic mercury dissociates preassembled Fas/CD95 receptor oligomers in T lymphocytes. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 206 : 334 342.
92. Pauly, J.L., G.A. Caron & R.R. Suskind. 1969. Blast transformation of lymphocytes from guinea pigs, rats, and rabbits induced by mercuric chloride in vitro. J. Cell Biol. 40 : 847 850.
93. Caron, G.A., S. Poutala & T.T. Provost. 1970. Lymphocyte transformation induced by inorganic and organic mercury. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 37 : 76 87.
94. Jiang, Y. & G. Moller. 1995. In vitro effects of HgCl2 on murine lymphocytes. I. Preferable activation of CD4+ T cells in a responder strain. J. Immunol. 154 : 3138 3146.
95. Pollard, K.M. & G.P. Landberg. 2001. The in vitro proliferation of murine lymphocytes to mercuric chloride is restricted to mature T cells and is interleukin 1 dependent. Int. Immunopharmacol. 1 : 581 593.
96. Berger, N.A. & S.A.M. Skinner. 1974. Characterization of lymphocyte transformation induced by zinc ions. J. Cell Biol. 61 : 45 55.
97. Hayashi, T. & D.L. Faustman. 2003. Role of defective apoptosis in type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 58 : 131 153.
98. Lenardo, M. 2003. Molecular regulation of T lymphocyte homeostasis in the healthy and diseased immune system. Immunol. Res. 27 : 387 397.
99. Bleesing, J., S.E. Straus & T.A. Fleisher. 2000. Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. A human disorder of abnormal lymphocyte survival. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 47 : 1291 1319.
100. Druet, E. et al. 1977. Mercuric chloride-induced anti-glomerular basement membrane antibodies in the rat: genetic control. Eur. J. Immunol. 7 : 348 351.
101. 2-induced antinucleolar antibodies. Eur. J. Immunol. 19 : 2257 2261.
102. Robinson, C.J.G., T. Balazs & I.K. Egorov. 1986. Mercuric chloride-, gold sodium thiomalate-, and D-penicillamine-induced antinuclear antibodies in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 86 : 159 169.
103. Hansson, M. & M. Abedi-Valugerdi. 2003. Xenobiotic metal-induced autoimmunity: mercury and silver differentially induce antinucleolar autoantibody production in susceptible H-2s, H-2q, and H-2f mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 131 : 405 414.
104. 2-treated mice. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 84 : 328 337.
105. Hanley, G.A., J. Schiffenbauer & E.S. Sobel. 1998. Resistance to HgCl2-induced autoimmunity in haplotype-heterozygous mice is an intrinsic property of B cells. J. Immunol. 161 : 1778 1785.
106. Nygard, N.R. et al. 1993. Mixed haplotypes and autoimmunity. Immunol. Today 14 : 53 56.
107. Hirose, S. et al. 1986. Requirement of H-2 heterozygosity for autoimmunity in (NZB × NZW)F1 hybrid mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 16 : 1631 1633.
108. Stiller-Winkler, R., T. Radaszkiewicz & E. Gleichmann. 1988. Immunopathological signs in mice treated with mercury compounds-I. Identification by the popliteal lymph node assay of responder and nonresponder strains. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 10 : 475 484.
109. Kono, D.H. et al. 2001. Resistance to xenobiotic-induced autoimmunity maps to chromosome 1. J. Immunol. 167 : 2396 2403.
110. Roths, J.B., E.D. Murphy & E.M. Eicher. 1984. A new mutation, gld, that produces lymphoproliferation and autoimmunity in C3H/HeJ mice. J. Exp. Med. 159 : 1 20.
111. Bickerstaff, M.C.M. et al. 1999. Serum amyloid P component controls chromatin degradation and prevents antinuclear autoimmunity. Nat. Med. 5 : 694 697.
112. Prodeus, A.P. et al. 1998. A Critical Role for Complement in Maintenance of Self-Tolerance. Immunity 9 : 721 731.
113. Bolland, S. & J.V. Ravetch. 2000. spontaneous autoimmune disease in fc[gamma]RIIB-deficient mice results from strain-specific epistasis. Immunity 13 : 277 285.
114. Majeti, R. et al. 2000. An inactivating point mutation in the inhibitory wedge of CD45 causes lymphoproliferation and autoimmunity. Cell 103 : 1059 1070.
