The evolutionary genetics of personality

European Journal of Personality

Volumn 21, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 549-587

  Penke, Lars ^a,b   Denissen, Jaap J A ^c   Miller, Geoffrey F ^d  

^a HUMBOLDT UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^b International Max Planck Research School LIFE   (Germany)

^c UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^d UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO   (United States)

Author keywords

Behaviour genetics; Evolutionary psychology; Gene environment interactions; Intelligence; Personality differences; Personality traits

Indexed keywords

EID: 34548539591     PISSN: 08902070     EISSN: 10990984     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/per.629     Document Type: Article

References (180)

1. Alexander, R. D. (1989). Evolution of the human psyche. In P. Mellars, & C. Stringer (Eds.), The human revolution: Behavioural and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans (pp. 455-513). Princeton: University Press.
2. Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt.
3. Andrews, P. W., Gangestad, S. W., & Matthews, D. (2002). Adaptationism-How to carry out an exaptationist program. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 489-504.
4. Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2001). A theoretical basis for the major dimensions of personality. European Journal of Personality, 15, 327-353.
5. Barrett, H. C. (2006). Modularity and design reincarnation. In P. Carruthers, S. Laurence, & S. Stich (Eds.), The innate mind: Culture and cognition (pp. 199-217). Oxford: University Press.
6. Bates, T. C. (2007). Fluctuating asymmetry and intelligence. Intelligence, 35, 41-46.
7. Boomsma, D. I., Anokhin, A., & De Geus, E. J. C. (1997). Genetics of electrophysiology: Linking genes, brains, and behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 106-110.
8. Borkenau, P., Riemann, R., Spinath, F. M., & Angleitner, A. (2006). Genetic and environmental influences on person x situation profiles. Journal of Personality, 74, 1451-1479.
9. Bouchard, T.J., Jr., Lykken, D. T., Tellegen, A., & McGue, M. (1996). Genes, drives, environment, and experience: EPD theory revised. In C. Benbow, & D. J. Lubinski (Eds.), Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues (pp. 5-43). Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
10. Brcic-Kostic, K. (2005). Neutral mutation as the source of genetic variation in life history traits. Genetical Research, 86, 53-63.
11. Brunswik, E. (1956). Perception and the representative design of experiments. Berkely: University of California Press.
12. Bürger, R. (2000). The mathematical theory of selection, recombination, and mutation. West Sussex: Wiley.
13. Bürger, R. (2005). A multilocus analysis of intraspecific competition and stabilizing selection on a quantitative trait. Journal of Mathematical Biology, 50, 355-396.
14. Burt, A. (1995). The evolution of fitness. Evolution, 49, 1-8.
15. Buss, D. M. (1990). Toward a biologically informed psychology of personality. Journal of Personality, 58, 1-16.
16. Buss, D. M. (1991). Evolutionary personality psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 459-491.
17. Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psycho-logical Inquiry, 6, 1-30.
18. Buss, D. M., & Craik, K. H. (1983). The act frequency approach to personality. Psychological Review. 90, 105-126.
19. Buss, D. M., & Greiling, H. (1999). Adaptive individual differences. Journal of Personality, 67, 209-243.
20. Camperio Ciani, A. S., Capiluppi, C., Veronese, A., & Sartori, G. (2007). The adaptive value of personality differences revealed by small island population dynamics. European Journal of Personality, 21, 3-22.
21. Cannon, T. D., & Keller, M. C. (2005). Endophenotypes in genetic analyses of mental disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 267-290.
22. Cargill, M., Altshuler, D., Ireland, J., Sklar, P., Ardlie, K., & Patil, N., et al. (1999). Characterization of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in coding regions of human genes. Nature Genetics, 22, 231-238.
23. Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., Taylor, A., & Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851-854.
24. Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H. L., McClay, J., Mill, J., Martin, J., Braithwaite, A., & Poulton, R. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386-389.
25. Cervone, D. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and explanation in personality psychology: How do we know which module to invoke? American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 1001-1014.
