Guiding, modulating, and emitting light on Silicon - Challenges and opportunities

Journal of Lightwave Technology

Volumn 23, Issue 12, 2005, Pages 4222-4238

  Lipson, Michal ^a  

^a Cornell University   (United States)

Author keywords

Integrated optics; Light emitters; Modulators; Silicon; Waveguides

Indexed keywords

AMPLIFICATION; LIGHT EMISSION; LIGHT MODULATION; LIGHT MODULATORS; LIGHT PROPAGATION; OPTICAL INTERCONNECTS; OPTICAL WAVEGUIDES; SEMICONDUCTING SILICON;

LIGHT EMITTERS; SILICON PHOTONICS;

INTEGRATED OPTICS;

EID: 31344438724     PISSN: 07338724     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/JLT.2005.858225     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. D. A. B. Miller, "Optical interconnects to silicon," IEEE J. Sel. Topics Quantum Electron., vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 1312-1317, Nov./Dec. 2000.
2. J. D. Meindl et al., "Interconnect opportunities for gigascale integration," IBM J. Res. Develop., vol. 46, no. 2/3, pp. 245-263, Mar./May 2002.
3. E. M. Mohammed et al., "Optical I/O technology for digital VLSI," in Proc. SPIE, San Jose, CA, 2004, vol. 5358, pp. 60-70.
4. O. Kibar, D. A. Van Blerkom, C. Fan, and S. C. Esener, "Power minimization and technology comparisons for digital free-space optoelectronic interconnections," J. Lightw. Technol., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 546-555, Apr. 1999.
5. A. M. Pappu and A. B. Apsel, "Analysis of intrachip electrical and optical fanout," Appl. Opt., vol. 44, no. 30, p. 6361, Oct. 2005.
6. M. Salib, L. Liao, R. Jones, M. Morse, A. Liu, D. Samara-Rubio, D. Alduino, and M. Paniccia, "Silicon photonics," Intel Technol. J., vol. 8, no. 2, p. 1442, 2004.
7. R. C. Johnson. (2002). "Intel reveals long-term goals for silicon photonics, sensors," Electron. Eng. Times. [Online]. Available: http://www.eetimes.com/semi/news/OEG20020228S0033
8. L. C. Kimerling, "Photons to the rescue: Microelectronics becomes microphotonics," Electrochem. Soc. Interface, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 28, 2000.
9. C. Gunn, "CMOs photonics-SOI learns a new trick," in Proc. IEEE Silicon On Insulator (SOI) Conf., Honolulu, HI, 2005.
10. R. Soref and J. Lorenzo, "All-silicon active and passive guided-wave components for λ = 1.3 and 1.6 μm," IEEE J. Quantum Electron., vol. QE-22, no. 6, pp. 873-879, Jun. 1986.
11. Y. A. Vlasov and S. J. McNab, "Losses in single-mode silicon-on-insulator strip waveguides and bends," Opt. Express, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 1622-1631, Apr. 19, 2004.
12. K. K. Lee, "Transmission and routing of optical signals in onchip waveguides for silicon microphotonics," Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Materials Science Eng., Mass. Inst. Technol., Cambridge, MA, 2001.
13. V. R. Almeida, R. R. Panepucci, and M. Lipson, "Nano-taper for compact mode conversion," Opt. Lett., vol. 28, no. 15, pp. 1302-1304, Aug. 2003.
14. T. Shoji, T. Tsuchizawa, T. Watanabe, K. Yamada, and H. Morita, "Low loss mode size converter from 0.3 μm square Si wire waveguides to singlemode fibers," Electron. Lett., vol. 38, no. 25, pp. 1669-1670, Dec. 2002.
15. P. D. Trinh, S. Yegnanarayanan, and B. Jalali, "Guided-wave optical circuits in silicon-on-insulator technology," in Tech. Dig. Integrated Photonics Research Conf., Boston, MA, 1996, vol. 6, pp. 273-277.
16. T. E. Murphy, J. T. Hastings, and H. I. Smith, "Fabrication and characterization of narrow-band Bragg-reflection filters in silicon-on-insulator ridge waveguides," J. Lightw. Technol., vol. 19, no. 12, pp. 1938-1942, Dec. 2001.