115. Clynes, R., C. Dumitru & J.V. Ravetch. 1998. Uncoupling of immune complex formation and kidney damage in autoimmune glomerulonephritis. Science 279 : 1052 1054.
116. Kono, D.H. et al. 1994. Lupus susceptibility loci in New Zealand mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 91 : 10168 10172.
117. Rozzo, S.J. et al. 1996. Effect of genetic background on the contribution of New Zealand black loci to autoimmune lupus nephritis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 93 : 15164 15168.
118. Silbergeld, E.K., I.A. Silva & J.F. Nyland. 2005. Mercury and autoimmunity: implications for occupational and environmental health. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 207 : 282 292.
119. Sato, S. et al. 1996. CD22 is both a positive and negative regulator of B lymphocyte antigen receptor signal transduction: altered signaling in CD22-deficient mice. Immunity 5 : 551 562.
120. Otipoby, K. et al. 1996. CD22 regulates thymus-independent responses and the lifespan of B cells. Nature 384 : 634 637.
121. O'Keefe, T.L. et al. 1996. Hyperresponsive B cells in CD22-deficient mice. Science 274 : 798 801.
122. Yang, J.M., S.J. Baserga, S.J. Turley & K.M. Pollard. 2001. Fibrillarin and other snoRNP proteins are targets of autoantibodies in xenobiotic-induced autoimmunity. Clin. Immunol 101 : 38 50.
123. Kindas-Mugge, I. 1989. Human autoantibodies against a nucleolar protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Com. 163 : 1119 1127.
124. Arnett, F.C. et al. 1996. Autoantibodies to fibrillarin in systemic sclerosis (scleroderma). An immunogenetic, serologic, and clinical analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 39 : 1151 1160.
125. Hultman, P. et al. 1994. Selective induction of anti-fibrillarin autoantibodies by silver nitrate in mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 96 : 285 291.
126. Hultman, P. et al. 1995. Genetic Susceptibility to Silver-Induced Anti-fibrillarin Autoantibodies in Mice. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 77 : 291 297.
127. Havarinasab, S. et al. 2007. Gold causes genetically determined autoimmune and immunostimulatory responses in mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 150 : 179 188.
128. Ochs, R.L. 1998. Methods used to study structure and function of the nucleolus. Methods Cell Biol. 53 : 303 321.
129. Rosen, A. & L. Casciola-Rosen. 1998. Environmental determinants of autoimmune disease. In The Autoimmune Diseases. N.R. Rose & I.R. Mackay, Eds 119 126. Academic Press. San Diego.
130. Chen, M. et al. 2002. Subcellular recruitment of fibrillarin to nucleoplasmic proteasomes: implications for processing of a nucleolar autoantigen. Mol. Biol. Cell 13 : 3576 3587.
131. Kubicka-Muranyi, M. et al. 1995. Mercuric-chloride-induced autoimmunity in mice involves up-regulated presentation by spleen cells of altered and unaltered nucleolar self antigen. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 108 : 1 10.
132. Kubicka-Muranyi, M. et al. 1996. Murine systemic autoimmune disease induced by mercuric chloride: T helper cells reacting to self-proteins. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 109 : 11 20.
133. Yewdell, J.W. & J.R. Bennink. 1990. The binary logic of antigen processing and presentation to T cells. Cell 62 : 203 206.
134. Germain, R.N. et al. 1993. The biochemistry and cell biology of antigen processing and presentation. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 11 : 403 450.
135. Albert, M.L. et al. 1998. Immature dendritic cells phagocytose apoptotic cells via alpha Vbeta 5 and CD36, and cross-present antigens to cytotoxic T lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 188 : 1359 1368.
136. Guermonprez, P. et al. 2003. ER-phagosome fusion defines an MHC class I cross-presentation compartment in dendritic cells. Nature 425 : 397 402.
137. Malnati, M.S. et al. 1992. Processing pathways for presentation of cytosolic antigen to MHC class II-restricted T cells. Nature 357 : 702 704.
138. Munz, C. et al. 2000. Human CD4+ T lymphocytes consistently respond to the latent Epstein-Barr Virus Nuclear Antigen EBNA1. J. Exp. Med. 191 : 1649 1660.
139. Chen, M. & A. Mikecz. 2005. Xenobiotic-induced recruitment of autoantigens to nuclear proteasomes suggests a role for altered antigen processing in scleroderma. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1051 : 382 389.