26. Chang, F. M., Kidd, J. R., Livak, K. J., Pakstis, A. J., & Kidd, K. K. (1996). The worldwide distribution of allele frequencies at the human dopamine D4 receptor locus. Human Genetics, 98, 91-101.
27. Chen, C., Burton, M., Greenberger, E., & Dmitrieva, J. (1999). Population migration and the variation of dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) allele frequencies around the globe. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 309-324.
28. Chipuer, H. M., Rovine, M. J., & Plomin, R. (1990). LISREL modeling: Genetic and environmental influences on IQ revisited. Intelligence, 14, 11-29.
29. Coventry, W. L., & Keller, M. C. (2005). Estimating the extent of parameter bias in the classical twin design: A comparison of parameter estimates from extended twin-family and classical twin designs. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 8, 214-223.
30. Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2002). Unraveling the enigma of human intelligence: Evolutionary psychology and the multimodular mind. In R. J. Sternberg, & J. C. Kauman (Eds.), The evolution of intelligence (pp. 145-198). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
31. Crawford, C. B., & Anderson, J. L. ( 1989). Sociobiology: An environmentalist discipline? American Psychologist, 44, 1449-1459.
32. Crnokrak, P., & Roff, D. A. (1995). Dominance variance: Associations with selection and fitness. Heredity, 75, 530-540.
33. Cronbach, L. J. (1949). Essentials of psychological testing. New York: Harper.
34. Curtisinger, J. W., Service, P. M., & Prout, T. (1994). Antagonistic pleiotropy, reversal of dominance, and genetic polymorphism. The American Naturalist, 144, 210-228.
35. Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species. London: John Murray.
36. Deary, I. J., & Der, G, (2005). Reaction time explains IQ's association with death. Psychological Science, 16, 64-69.
37. Deary, I. J., Whiteman, M. C., Starr, J. M., Whalley, L. J., & Fox, H. C. (2004). The impact of childhood intelligence on later life: Following up the Scottish mental surveys of 1932 and 1947. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 130-147.
38. de Jong, G. (1990). Quantitative genetics of reaction norms. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 3, 447-468.
39. Denissen, J. J. A., & Penke, L. (2006). Individual reaction norms underlying the five factor model of personality: First steps towards a theory-based conceptual framework. Manuscript submitted for publication.
40. DeRose, M. A., & Roff, D. A. (1999). A comparison of inbreeding depression in life history and morphological traits in animals. Evolution, 53, 1288-1292.
41. DeYoung, C. G., Peterson, J. B., & Higgins, D. M. (2005). Sources of openness/intellect: Cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the fifth factor of personality. Journal of Personality, 73, 825-858
42. Ding, Y.-C., Chi, H.-C, Grady, D. L., Morishima, A., Kidd, J. R., & Kidd, K., K., et al. (2002). Evidence of positive selection acting at the human dopamine receptor D4 gene locus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 309-314.
43. Dingemanse, N. J., Both, C., Drent, P. J., & Tinbergen, J. M. (2004). Fitness consequences of avian personalities in a fluctuating environment. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 271, 847-852.
44. Dingemanse, N. J., & Réale, D. (2005). Natural selection and animal personality. Behaviour, 142, 1159-1184.
45. Eaves, L., Heath, A., Martin, N., Maes, H., Neale, M., & Kendler, K., et al. (1999). Comparing the biological and cultural inheritance of personality and social attitudes in the Virginia 30000 study of twins and their relatives. Twin Research, 2, 62-80.
46. Eaves, L. J., Heath, A. C., Neale, M. C., Hewitt, J. K., & Martin, N. G. (1998). Sex differences and non-additivity in the effects of genes on personality. Twin Research, 1, 131-137.
47. Eaves, L. J., Martin, N. G., Heath, A. C., Hewitt, J. K., & Neale, M. C. (1990). Personality and reproductive fitness. Behavior Genetics, 20, 563-568.
48. Ebstein, R. (2006). The molecular genetic architecture of human personality: Beyond self-report questionnaires. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 427-445.