17. D. R. Lim, B. E. Little, K. K. Lee, M. Morse, H. H. Fujimoto, H. A. Haus, and L. C. Kimerling, "Micron-sized channel dropping filters using silicon waveguide devices," in Proc. SPIE - Int. Soc. Optical Engineering, Boston, MA, 1999, vol. 3847, pp. 65-71.
18. A. Liu, R. Jones, L. Liao, D. Samara-Rubio, D. Rubin, O. Cohen, R. Nicolaescu, and M. Paniccia, "A high-speed silicon optical modulation based on a metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitor," Nature, vol. 427, no. 6975, pp. 615-618, Feb. 2004.
19. L. Liao, D. Samara-Rubio, M. Morse, A. Liu, D. Hodge, D. Rubin, U. D. Keil, and T. Franck, "High speed silicon Mach-Zehnder," Opt. Express, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 3129-3135, Apr. 2005.
20. Q. Xu, B. Shcmidt, S. Pradhan, and M. Lipson, "Micrometer-scale silicon electro-optic modulator," Nature, no. 435, pp. 325-327, May 2005.
21. S. Ossicini, L. Pavesi, and F. Priolo, Light Emitting Silicon for Microphotonics (Springer Tracts in Modern Physics). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 2003.
22. L. Pavesi, L. DalNegro, C. Mazzoleni, G. Franzò, and F. Priolo, "Optical gain in silicon nanocrystals," Nature. vol. 408, no. 6811, pp. 440-444, Nov. 2000.
23. R. Clap, D. Dimitropoulos, V. Raghunathan, Y. Han, and B. Jalali, "Observation of stimulated Raman amplification in silicon waveguides," Opt. Express, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 1731-1739, Jul. 2003.
24. T. K. Liang and H. K. Tsang, "Role of free carriers from two-photon absorption in Raman amplification in silicon-on-insulator waveguides," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 84, no. 15, pp. 2745-2747, Apr. 2004.
25. R. L. Espinola, J. I. Dadap, R. M. Osgood, Jr., S. J. McNab, and Y. A. Vlasov, "Raman amplification in ultrasmall silicon-on-insulator wire waveguides," Opt. Express, vol. 12, no. 16, pp. 3713-3718, Aug. 2004.
26. Q. Xu, V. R. Almeida, and M. Lipson, "Time-resolved study of Raman gain in highly confined silicon-on-insulator waveguides," Opt. Express, vol. 12, no. 19, pp. 4437-4442, Sep. 2004.
27. H. Rong, A. Liu, R. Jones, O. Cohen, D. Hak, R. Nicolaescu, A. Fang, and M. Paniccia, "An all-silicon Raman laser," Nature, vol. 7023, no. 433, pp. 292-294, Jan. 2005.
28. G. Masini, L. Colace, G. Assanto, H. C. Luan, and L. C. Kimerling, "Germanium on silicon pin photodiodes for the near infrared," Electron. Lett., vol. 36, no. 25, pp. 2095-2096, Dec. 2000.
29. M. Jutzo and M. Berroth, "SiGe-based photodetectors for optical communication," in Applications Properties of Silicon Germanium and SiGe:Carbon, E. Kasper and K. Lyutovich, Eds. London, U.K.: INSPEC, 2000, pp. 342-348. ISNBN 085296783 8.
30. J. Oh, S. K. Banerjee, and J. C. Campbell, "Metal-germanium-metal photodetectors on heteroepitaxial Ge-on-Si with amorphous Ge Schottky barrier enhancement layers," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 581-583, Feb. 2004.
31. 2 waveguide: Experiments and model," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 77, no. 11, pp. 1617-1619, Sep. 2000.
32. J. Schmidtchen, A. Splett, B. Schüppert, and K. Petermann, "Low loss single mode optical waveguides with large cross-section in silicon-on-insulator," Electron. Lett., vol. 27, no. 16, pp. 1486-1488, Aug. 1991.
33. R. A. Soref, J. Schmidtchen, and K. Peterman, "Large single-mode rib waveguides in GeSi-Si and Si-on-SiO," IEEE J. Quantum Electron., vol. 27, no. 8, pp. 1971-1973, Aug. 1991.