140. Reed, R.C. 2000. Chaperone-mediated cross-priming: a hitchhiker's guide to vesicle transport. Int. J. Mol. Med. 6 : 259 264.
141. Heath, W.R. & F.R. Carbone. 2001. Cross-presentation in viral immunity and self-tolerance. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 1 : 126 134.
142. Brkljacic, J. et al. 2007. Interaction of rat renal glucocorticoid receptor with Hsp90 and Hsp70 upon stress provoked by mercury. J. Appl. Toxicol. 27 : 43 50.
143. Goering, P.L. et al. 2000. Mercury induces regional and cell-specific stress protein expression in rat kidney. Toxicol. Sci. 53 : 447 457.
144. Goering, P.L. et al. 1992. Relationship between stress protein induction in rat kidney by mercuric chloride and nephrotoxicity. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 113 : 184 191.
145. Bauman, J.W., J. Liu & C.D. Klaassen. 1993. Production of Metallothionein and Heat-Shock Proteins in Response to Metals. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 21 : 15 22.
146. Pollard, K.M. & G.P. Landberg. 2001. The in vitro proliferation of murine lymphocytes to mercuric chloride is restricted to mature T cells and is interleukin 1 dependent. Int. Immunopharmacol. 1 : 581 593.
147. Hu, H., G. Moller & M. Abedi-Valugerdi. 1997. Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II antigens are required for both cytokine production and proliferation induced by mercuric chloride in vitro. J. Autoimmun. 10 : 441 446.
148. Jiang, Y. & G. Moller. 1996. In vitro effects of HgCl2 on murine lymphocytes. II. Selective activation of T cells expressing certain V beta TCR. Int. Immunol. 8 : 1729 1736.
149. Hu, H., M. Abedi-Valugerdi & G. Moller. 1997. Pretreatment of lymphocytes with mercury in vitro induces a response in T cells from genetically determined low-responders and a shift of the interleukin profile. Immunology 90 : 198 204.
150. Pelletier, L. et al. 1987. Mercury-induced autoimmune glomerulonephritis: requirement for T- cells. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant 1 : 211 218.
151. Hultman, P., U. Johansson & F. Dagnaes-Hansen. 1995. Murine mercury-induced autoimmunity: The role of T-helper cells. J. Autoimmun. 8 : 809 823.
152. Johansson, U., B. Sander & P. Hultman. 1997. Effects of the murine genotype on T cell activation and cytokine production in murine mercury-induced autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 10 : 347 355.
153. Pelletier, L. et al. 1988. Autoreactive T cells in mercury-induced autoimmunity. Ability to induce the autoimmune disease. J. Immunol. 140 : 750 754.
154. Layland, L.E. et al. 2004. Drug-induced autoantibody formation in mice: triggering by primed CD4+ CD25- T cells, prevention by primed CD4+ CD25+ T cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 34 : 36 46.
155. Rossert, J. et al. 1988. Autoreactive T cells in mercury-induced autoimmunity. Demonstration by limiting dilution analysis. Eur. J. Immunol. 18 : 1761 1766.
156. Kubicka-Muranyi, M. et al. 1993. Murine systemic autoimmune disease induced by mercuric chloride (HgCl2): Hg-specific helper T-cells react to antigen stored in macrophages. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 15 : 151 161.
157. Warfvinge, G. et al. 1994. Histochemical visualization of mercury in the oral mucosa, salivary and lacrimal glands of BN rats with HgCl2-induced autoimmunity. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 46 : 329 334.
158. van Vliet, E. et al. 1993. MHC control of IL-4-dependent enhancement of B cell Ia expression and Ig class switching in mice treated with mercuric chloride. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 101 : 392 401.
159. Gillespie, K.M. et al. 1996. Th1/Th2 cytokine gene expression after mercuric chloride in susceptible and resistant rat strains. Eur. J. Immunol. 26 : 2388 2392.
160. Mathieson, P.W. & K.M. Gillespie. 1996. Cloning of a partial cDNA for rat interleukin-12 (IL-12) and analysis of IL-12 expression in vivo. Scand. J. Immunol. 44 : 11 14.
161. Mathieson, P.W., S. Thiru & D.B. Oliveira. 1993. Regulatory role of OX22high T cells in mercury-induced autoimmunity in the brown Norway rat. J. Exp. Med. 177 : 1309 1316.
