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large number of ligands and ligand kits are available from catalogue houses such as Strem. The larger quantities necessary for production are then available from the technology providers themselves. At this point, two financial models presently predominate. In one model, the catalyst costs (usually high) are fixed and include all of the necessary intellectual property rights, etc. In the other, the catalyst costs are usually lower; however, royalties for catalyst usage, usually based on revenue, have to be negotiated.
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Low-pressure hydroformylation using the well-known rhodium/ triphenylphosphine catalyst has proven to be a good method for testing whether a reactor system suffers from mass transfer problems from the gas phase. Easily measured catalyst properties, such as the product linearity in the aldehydes produced, the amount of olefin isomerization, and the hydrogenation rate, are extremely dependent on the carbon monoxide partial pressure in the reaction solution. The effective concentration drops if carbon monoxide is being depleted more quickly than it can be restored by mass transfer, leading to characteristic changes, such as an abnormally high product linearity or increased hydrogenation.
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