Primary prevention of diabetes: What can be done and how much can be prevented?

Annual Review of Public Health

Volumn 26, Issue , 2005, Pages 445-467

  Schulze, Matthias B ^a   Hu, Frank B ^a,b  

^a HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM; CARBOHYDRATE; MAGNESIUM; METFORMIN; TROGLITAZONE; UNSATURATED FATTY ACID;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; BODY WEIGHT; CLINICAL TRIAL; COFFEE; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DAIRY PRODUCT; DIET THERAPY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIDEMIC; GRAIN; HEREDITY; HUMAN; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; LIFESTYLE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NUT; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SITTING; SMOKING;

ALCOHOL DRINKING; BODY WEIGHT; COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; DIETARY FATS; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; EXERCISE; FOOD HABITS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HEALTH SERVICES NEEDS AND DEMAND; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIFE STYLE; OBESITY; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; SMOKING; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 17444423605     PISSN: 01637525     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144532     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. 1998. Natl. Inst. Health. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults - the evidence report. Obes. Res. 6(Suppl. 2):S51-209
2. 2002. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases: report of a joint WHO/FAO expert consultation. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 916, Geneva, Switz.
3. 2003. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2002. Diabetes Care 26:917-32
4. 2003. The World Health Report 2002. Geneva, Switz.: WHO
5. Ajani UA, Hennekens CH, Spelsberg A, Manson JE. 2000. Alcohol consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among US male physicians. Arch. Intern. Med. 160:1025-30
6. Balkau B, King H, Zimmet P, Raper LR. 1985. Factors associated with the development of diabetes in the Micronesian population of Nauru. Am. J. Epidemiol. 122:594-605
7. Bray GA, Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. 2004. Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79:537-413
8. Buchanan TA, Xiang AH, Peters RK, Kjos SL, Marroquin A, et al. 2002. Preservation of pancreatic beta-cell function and prevention of type 2 diabetes by pharmacological treatment of insulin resistance in high-risk hispanic women. Diabetes 51:2796-803
9. Butler WJ, Ostrander LD Jr, Carman WJ, Lamphiear DE. 1982. Diabetes mellitus in Tecumseh, Michigan. Prevalence, incidence, and associated conditions. Am. J. Epidemiol. 116:971-80
10. Carey VJ, Walters EE, Colditz GA, Solomon CG, Willett WC, et al. 1997. Body fat distribution and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. The Nurses' Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 145:614-19
11. Carlsson S, Hammar N, Grill V, Kaprio J. 2003. Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a 20-year follow-up of the Finnish twin cohort study. Diabetes Care 26:2785-90
12. Chandalia M, Garg A, Lutjohann D, von Bergmann K, Grundy SM, Brinkley LJ. 2000. Beneficial effects of high dietary fiber intake in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 342:1392-98
13. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M. 2002. Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: the STOP-NIDDM randomised trial. Lancet 359:2072-77
14. Christiansen E, Schnider S, Palmvig B, Tauber-Lassen E, Pedersen O. 1997. Intake of a diet high in trans monounsaturated fatty acids or saturated fatty acids. Effects on postprandial insulinemia and glycemia in obese patients with NIDDM. Diabetes Care 20:881-87
15. Colditz GA, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Willett WC, Speizer FE. 1992. Diet and risk of clinical diabetes in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 55:1018-23
16. Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rotnitzky A, Manson JE. 1995. Weight gain as a risk factor for clinical diabetes mellitus in women. Ann. Intern. Med. 122:481-86
17. Collins VR, Dowse GK, Toelupe PM, Imo TT, Aloaina FL, et al. 1994. Increasing prevalence of NIDDM in the Pacific island population of Western Samoa over a 13-year period. Diabetes Care 17:288-96
18. Conigrave KM, Hu BF, Camargo CA Jr, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Rimm EB. 2001. A prospective study of drinking patterns in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes among men. Diabetes 50:2390-95