162. Druet, P. & L. Pelletier. 1996. Th2 and Th1 autoreactive anti-class II cell lines in the rat suppress or induce autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 9 : 221 226.
163. Kono, D.H. et al. 1998. The prototypic Th2 autoimmunity induced by mercury is dependent on IFN-gamma and not Th1/Th2 imbalance. J. Immunol. 161 : 234 240.
164. Meister, A. & M.E. Anderson. 1983. Glutathione. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 52 : 711 760.
165. Van Der Meide et al. 1993. Mercuric chloride down-regulates T cell interferon-gamma production in brown Norway but not in Lewis rats; role of glutathione. Eur. J. Immunol. 23 : 675 681.
166. Jeannin, P. et al. 1995. Thiols decrease human interleukin (IL) 4 production and IL-4-induced immunoglobulin synthesis. J. Exp. Med. 182 : 1785 1792.
167. Peterson, J.D. et al. 1998. Glutathione levels in antigen-presenting cells modulate Th1 versus Th2 response patterns. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 95 : 3071 3076.
168. Agrawal, A. et al. 2007. Thimerosal induces TH2 responses via influencing cytokine secretion by human dendritic cells. J. Leukoc. Biol. 81 : 474 482.
169. Johansson, U., H. Hansson-Georgiadis & P. Hultman. 1998. The genotype determines the B cell response in mercury-treated mice. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 116 : 295 305.
170. Prigent, P. et al. 1995. Mercuric chloride, a chemical responsible for T helper cell (Th)2-mediated autoimmunity in Brown Norway rats, directly triggers T cells to produce interleukin-4. J. Clin. Invest. 96 : 1484 1489.
171. Allman, D. et al. 2001. Resolution of three nonproliferative immature splenic B cell subsets reveals multiple selection points during peripheral B cell maturation. J. Immunol. 167 : 6834 6840.
172. Mackay, F., P.A. Silveira & R. Brink. 2007. B cells and the BAFF/APRIL axis: fast-forward on autoimmunity and signaling. Current Opinion Immunol. 19 : 327 336.
173. Hahne, M. et al. 1998. APRIL, a new ligand of the Tumor Necrosis Factor family, stimulates tumor cell growth. J. Exp. Med. 188 : 1185 1190.
174. Litinskiy, M.B. et al. 2002. DCs induce CD40-independent immunoglobulin class switching through BLyS and APRIL. Nat. Immunol. 3 : 822 829.
175. Nardelli, B. et al. 2001. Synthesis and release of B-lymphocyte stimulator from myeloid cells. Blood 97 : 198 204.
176. Chu, V.T. et al. 2007. In Vitro and In Vivo Activation Induces BAFF and APRIL Expression in B Cells. J. Immunol. 179 : 5947 5957.
177. Gross, J.A. et al. 2000. TACI and BCMA are receptors for a TNF homologue implicated in B-cell autoimmune disease. Nature 404 : 995 999.
178. Zheng, Y. et al. 2005. A role for B cell-activating factor of the TNF family in chemically induced autoimmunity. J. Immunol. 175 : 6163 6168.
179. Wardemann, H. et al. 2003. Predominant autoantibody production by early human B cell precursors. Science 301 : 1374 1377.
180. Hemdan, N.Y.A. et al. 2007. Immunomodulation by mercuric chloride in vitro: application of different cell activation pathways. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 148 : 325 337.
181. Oliveira, D.B. et al. 1995. Compounds that induce autoimmunity in the Brown Norway rat sensitize mast cells for mediator release and interleukin-4 expression. Eur. J. Immunol. 25 : 2259 2264.
182. Wu, Z., D.R. Turner & D.B.G. Oliveira. 2001. IL-4 gene expression up-regulated by mercury in rat mast cells: a role of oxidant stress in IL-4 transcription. Int. Immunol. 13 : 297 304.
183. Pollard, K.M., P. Hultman, M. Arnush, B. Hildebrandt & D.H. Kono. 2004. Immunology and genetics of xenobiotic-induced autoimmunity. In From animal models to human genetics: research in the induction and pathogenicity of autoantibodies. K. Conrad, M.P. Bachmann, E.K. Chan, et al., Eds 130 144. Pabst. Lengerich.
184. Druet, P., R. Sheela & L. Pelletier. 1995. Th1 and Th2 cells in autoimmunity. [Review]. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 101 : 9 12.