49. Ellis, B. J., Simpson, J. A., & Campbell, L. (2002). Trait-specific dependence in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality, 70, 611-659.
50. Endler, J. A. (1986). Natural selection in the wild. Princeton: University Press.
51. Ewens, W. J. (1989). An interpretation and proof of the fundamental theorem of natural selection. Theoretical Population Biology, 36, 167-180.
52. Eyre-Walker, A., & Keightley, P. D. (1999). High genomic deleterious mutation rates in hominids. Nature, 397, 344-341.
53. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985). Personality and individual differences: A natural science approach. New York: Plenum.
54. Falconer, D. S. (1981). Introduction to quantitative genetics (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
55. Fay, J. C., Wyckoff, G. J., & Wu, C. (2001). Positive and negative selection on the human genome. Genetics, 158, 1227-1234.
56. Figueredo, A. J., Hammond, K. R., & McKiernan, E. C. (2006). A Brunswikian evolutionary developmental theory of preparedness and plasticity. Intelligence, 34, 211-227.
57. Figueredo, A. J., Sefcek, J. A., & Jones, D. N. (2006). The ideal romantic partner personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 431-441.
58. Figueredo, A. J., Sefcek, J. A., Vasquez, G., Brumbach, B. H., King, J. E., & Jacobs, W. J. (2005a). Evolutionary personality psychology. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp. 851-877). Hoboken, NJ, US: Wiley.
59. Figueredo, A. J., Vasquez, G., Brumbach, B. H., Sefcek, J. A., Kirsner, B. R., & Jacobs, W. (2005b). The K-factor: Individual differences in life history strategy. Personality and Individual Differ-ences, 39, 1349-1360.
60. Fisher, R. A. (1930). The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
61. Friedman, H. S., Tucker, J. S., Schwartz, J. E., Martin, L. R., Tomlinsonkeasey, C., Wingard, D. L., & Criqui, M. H. (1995). Childhood conscientiousness and longevity: Health behaviors and cause of death. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 696-703.
62. Gangestad, S. W., & Simpson, J. A. (1990). Toward an evolutionary history of female sociosexual variation. Journal of Personality, 58, 69-96.
63. Gangestad, S. W., & Simpson, J. A. (2000). The evolution of human mating: Trade-offs and strategic pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 573-644.
64. Gangestad, S. W., & Yeo, R. A. (1997). Behavioral genetic variation, adaptation and maladaptation: An evolutionary perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1, 103-108.
65. Garcia-Dorado, A., Caballero, A., & Crow, J. F. (2003). On the persistence and pervasiveness of a new mutation. Evolution, 57, 2644-2646.
66. Garrigan, D., & Hedrick, P. W. (2003). Detecting adaptive molecular polymorphism: Lessons from the MHC. Evolution, 57, 1707-1722.
67. Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M. & The ABC Research Group (Eds.). (1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. New York: Oxford University Press.
68. Goldberg, L. R (1981) Language and individual differences: The search for universais inpersonality lexicons In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 141-165). Beverly Hills: Sage.
69. Gottfredson, L. S. (2004), Intelligence: Is it the epidemiologists' elusive "fundamental cause" of social class inequalities in health? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 174-199.
70. Gottfredson, L. S. (in press). Innovation, fatal accidents, and the evolution of general intelligence. In M. J. Roberts (Ed.), Integrating the mind. Hove: Psychology Press.
71. Hariri, A. R., Drabant, E. M., Munoz, K. E., Kolachana, B. S., Mattay, V. S., & Egan, M, F., et al. (2005). A susceptibility gene for affective disorders and the response of the human amygdala. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 146-152.
72. Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B., Fera, F., & Goldman, D., et al. (2002). Serotonin transponer genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science, 297, 400-403.
73. Harpending, H., & Cochran, G. (2002). In our genes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99, 10-12.
74. Hedrick, P. W. (1999). Antagonistic pleiotropy and genetic polymorphism: A perspective. Heredity, 82, 126-133.
75. Hogan, R. (1996). A socioanalytic perspective on the five-factor model. In J. S. Wiggins (Ed.), The five factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 163-179). New York: Guilford Press.