19. Cordain L, Melby CL, Hamamoto AE, O'Neill DS, Cornier MA, et al. 2000. Influence of moderate chronic wine consumption on insulin sensitivity and other correlates of syndrome X in moderately obese women. Metabolism 49:1473-78
20. Davies MJ, Baer DJ, Judd JT, Brown ED, Campbell WS, Taylor PR. 2002. Effects of moderate alcohol intake on fasting insulin and glucose concentrations and insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 287:2559-62
21. de Vegt F, Dekker JM, Groeneveld WJ, Nijpels G, Stehouwer CD, et al. 2002. Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with lower risk for incident diabetes and mortality: the Hoorn Study. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 57:53-60
22. Duncan GE, Perri MG, Theriaque DW, Hutson AD, Eckel RH, Stacpoole PW. 2003. Exercise training, without weight loss, increases insulin sensitivity and postheparin plasma lipase activity in previously sedentary adults. Diabetes Care 26:557-62
23. Eliasson B, Asplund K, Nasic S, Rodu B. 2004. Influence of smoking and snus on the prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes amongst men: the northern Sweden MONICA study. J. Intern. Med. 256:101-10
24. Eliasson B, Attvall S, Taskinen MR, Smith U. 1997. Smoking cessation improves insulin sensitivity in healthy middle-aged men. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 27:450-56
25. Feskens EJ, Kromhout D. 1989. Cardiovascular risk factors and the 25-year incidence of diabetes mellitus in middle-aged men. The Zutphen Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 130:1101-8
26. Feskens EJ, Virtanen SM, Rasanen L, Tuomilehto J, Stengard J, et al. 1995. Dietary factors determining diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance. A 20-year follow-up of the Finnish and Dutch cohorts of the Seven Countries Study. Diabetes Care 18:1104-12
27. Field AE, Manson JE, Laird N, Williamson DF, Willett WC, Colditz GA. 2004. Weight cycling and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes among adult women in the United States. Obes. Res. 12:267-74
28. Flanagan DE, Pratt E, Murphy J, Vaile JC, Petley GW, et al. 2002. Alcohol consumption alters insulin secretion and cardiac autonomic activity. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 32:187-92
29. Ford ES, Mokdad AH. 2001. Fruit and vegetable consumption and diabetes mellitus incidence among U.S. adults. Prev. Med. 32:33-39
30. Foster GD, Wyatt HR, Hill JO, McGuckin BG, Brill C, et al. 2003. A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:2082-90
31. Freeman DJ, Norrie J, Sattar N, Neely RD, Cobbe SM, et al. 2001. Pravastatin and the development of diabetes mellitus: evidence for a protective treatment effect in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study. Circulation 103:357-62
32. Fukagawa NK, Anderson JW, Hageman G, Young VR, Minaker KL. 1990. High-carbohydrate, high-fiber diets increase peripheral insulin sensitivity in healthy young and old adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 52:524-28
33. Fung TT, Hu FB, Pereira MA, Liu S, Stampfer MJ, et al. 2002. Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76:535-40
34. Fung TT, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. 2004. Dietary patterns, meat intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Arch. Intern. Med. In press
35. Gohdes D, Kaufman S, Valway S. 1993. Diabetes in American Indians. An overview. Diabetes Care 16:239-43
36. Gurwitz JH, Field TS, Glynn RJ, Manson JE, Avorn J, et al. 1994. Risk factors for non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus requiring treatment in the elderly. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 42:1235-40
37. Haapanen N, Miilunpalo S, Vuori I, Oja P, Fasanen M. 1997. Association of leisure time physical activity with the risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension and diabetes in middle-aged men and women. Int. J. Epidemiol. 26:739-47
38. Harding AH, Day NE, Khaw KT, Bingham S, Luben R, et al. 2004. Dietary fat and the risk of clinical type 2 diabetes: the European prospective investigation of Cancer-Norfolk study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 159:73-82
39. Helmrich SP, Ragland DR, Leung RW, Paffenbarger RS Jr. 1991. Physical activity and reduced occurrence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:147-52
40. Hernan WH, Brandle M, Zhang P, Williamson DF, Matulik MJ, et al. 2003. Costs associated with the primary prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in the diabetes prevention program. Diabetes Care 26:36-47
41. Hodge AM, Dowse GK, Collins VR, Zimmet PZ. 1993. Abnormal glucose tolerance and alcohol consumption in three populations at high risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Epidemiol. 137:178-89