185. Bettelli, E., M. Oukka & V.K. Kuchroo. 2007. TH-17 cells in the circle of immunity and autoimmunity. Nat. Immunol. 8 : 345 350.
186. Mok, C.C. & C.S. Lau. 2003. Pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Clin. Pathol. 56 : 481 490.
187. Bagenstose, L.M., P. Salgame & M. Monestier. 1998. IL-12 down-regulates autoantibody production in mercury-induced autoimmunity. J. Immunol. 160 : 1612 1617.
188. Haggqvist, B. & P. Hultman. 2003. Effects of deviating the Th2-response in murine mercury-induced autoimmunity towards a Th1-response. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 134 : 202 209.
189. Bagenstose, L.M., P. Salgame & M. Monestier. 1998. Mercury-induced autoimmunity in the absence of interleukin-4. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 114 : 9 12.
190. Szabo, S.J. et al. 2003. Molecular mechanisms regulating Th1 immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 21 : 713 758.
191. Dinarello, C.A. 1998. Interleukin-1{beta), Interleukin-18, and the Interleukin-1{beta) Converting Enzyme. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 856 : 1 11.
192. Havarinasab, S. et al. 2005. Immunosuppressive and autoimmune effects of thimerosal in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 204 : 109 121.
193. Snanoudj, R. et al. 2006. Costimulation blockade and its possible future use in clinical transplantation. Transpl. Int. 19 : 693 704.
194. Durie, F.H. et al. 1994. The role of CD40 in the regulation of humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Immunol. Today 15 : 406 411.
195. Biancone, L. et al. 1996. Distinct regulatory roles of lymphocyte costimulatory pathways on T helper type-2 mediated autoimmune disease. J. Exp. Med. 183 : 1473 1481.
196. Bagenstose, L.M. et al. 2002. B7-1 and B7-2 co-stimulatory molecules are required for mercury-induced autoimmunity. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 127 : 12 19.
197. Hutloff, A. et al. 1999. ICOS is an inducible T-cell co-stimulator structurally and functionally related to CD28. Nature 397 : 263 266.
198. Swallow, M.M., J.J. Wallin & W.C. Sha. 1999. B7h, a novel costimulatory homolog of B7.1 and B7.2, is induced by TNF[alpha]. Immunity 11 : 423 432.
199. Ling, V. et al. 2000. Cutting Edge: Identification of GL50, a novel B7-like protein that functionally binds to ICOS receptor. J. Immunol. 164 : 1653 1657.
200. Yoshinaga, S.K. et al. 1999. T-cell co-stimulation through B7RP-1 and ICOS. Nature 402 : 827 832.
201. Dong, C. et al. 2001. ICOS co-stimulatory receptor is essential for T-cell activation and function. Nature 409 : 97 101.
202. McAdam, A.J. et al. 2001. ICOS is critical for CD40-mediated antibody class switching. Nature 409 : 102 105.
203. Tafuri, A. et al. 2001. ICOS is essential for effective T-helper-cell responses. Nature 409 : 105 109.
204. Zheng, Y. et al. 2004. ICOS-B7h interactions are necessary for mercury-induced autoimmunity. J. Immunol. 175 : 6163 6168.
205. Vinay, D.S. & B.S. Kwon. 1998. Role of 4-1BB in immune responses. Sem. Immunol. 10 : 481 489.
206. Croft, M. 2003. Co-stimulatory members of the TNFR family: keys to effective T-cell immunity? Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3 : 609 620.
207. Watts, T.H. 2005. TNF/TNFR family members in costimulation of T cell responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 23 : 23 68.
208. Vinay, D.S., J.D. Kim & B.S. Kwon. 2006. Amelioration of mercury-induced autoimmunity by 4-1BB. J. Immunol. 177 : 5708 5717.
209. Prigent, P. et al. 1995. Mercuric chloride-induced programmed cell death of a murine T cell hybridoma. II. Opposite effect of interleukin-2 and interleukin-4. Cell Immunol. 161 : 107 111.
210. Zheng, Y. & M. Monestier. 2003. Inhibitory signals override increases susceptibility to mercury-induced autoimmunity. J. Immunol. 171 : 1596 1601.
211. Ravetch, J.V. & S. Bolland. 2001. IgG Fc receptors. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 19 : 275 290.