34. J. D. Joannopoulos, R. D. Meade, and J. N. Winn, Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of Light. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1995.
35. S. Y. Lin, J. G. Fleming, D. L. Hetherington, B. K. Smith, R. Biswas, K. M. Ho, M. M. Sigalas, W. Zubrzycki, S. R. Kurtz, and J. Bur, "A three-dimensional photonic crystal operating at infrared wavelengths," Nature, vol. 394, pp. 251-253, Jul. 16, 1998.
36. M. Loncar, T. Doll, J. Vuckovic, and A. Scherer, "Design and fabrication of silicon photonic crystal optical waveguides," J. Lightw. Technol., vol. 18, no. 10, pp. 1402-1411, Oct. 2000.
37. V. R. Almeida, Q. Xu, C. A. Barrios, and M. Lipson, "Guiding and confining light in void nanostructure," Opt. Lett., vol. 29, no. 11, pp. 1209-1211, Jun. 2004.
38. Q. Xu, V. R. Almeida, and M. Lipson, "Experimental demonstration of guiding and confining light in nanometer-size low-refractive-index material," Opt. Lett., vol. 29, no. 14, pp. 1626-1628, Jul. 2004.
39. C. Pollock and M. Lipson, Integrated Photonics. Boston, MA: Kluwer, 2003.
40. M. Heiblum and J. Harris, "Analysis of curved optical waveguides by conformal transformation," IEEE J. Quantum Electron., vol. QE-11, no. 2, pp. 75-83, Feb. 1975.
41. C. Manolatou, S. G. Johnson, S. Fan, P. R. Villeneuve, H. A. Haus, and J. D. Joannopoulos, "High-density integrated optics," J. Lightw. Technol., vol. 17, no. 9, pp. 1682-1692, Sep. 1999.
42. D. Nedeljkovic, M. Loncar, S. Kuchinsky, M. Mikhailov, A. Scherer, and T. P. Pearsall, "Waveguiding at 1550 nm using photonic crystal structures in silicon on insulator wafers," in Optical Fiber Communication Conf. and Exhibit. Tech. Dig. Postconf. Edition, Anaheim, CA, 2001, vol. 2, pp. TuC6-1-TuC6-3.
43. U. Fischer, T. Zinke, J.-R. Kropp, F. Arndt, and K. Peterman, "0.1 dB/cm waveguide losses in single-mode SOI rib waveguides," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 647-648, May 1996.
44. P. K. Tien, "Light waves in thin films and integrated optics," Appl. Opt., vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 2395-2413, Nov. 1971.
45. K. K. Lee, D. R. Lim, and L. C. Kimerling, "Fabrication of ultralow-loss Si/SiO waveguides by roughness reduction," Opt. Lett., vol. 26, no. 23, pp. 1888-1890, Dec. 2001.
46. J. S. Foresi, P. R. Villeneuve, J. Ferrera, E. R. Thoen, G. Steinmeyer, S. Fan, J. D. Joannopoulos, L. C. Kimerling, H. I. Smith, and E. P. Ippen, "Photonic-bandgap microcavities in optical waveguides," Nature, vol. 390, no. 6656, pp. 143-145, Nov. 1997.
47. T. Yoshie et al., "High quality two-dimensional photonic crystal slab cavities," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 79, no. 26, pp. 4289-4291, Dec. 2001.
48. V. R. Almeida, C. A. Barrios, R. R. Panepucci, and M. Lipson, "All-optical control of light on a silicon chip," Nature, vol. 431, no. 7012, pp. 1081-1084, Oct. 2004.
49. S. M. Weiss, M. Molinari, and P. M. Fauchet, "Temperature stability for silicon-based photonic band-gap structures," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 83, no. 10, pp. 1980-1982, Sep. 2003.
50. P. Cheben, D.-X. Xu, S. Janz, and A. Delâge, "Scaling down photonic waveguide devices on the SOI platform," in Proc. SPIE - Int. Soc. Opt. Engineering, San Diego, CA, 2003, vol. 5117, pp. 147-156.
51. C. Cocorullo, M. Iodice, I. Rendina, and P. M. Sarro, "Silicon thermo-optical micro-modulator with 700 kHz-3 dB bandwidth," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 363-365, Apr. 1995.
52. R. A. Soref and B. R. Bennett, "Electrooptical effects in silicon," IEEE J. Quantum Electron., vol. QE-23, no. 1, pp. 123-129, Jan. 1987.