76. Houle, D. (1992). Comparing evolvability and variability of quantitative traits. Genetics, 130, 195-204.
77. Houle, D. (1998). How should we explain variation in the genetic variance of traits? Genética, 102/ 103, 241-253.
78. Houle, D., Hughes, K. A., Hoffmaster, D. K., Ihara, J., Assimacopolous, S., Canada, D., & Charlesworth, B. (1994). The effects of spontaneous mutation on quantitative traits I: Variance and covariance of life history traits. Genetics, 138, 773-785.
79. Human Genome Project. (2001). Insights learned from the sequence. Retrieved September 2, 2006, from http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/ Human_Genome/project/journals/insights.html Hughes, K. A., & Burleson, M. H. (2000). Evolutionary causes of the variation in fertility and other fitness traits. In J. L. Rodgers, D. C. Rowe, & W. Miller (Eds.), Genetic influences on human sexuality and fertility. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
80. Hurles, M. (2004). Gene duplication: The genomic trade in spare parts. PLoS Biology, 2, 900-904.
81. International HapMap Consortium. (2005). A haplotype map of the human genome. Nature, 437, 1299-1320.
82. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
83. Jang, K. L., Livesley, W. J., Ando, J., Yamagata, S., Suzuki, A., & Angleitner, A., et al. (2006). Behavioral genetics of the higher-order factors of the Big Five. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 261-272.
84. Jang, K. L., Livesley, W., Angleitner, A., Riemann, R., & Vernon, P. A. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on the covariance of facets defining the domains of the five-factor model of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 83-101.
85. Jang, K. L., Livesley, W., Riemann, R., Vernon, P. A., Hu, S., & Angleitner, A., et al. (2001). Covariance structure of neuroticism and agreeableness: A twin and molecular genetic analysis of the role of the serotonin transporter gene. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 295-304.
86. Jang, K. L., McCrae, R. R., Angleitner, A., Riemann, R., & Livesley, W. (1998). Heritability of facet-level traits in a cross-cultural twin sample: Support for a hierarchical model of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1556-1565.
87. Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g-factor. The science of mental ability. Westport: Praeger.
88. John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin, & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 102-138). New York: Guilford Press.
89. Kanazawa, S. (2004). General intelligence as a domain-specific adaptation. Psychological Review, 111, 512-523.
90. Kassen, R. (2002). The experimental evolution of specialists, generalists, and the maintenance of diversity, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 15, 173-190.
91. Keightley, P. D., & Gaffney, D. J. (2003). Functional constraints and frequency of deleterious mutations in noncoding DNA of rodents. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 13402-13406.
92. Keller, M. C., (in press). The role of mutations in human mating. In G. Geher, & G Miller (Eds,), Mating intelligence: Sex, relationships, and the mind's reproductive system. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
93. Keller, M. C., & Coventry, W. L. (2005). Quantifying and addressing parameter indeterminacy in the classical twin design, Twin Research and Human Genetics, 8, 201-213.
94. Keller, M. C., Coventry, W. L., Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (2005). Widespread evidence for non-additive genetic variation in Cloninger's and Eysenck's personality dimensions using a twin plus sibling design. Behavior Genetics, 35, 707-721.
95. Keller, M. C., & Miller, G. F. (2006a). Resolving the paradox of common, harmful, heritable mental disorders: Which evolutionary genetic models work best? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 385-404,
96. Keller, M. C., & Miller, G. F. (2006b). An evolutionary framework for mental disorders: Integrating adaptationist and evolutionary genetic models. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 429-441.
97. Kidd, K. K. (2006), ALFRED-the ALlele FREquency Database. Retrieved September 2, 2006, from http://alfred.med.yale.edu.
98. Kimura, M. (1983). The neutral theory of molecular evolution. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
99. Kokko, H., Brooks, R., Jennions, M. D., & Morley, J. (2003). The evolution of mate choice and mating biases. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 270, 653-664.