212. Martinsson, K. et al. 2008. The effect of activating and inhibiting Fc-receptors on murine mercury-induced autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 1 : 22 29.
213. Martinsson, K. & P. Hultman. 2006. The role of Fc-receptors in murine mercury-induced systemic autoimmunity. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 144 : 309 318.
214. Fournie, G.J. et al. 2001. Cellular and genetic factors involved in the difference between Brown Norway and Lewis rats to develop respectively type-2 and type-1 immune-mediated diseases. Immunol. Rev. 184 : 145 160.
215. Pelletier, L. et al. 1987. Down modulation of Heymann's nephritis by mercuric chloride. Kidney Int. 32 : 227 232.
216. Pelletier, L. et al. 1987. HgCl2 induces nonspecific immunosuppression in Lewis rats. Eur. J. Immunol. 17 : 49 54.
217. Pelletier, L. et al. 1988. Effect of HgCl2 on experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in Lewis rats. HgCl2-induced down-modulation of the disease. Eur. J. Immunol. 18 : 243 247.
218. Pelletier, P. 1996. Th2 and Th1 autoreactive anti-class II cell lines in the rat suppress or induce autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 9 : 221 226.
219. Saoudi, A. et al. 1995. Self-reactive anti-class II T helper type 2 cell lines derived from gold salt-injected rats trigger B cell polycolonal activation and transfer autoimmunity in CD8-depleted normal syngeneic recipients. Eur. J. Immunol. 25 : 1972 1979.
220. Bridoux, F. et al. 1997. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta)-dependent inhibition of T helper cell 2 (Th2)-induced autoimmunity by self-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II-specific, regulatory CD4(+) T cell lines. J. Exp. Med. 185 : 1769 1775.
221. Häggqvist, B. & P. Hultman. 2001. Murine metal-induced systemic autoimmunity: baseline and stimulated cytokine mRNA expression in genetically susceptible and resistant strains. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 126 : 157 164.
222. Shyuichi, N. et al. 1985. Effect of mercurials on lymphocyte functions in vitro. Toxicology 36 : 297 305.
223. Blakley, B.R., C.S. Sisodia & T.K. Mukkur. 1980. The effect of methylmercury, tetraethyl lead, and sodium arsenite on the humoral immune response in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 52 : 245 254.
224. Thuvander, A., J. Sundberg & A. Oskarsson. 1996. Immunomodulating effects after perinatal exposure to methylmercury in mice. Toxicology 114 : 163 175.
225. Wild, L.G. et al. 1997. Immune system alteration in the rat after indirect exposure to methyl mercury chloride or methyl mercury sulfide. Environ. Res. 74 : 34 42.
226. Ilback, N.G. 1991. Effects of methyl mercury exposure on spleen and blood natural killer (NK) cell activity in the mouse. Toxicology 67 : 117 124.
227. Haggqvist, B. et al. 2005. The immunosuppressive effect of methylmercury does not preclude development of autoimmunity in genetically susceptible mice. Toxicology 208 : 149 164.
228. Hultman, P. & H. Hansson-Georgiadis. 1999. Methyl mercury-induced autoimmunity in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 154 : 203 211.
229. Magos, L. 2003. Neurotoxic character of thimerosal and the allometric extrapolation of adult clearance half-time to infants. J. Appl. Toxicol. 23 : 263 269.
230. Magos, L. 2001. Review on the toxicity of ethylmercury, including its presence as a preservative in biological and pharmaceutical products. J. Appl. Toxicol. 21 : 1 5.
231. Moszczynski, P. et al. 1995. Lymphocytes, T and NK cells, in men occupationally exposed to mercury vapours. Int. J. Occupational Med. Environ. Health 8 : 49 56.
232. Lauwerys, R. et al. 1983. Anti-laminin antibodies in workers exposed to mercury vapour. Toxicol. Lett. 17 : 113 116.
233. Arnett, F.C. et al. 2000. Urinary mercury levels in patients with autoantibodies to U3-RNP (fibrillarin). J. Rheumatol. 27 : 405 410.
234. Silbergeld, E.K., I.A. Silva & J.F. Nyland. 2005. Mercury and autoimmunity: implications for occupational and environmental health. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 207 : 282 292.
235. al-Balaghi, S. et al. 1996. Mercury induces polyclonal B cell activation, autoantibody production and renal immune complex deposits in young (NZB x NZW)F1 hybrids. Eur. J. Immunol. 26 : 1519 1526.