53. R. A. Soref and B. R. Bennett, "Kramers-Kronig analysis of E-O switching in silicon," SPIE Integr. Opt. Circuit Eng., vol. 704, pp. 32-37, Sep. 1986.
54. C. Z. Zhao, E. K. Liu, G. Z. Li, Y. Gao, and C. S. Guo, "Zero-gap directional coupler switch integrated into a silicon-on-insulator for 1.3-μm-operation," Opt. Lett., vol. 21, no. 20, p. 1664, Oct. 1996.
55. C. Angulo Barrios, V. R. Almeida, and M. Lipson, "Electrooptic modulation of silicon-on-insulator submicrometer-size waveguide devices," J. Lightw. Technol., vol. 21, no. 10, pp. 2332-2339, Oct. 2003.
56. S. R. Giguere, L. Friedman, R. A. Soref, and J. P. Lorenzo, "Simulation studies of silicon electro-optic waveguide devices," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 68, no. 10, pp. 4964-4970, Nov. 1990.
57. G. Cocorullo, M. Iodice, and I. Rendina, "All-silicon Fabry-Pérot modulator based on the thermo-optic effect," Opt. Lett., vol. 19, no. 6, p. 420, Mar. 1994.
58. X. Xiao, J. C. Sturm, K. K. Goel, and P. V. Schwartz, "Fabry-Pérot optical intensity modulator at 1.3 μm - in silicon," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 230-231, Mar. 1991.
59. Y. L. Liu, E. K. Liu, S. L. Zhang, G. Z. Li, and J. S. Luo, "Silicon 1 × 2 digital optical switch using plasma dispersion," Electron. Lett., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 130-131, Jan. 1994.
60. Y. Liu, E. Liu, G. Li, S. Zhang, J. Luo, F. Zhou, M. Cheng, B. Li, and H. Ge, "Novel silicon waveguide switch based on total internal reflection," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 64, no. 16, pp. 2079-2080, Apr. 1994.
61. C. Z. Zhao, G. Z. Li, E. K. Liu, Y. Gao, and X. D. Liu, "Silicon on insulator Mach-Zehnder waveguide interferometers operating at 1.3 μm," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 67, no. 17, pp. 2448-2449, Oct. 1995.
62. M. Y. Liu and S. Chou, "High-modulation-depth and short-cavity-length silicon Fabry-Pérot modulator with two grating Bragg reflectors," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 170-172, Jan. 1995.
63. A. Cutolo, M. Iodice, A. Irace, P. Spirito, and L. Zeni, "An electrically controlled Bragg reflector integrated in a rib silicon on insulator waveguide," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 199-201, Jul. 1997.
64. A. Cutolo, M. Iodice, P. Spirito, and L. Zeni, "Silicon electro-optic modulator based on a three terminal device integrated in a low-loss single-mode SOI waveguide," J. Lightw. Technol., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 505-518, Mar. 1997.
65. C. Z. Zhao, A. H. Chen, E. K. Liu, and G. Z. Li, "Silicon-on-insulator asymmetric optical switch based on total internal reflection," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 9, no. 8, pp. 1113-1115, Aug. 1997.
66. G. Coppola, A. Irace, M. Iodice, and A. Cutolo, "Simulation and analysis of a high-efficiency silicon optoelectronic modulator based on a Bragg mirror," Opt. Eng., vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 1076-1081, 2001.
67. A. Sciuto, S. Libertino, A. Alessandria, S. Coffa, and G. Coppola, "Design, fabrication, and testing of an integrated Si-based light modulator," J. Lightw. Technol., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 228-235, Jan. 2003.
68. C. K. Tang and G. T. Reed, "Highly efficient optical phase modulator in SOI waveguides," Electron, Lett., vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 451-452, Mar. 1995.