100. Kopp, M., & Hermisson, J. (2006). Evolution of genetic architecture under frequency-dependent disruptive selection. Evolution, 60, 1537-1550.
101. Kovas, Y., & Plomin, R. (2006). Generalist genes: Implications for the cognitive sciences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 198-203.
102. Krebs, J. R., & Davies, N. B. (1997). Behavioural ecology (4th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Science.
103. Luxen, M. F., & Buunk, B. P. (2006). Human intelligence, fluctuating asymmetry and the peacock's tail: General intelligence(g) as an honest signal of fitness. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 897-902.
104. Lykken, D. T., & Tellegen, A. (1993). Is human mating adventitious or the result of lawful choice? A twin study of mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 56-68.
105. Lynch, M., & Hill, W. G. (1986). Phenotypic evolution by neutral mutation. Evolution, 40, 915-935.
106. Lynch, M., & Walsh, B. (1998). Genetics and analysis of quantitative traits. Sunderland: Sinauer.
107. MacDonald, K. (1995). Evolution, the five-factor model, and levels of personality. Journal of Personality, 63, 525-567.
108. MacDonald, K. (1998). Evolution, culture, and the five-factor model. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 29, 119-149.
109. Marcus, G. (2004). The birth of the mind: How a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of human thought. New York: Basic Books.
110. Maynard Smith, J. (1982). Evolution and the theory of games. Cambridge: University Press.
111. Maynard Smith, J. (1998). Evolutionary genetics. Oxford: University Press.
112. Mayr, E. (1993). What was the evolutionary synthesis? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 31-34.
113. McAdams, D. P., & Pals, J. L. (2006). A new Big Five: Fundamental principles for an integrative science of personality. American Psychologist, 61, 204-217.
114. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1996). Toward a new generation of personality theories: Theoretical contexts for the five-factor model. In J. S. Wiggins (Ed.), The five factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 51-87). New York: Guilford Press.
115. McCrae, R. R., Jang, K. L., Livesley, W., Riemann, R., & Angleitner, A. (2001). Sources of structure: Genetic, environmental, and artifactual influences on the covariation of personality traits. Journal of Personality, 69, 511-535.
116. McDougall, W. (1908). Introduction to social psychology. London: Methuen.
117. Mealey, L. (1995). The sociobiology of sociopathy: An integrated evolutionary model. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 523-599.
118. MeriläJ., & Sheldon, B. C. (1999). Genetic architecture of fitness and nonfitness traits: Empirical patterns and development of ideas. Heredity, 83, 103-109.
119. Miller, G. F. (2000a). Mental traits as fitness indicators: Expanding evolutionary psychology's adaptationism. In D. LeCroy, & P. Moller (Eds.), Evolutionary perspectives on human reproductive behavior (Vol. 907, pp. 62-74). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
120. Miller, G. F. (2000b). The mating mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature. New York: Doubleday.
121. Miller, G. F. (2000c). Sexual selection for indicators of intelligence. In G. Bock, J. Goode, & K. Webb (Eds.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 260-275). New York: John Wiley.
122. Miller, G. F. (in press). Reconciling ecological psychology and evolutionary psychology: How to perceive fitness affordances. Acta Psychologica Sinica.
123. Miller, G. F., & Penke, L. (2007). The evolution of human intelligence and the coefficient of additive genetic variance in human brain size. Intelligence, 32, 97-114.
124. Mischel, W. (2004). Toward an integrative science of the person. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 1-22.
125. Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1995). A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. Psychological Review, 102, 246-268.
126. Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Rutter, M. (2006). Measured gene-environment interactions in psycho-pathology: Concepts, research strategies, and implications for research, intervention, and public understanding of genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 5-27.
127. Møller, A. P. (1997). Developmental stability and fitness: A review. American Naturalist, 149, 916-932.
128. Neale, M. C., & Cardon, L. R. (1992). Methodology for genetic studies for twins and families. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
129. Neeleman, J., Sytema, S., & Wadsworth, M. (2002). Propensity to psychiatric and somatic ill-health: Evidence from a birth cohort. Psychological Medicine, 32, 793-803.