236. Pollard, K.M. et al. 2001. Xenobiotic acceleration of idiopathic systemic autoimmunity in lupus-prone bxsb mice. Environ. Health Perspect 109 : 27 33.
237. Via, C.S. et al. 2003. Low-dose exposure to inorganic mercury accelerates disease and mortality in acquired murine lupus. Environ. Health Perspect 111 : 1273 1277.
238. Leffel, E.K. et al. 2003. Drinking water exposure to cadmium, an environmental contaminant, results in the exacerbation of autoimmune disease in the murine model. Toxicology 188 : 233 250.
239. Ohsawa, M., K. Takahashi & F. Otsuka. 1988. Induction of anti-nuclear antibodies in mice orally exposed to cadmium at low concentrations. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 73 : 98 102.
240. Chen, M., P. Hemmerich & A. von Mikecz. 2002. Platinum-induced autoantibodies target nucleoplasmic antigens related to active transcription. Immunobiology 206 : 474 483.
241. Hirohata, S. et al. 1999. Synergistic Inhibition of Human B Cell Activation by Gold Sodium Thiomalate and Auranofin. Clin. Immunol. 91 : 226 233.
242. Wolf, R.E. & V.C. Hall. 1988. Inhibition of in vitro proliferative response of cultured t lymphocytes to interleukin-2 by gold sodium thiomalate. Arthritis Rheum. 31 : 176 181.
243. Takahashi, K. et al. 1998. Drug-induced inhibition of insulin recognition by T-cells: the antirheumatic drug aurothiomalate inhibits MHC binding of insulin peptide. Mol. Immunol. 35 : 1081 1087.
244. Barrera, P. et al. 1996. Effects of antirheumatic agents on cytokines. Sem Arthritis Rheum. 25 : 234 253.
245. Bondeson, J. 1997. The mechanisms of action of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: A review with emphasis on macrophage signal transduction and the induction of proinflammatory cytokines. Gen. Pharmacol. 29 : 127 150.
246. Davis, P. 1979. Undesirable effects of gold salts. J. Rheumatol. Suppl. 5 : 18 24.
247. Husby, G. & J.T. Gran. 1983. Risk factors in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with parenteral gold. Scand. J. Rheumatol. Suppl. 51 : 112 115.
248. Lockie, L.M. & D.M. Smith. 1985. Forty-seven years experience with gold therapy in 1,019 rheumatoid arthritis patients. Sem. Arthritis Rheum. 14 : 238 246.
249. Schuhmann, D. et al. 1990. Adverse immune reactions to gold. I. Chronic treatment with an Au(I) drug sensitizes mouse T cells not to Au(I), but to Au(III) and induces autoantibody formation. J. Immunol. 145 : 2132 2139.
250. Scherak, O. et al. 1984. HLA antigens and toxicity to gold and penicillamine in rheumatoid arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 11 : 610 614.
251. Stollenwerk, R. et al. 1986. Rare side effects of gold. Z. Rheumatol. 45 : 107 110.
252. Rothschild, B. & H. Marshall. 1986. Lymphadenopathy and lymph node infarction in the course of gold therapy. Am. J. Med. 80 : 537 540.
253. Tournade, H. et al. 1991. Experimental gold-induced autoimmunity. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 6 : 621 630.
254. Fournie, G.J. et al. 2002. Th2-type immunopathological manifestations induced by mercury chloride or gold salts in the rat: signal transduction pathways, cellular mechanisms and genetic control. Autoimmun. Rev. 1 : 205 212.
255. Johansson, U., H. Hansson-Georgiadis & P. Hultman. 1997. Murine silver-induced autoimmunity: silver shares induction of antinucleolar antibodies with mercury, but causes less activation of the immune system. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 113 : 432 443.
256. Pietsch, P. et al. 1989. Immunological alterations inducible by mercury compounds. II. HgCl2 and gold sodium thiomalate enhance serum IgE and IgG concentrations in susceptible mouse strains. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 90 : 47 53.
257. Johansson, U., B. Sander & P. Hultman. 1997. Effects of the murine genotype on T cell activation and cytokine production in murine mercury-induced autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 10 : 347 355.
258. Hultman, P. et al. 1995. Genetic susceptibility to silver-induced anti-fibrillarin autoantibodies in mice. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 77 : 291 297.