69. C. Barrios and M. Lipson, "Modeling and analysis of high-speed electro-optic modulation in high confinement silicon waveguides using metal-oxide-semiconductor configuration," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 96, no. 11, pp. 6008-6015, Dec. 2004.
70. V. R. Almeida, C. A. Barrios, R. R. Panepucci, M. Lipson, M. A. Foster, D. G. Quzounov, and A. L. Gaeta, "All-optical switching on a silicon chip," Opt. Lett., vol. 29, no. 24, pp. 2867-2869, Dec. 2004.
71. A. Chin, K. Y. Lee, B. C. Lin, and S. Horng, "Picosecond photoresponse of carriers in Si ion-implanted Si," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 69, no. 5, pp. 653-655, Jul. 1996.
72. L. Kimerling, Towards the First Silicon Laser, vol. 93, L. Pavesi, S. Gaponenko, and L. Dal Negro, Eds. New York: Kluwer, 2003, p. 465.
73. I. Moerman, P. P. Van Daele, and P. M. Daneester, "A review on fabrication technologies for the monolithic integration of tapers with III-V semiconductor devices," IEEE J. Sel. Topics Quantum Electron., vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 1308-1320, Dec. 1997.
74. C. Manolatou and H. Haus, "Compact mode-size converters for efficient coupling between fibers and integrated optical waveguides," in Proc. Lasers and Electro-Optics Society (LEOS) Summer Topical Meetings, 2001, vol, 31.
75. R. B. Hammond and R. N. Silver, "Temperature dependence of the exciton lifetime in high-purity silicon," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 68-71, Jan. 1980.
76. M. A. Tamor and J. P Wolfe, "Drift and diffusion of free excitons in Si," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 44, no. 25, pp. 1703-1706, Jun. 1980.
77. Silicon Based Microphotonics: From Basics to Applications, O. Bisi, S. U. Campisano, L. Pavesi, and F. Priolo, Eds. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS, 1999.
78. M. H. Nayfeh, N. Barry, J. Therrien, O. Akcakir, E. Gratton, and G. Belomoin, "Stimulated blue emission in reconstituted films of ultrasmall silicon nanoparticles," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 78, no. 8, pp. 1131-1133, Feb. 2001.
79. F. G. Grom, P. M. Fauchet, L. Tsybeskov, J. P. McCaffrey, H. J. Labbe, D. J. Lockwood, and B. E. White, "Microcrystalline and nanocrystalline semiconductors - 2000," in Proc. Materials Research Society Symp., Boston, MA, 2001, vol. 638, pp. F6.1.1-F6.1.6.
80. F. Iacona, G. Franzò, and C. Spinella, "Correlation between luminescence and structural properties of Si nanocrystals," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 87, no. 3, pp. 1295-1303, Feb. 2000.
81. P. M. Fauchet, J. Ruan, H. Chen, L. Pavesi, L. Dal Negro, M. Cazzaneli, R. G. Elliman, N. Smith, M. Samoc, and B. Luther-Davies, "Optical gain in different silicon nanocrystal systems," Opt. Mater., vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 745-749, Feb. 2005.
82. R. J. Walters, G. I. Bourianoff, and H. A. Atwater, "Field-effect electro-luminescene in silicon nanocrystal," Nat. Mater., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 143-146, Feb. 2005.
83. R. Boyd, Nonlinear Optics, 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic, 2003.
84. H. Rong, R. Jones, A. Liu, O. Cohen, D. Hak, A. Fang, and M. Paniccia, "A continuous-wave Raman silicon laser," Nature, vol. 433, no. 7027, pp. 725-728, Feb. 2005.
85. P. C. Becker, N. A. Olsson, and J. R. Simpson, Erbium-Doped Fibre Amplifiers. London, U.K.: Academic, 1999.
86. A. M. Agarwal, L. Liao, J. S. Foresi, M. R. Black, X. Duan, and L. C. Kimerling, "Low-loss polycrystalline silicon waveguides for silicon photonics," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 80, no. 11, pp. 6120-6123, Dec. 1996.