130. Nettle, D. (2005). An evolutionary approach to the extraversion continuum. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 363-373.
131. Nettle, D. (2006a). The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals. American Psychologist, 61, 622-631.
132. Nettle, D. (2006b). Reconciling the mutation-selection balance model with the schizotypy-creativity connection. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 29, 418.
133. Nettle, D., & Clegg, H. (2006). Schizotypy, creativity and mating success in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B, 273, 611-615.
134. Ozer, D. J., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2006). Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 401-421.
135. Penke, L., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2007). Adaptive sociometer contingencies and the allocation of reproductive effort in men. Manuscript submitted for publication.
136. Penke, L., Todd, P. M., Lenton, A., & Fasolo, B. (in press). How self-assessments can guide human mating decisions. In G. Geher, & G. F. Miller (Eds.), Mating intelligence: Sex, relationships, and the mind's reproductive system. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
137. Pigliucci, M. (2005). Evolution of phenotypic plasticity: Where are we going now? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20, 481-486.
138. Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., & McGuffin, P. (2001). Behavioral genetics (4th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
139. Plomin, R., Kennedy, J. K. J., & Craig, I. W. (2006). The quest for quantitative trait loci associated with intelligence. Intelligence, 34, 513-526.
140. Plomin, R., Owen, M. J., & McGuffin, P. (1994). The genetic basis of complex human behaviors. Science, 264, 1733-1739.
141. Plomin, R., & Spinath, F. M. (2004). Intelligence: Genetics, genes, and genomics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 112-129.
142. Polak, M. (Ed.). (2003). Developmental instability: Causes and consequences. Oxford: University Press.
143. Pomiankowski, A., & Møller, A. P. (1995). A resolution to the lek paradoxon. Proceedings of the Royal Society London, Series B, 260, 21-29.
144. Price, G. R. (1972). Fisher's 'fundamental theorem' made clear. Annals of Human Genetics, 36, 129-140.
145. Price, T., & Schluter, D. (1991). On the low heritability of life-history traits. Evolution, 45, 853-861.
146. Pritchard, J. K. (2001 ). Are rare variants responsible for susceptibility to complex diseases? American Journal of Human Genetics, 69, 124-137.
147. Prokosch, M. D., Yeo, R. A., & Miller, G. F. (2005). Intelligence tests with higher g-loadings show higher correlations with body symmetry: Evidence for a general fitness factor mediated by developmental stability. Intelligence, 33, 203-213.
148. Purcell, S. (2002). Variance components models for gene environment interaction in twin analysis. Twin Research, 5, 554-571.
149. Redon, R., Ishikawa, S., Fitch, K. R., Feuk, L., Perry, G. H., & Andrews, T., D., et al. (2006). Global variation in copy number in the human genome. Nature, 444, 444-454.
150. Rice, W. R., & Chippindale, A. K. (2001). Intersexual ontogenetic conflict. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 14, 685-693.
151. Ridley, M. (2000). Mendel's demon: Gene justice and the complexity of life. London: Orion.
152. Roff, D. A. (1997). Evolutionary quantitative genetics. New York: Chapman & Hall.
153. Rowe, L., & Houle, D. (1996). The lek paradoxon and the capture of genetic variance by condition dependent traits. Proceedings of the Royal Society London, Series B, 263, 1415-1421.
154. Rudan, I., Smolej-Narancic, N., Campbell, H., Carothers, A., Wright, A., & Janicijevic, B., et al. (2003). Inbreeding and the genetic complexity of human hypertension. Genetics, 163, 1011-1021.
155. Rushton, J. P. (1985). Differential K theory: The sociobiology of individual and group differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 441-452.
156. Saulsman, L. M., & Page, A. C. (2004). The five-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 1055-1085.
157. Schmitt, D. P. (2005). Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 247-275.
158. Schneider, K. A. (2006). A multilocus-multiallele analysis of frequency-dependent selection induced by intraspecific competition. Journal of Mathematical Biology, 52, 483-523.
159. Shapiro, J. A., & von Sternberg, R. (2005). Why repetitive DNA is essential to genome function. Biological Reviews, 80, 227-250.
160. Sih, A., Bell, A. M., Johnson, J. C., & Ziemba, R. E. (2004). Behavioral syndromes: An integrative overview. Quarterly Review of Biology, 79, 241-277.
161. Smith, B. R., & Blumstein, D. T. (2007). Personality affects reproductive success, not survival: A meta-analytic review. Manuscript submitted for publication.
162. Stirling, D. G., Réale, D., & Roff, D. A. (2002). Selection, structure and the heritability of behaviour. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 15, 277-289.
163. Strobel, A., Lesch, K., Jatzke, S., Paetzold, F., & Brocke, B. (2003). Further evidence for a modulation of novelty seeking by DRD4 exon III, 5-HTTLPR, and COMT val/met variants. Molecular Psychiatry, 8, 371-372.
164. Sunyaev, S., Ramensky, R., Koch, I., Lathe, W., Kondrashov, A. S., & Bork, P. (2001). Prediction of deleterious human alleles. Human Molecular Genetics, 10, 591-597.
165. Thorndike, E. L. (1909). Darwin's contribution to psychology. University of California Chronicle, 12, 65-80.
166. Tomkins, J. L., Radwan, J., Kotiaho, J. S., & Tregenza, T. (2004). Genie capture and resolving the lek paradox. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 323-328.
167. Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1990). On the universality of human nature and the uniqueness of the individual: The role of genetics and adaptation. Journal of Personality, 58, 17-67.
168. Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2005). Conceptual foundations of evolutionary psychology. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp. 5-67). Hoboken: Wiley.
169. Tooby, J., Cosmides, L., & Barrett, H. C. (2005). Resolving the debate on innate ideas: Learnability constraints and the evolved interpenetration of motivational and conceptual functions. In P. Carruthers, S. Laurence, & S. Stich (Eds.), The innate mind: Structure and content. New York: Oxford University Press.
170. Turelli, M., & Barton, N. H. (2004). Polygenic variation maintained by balancing selection: Pleiotropy, sex-dependent allelic effects and GxE interactions. Genetics, 166, 1053-1079.
171. Turkheimer, E. (2000). Three laws of behavior genetics and what they mean. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 160-164.
172. Turkheimer, E., & Gottesman, I.I. (1991). Is H2=0 a null hypothesis anymore? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 410-411.
173. van der Maas, H. L. J., Dolan, C. V., Grasman, R. P. P. P., Wicherts, J. M., Huizenga, H. M., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2006). A dynamical model of general intelligence: The positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism. Psychological Review, 113, 842-861.
174. van Oers, K., de Jong, G., van Noordwijk, A. J., Kempenaers, B., & Drent, P. J. (2005). Contribution of genetics to the study of animal personalities: A review of case studies. Behaviour, 142, 1185-1206.
175. Vandenberg, S. G. (1972). Assortative mating, or who marries whom? Behavior Genetics, 2, 127-157.
176. Via, S., Gomulkiewicz, R., De Jong, G., Scheiner, S. M., Schlichting, C. D., & Van Tienderen, P. H. (1995). Adaptive phenotypic plasticity: Consensus and controversy. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 10, 212-217.
177. Wang, E., Ding, Y. C., Flodman, P., Kidd, J. R., Kidd, K. K., & Grady, D., L., et al. (2004). The genetic architecture of selection at the human dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene locus. American Journal of Human Genetics, 74, 931-944.
178. West-Eberhard, M. J. (2003). Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford: University Press.
179. Yamagata, S., Suzuki, A., Ando, J., Ono, Y., Kijima, N., & Yoshimura, K., et al. (2006). Is the genetic structure of human personality universal? A cross-cultural twin study from North America, Europe, and Asia. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 987-998.
180. Zhang, X.-S., & Hill, W. G. (2005). Genetic variability under mutation selection balance. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20, 468-470.