87. A. Polman, G. N. van den Hoven, J. S. Custer, J. H. Shin, R. Serna, and P. F. A. Alkemade, "Erbium in crystal silicon: Optical activation, excitation, and concentration limits," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 77, no. 3, pp. 1256-1262, Feb. 1995.
88. G. Franzò, S. Coffa, F. Priolo, and C. Spinella, "Mechanism and performance of forward and reverse bias electroluminescence at 1.54 μm from Er-doped Si diodes," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 81, no. 6, pp. 2784-2793, Mar. 1997.
89. B. Zheng, J. Michel, F. Y. G. Ren, L. C. Kimerling, D. C. Jacobson, and J. M. Poate, "Room-temperature sharp line electroluminescence at λ = 1.54 μm from an erbium-doped, silicon light-emitting diode," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 64, no. 21, pp. 2842-2844, May 1994.
90. S. Coffa, G. Franzò, and F. Priolo, "High efficiency and fast modulation of Er-doped light emitting Si diodes," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 69, no. 14, pp. 2077-2079, Sep. 1996.
91. J. Palm, F. Gan, B. Zheng, J. Michel, and L. C. Kimerling, "Electroluminescence of erbium-doped silicon," Phys. Rev. B, Condens. Matter, vol. 54, no. 24, pp. 17603-17615, Dec. 1996.
92. R. Serna, J. H. Shin, M. Lohmeier, E. Vlieg, A. Polman, and P. F. A. Alkemade, "Incorporation and optical activation of erbium in silicon using molecular beam epitaxy," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 79, no. 5, pp. 2658-2662, Mar. 1996.
93. A. Reittinger, J. Stimmer, and G. Abstreiter, "Influence of the erbium and oxygen content on the electroluminescence of epitaxially grown erbium-doped silicon diodes," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 70, no. 18, pp. 2431-2433, May 1997.
94. 3+ implanted in silicon by oxygen impurities," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., vol. 29, no. 4, pp. L524-L526, Apr. 1990.
95. 3+ luminescence in silicon," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 70, no. 5, pp. 2672-2678, Sep. 1991.
96. 3+ in crystalline Si," Phys. Rev. B, Condens. Matter, vol. 57, no. 8, pp. 4443-4455, Feb. 1998.
97. S. Coffa, G. Franzò, F. Priolo, A. Polman, and R. Serna, "Temperature dependence and quenching processes of the intra-4f luminescence of Er in crystalline Si," Phys. Rev. B, Condens. Matter, vol. 49, no. 23, pp. 16313-16320, Jun. 1994.
98. 3+ ion in silicon," Phys. Rev. B, Condens. Matter, vol. 61, no. 8, pp. 5369-5375, Feb. 2000.
99. P. G. Kik, "Energy transfer in erbium doped optical waveguides based on silicon," Ph.D. dissertation, Nanophysics Dept., FOM-Inst. Atomic and Molecular Phys., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2000.
100. 3+," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 71, no. 9, pp. 1198-1200, Sep. 1997.
101. F. Iacona, D. Pacifici, A. Irrera, M. Miritello, G. Franzò, F. Priolo, D. Sanfilippo, G. Di Stefano, and P. G. Fallica, "Electroluminescence at 1.54 μm in Er-doped Si nanocluster-based devices," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 81, no. 17, pp. 3242-3244, Oct. 2002.
102. X. Zhao, S. Komuro, H. Isshiki, Y. Aoyagi, and T. Sugano, "Fabrication and stimulated emission of Er-doped nanocrystalline Si waveguides formed on Si substrates by laser ablation," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 120-122, Jan. 1999.
103. H.-S. Han, S.-Y. Seo, and J. H. Shin, "Optical gain at 1.54 μm in erbium-doped silicon nanocluster sensitized waveguide," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 79, no. 27, pp. 4568-4570, Dec. 2001.