42. Hodge AM, Dowse GK, Toelupe P, Collins VR, Imo T, Zimmet PZ. 1994. Dramatic increase in the prevalence of obesity in western Samoa over the 13 year period 1978-1991. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 18:419-28
43. Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E, Wingard DL. 1990. A prospective population-based study of alcohol use and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Epidemiol. 132:902-9
44. Howard AA, Arnsten JH, Gourevitch MN. 2004. Effect of alcohol consumption on diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. Ann. Intern. Med. 140:211-19
45. Hu FB, Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rimm EB. 2001. Physical activity and television watching in relation to risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in men. Arch. Intern. Med. 161:1542-48
46. Hu FB, Li TY, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Manson JE. 2003. Television watching and other sedentary behaviors in relation to risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 289:1785-91
47. Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz G, Liu S, et al. 2001. Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 345:790-97
48. Hu FB, Sigal RJ, Rich-Edwards JW, Colditz GA, Solomon CG, et al. 1999. Walking compared with vigorous physical activity and risk of type 2 diabetes in women: a prospective study. JAMA 282:1433-39
49. Hu FB, van Dam RM, Liu S. 2001. Diet and risk of Type II diabetes: the role of types of fat and carbohydrate. Diabetologia 44:805-17
50. Hu G, Lindstrom J, Valle TT, Eriksson JG, Jousilahti P, et al. 2004. Physical activity, body mass index, and risk of type 2 diabetes in patients with normal or impaired glucose regulation. Arch. Intern. Med. 164:892-96
51. Hu G, Qiao Q, Silventoinen K, Eriksson JG, Jousilahti P, et al. 2003. Occupational, commuting, and leisure-time physical activity in relation to risk for Type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Finnish men and women. Diabetologia 46:322-29
52. Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H, et al. 1981. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34:362-66
53. Jequier E, Bray GA. 2002. Low-fat diets are preferred. Am. J. Med. 113(Suppl. 9B):41-46
54. Jiang R, Ma J, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB. 2004. Dietary iron intake and blood donations in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in men: a prospective cohort study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79:70-75
55. Jiang R, Manson JE, Meigs JB, Ma J, Rifai N, Hu FB. 2004. Body iron stores in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in apparently healthy women. JAMA 291:711-17
56. Jiang R, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Liu S, Willett WC, Hu FB. 2002. Nut and peanut butter consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. JAMA 288:2554-60
57. Juntunen KS, Laaksonen DE, Poutanen KS, Niskanen LK, Mykkanen HM. 2003. High-fiber rye bread and insulin secretion and sensitivity in healthy postmenopausal women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:385-91
58. Kao WH, Folsom AR, Nieto FJ, Mo JP, Watson RL, Brancati FL. 1999. Serum and dietary magnesium and the risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 159:2151-59
59. Kao WH, Puddey IB, Boland LL, Watson RL, Brancati FL. 2001. Alcohol consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 154:748-57
60. Kawakami N, Takatsuka N, Shimizu H, Ishibashi H. 1997. Effects of smoking on the incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Replication and extension in a Japanese cohort of male employees. Am. J. Epidemiol. 145:103-9
61. Kaye SA, Folsom AR, Sprafka JM, Prineas RJ, Wallace RB. 1991. Increased incidence of diabetes mellitus in relation to abdominal adiposity in older women. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 44:329-34
62. Keenan JM, Pins JJ, Frazel C, Moran A, Turnquist L. 2002. Oat ingestion reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure in patients with mild or borderline hypertension: a pilot trial. J. Fam. Pract. 51:369
63. Klonoff DC, Schwartz DM. 2000. An economic analysis of interventions for diabetes. Diabetes Care 23:390-404
64. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, et al. 2002. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N. Engl. J. Med. 346:393-403
65. Koh-Banerjee P, Wang Y, Hu FB, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Rimm EB. 2004. Changes in body weight and body fat distribution as risk factors for clinical diabetes in US men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 159:1150-59
66. Kriska AM, Saremi A, Hanson RL, Bennett PH, Kobes S, et al. 2003. Physical activity, obesity, and the incidence of type 2 diabetes in a high-risk population. Am. J. Epidemiol. 158:669-75
67. Lee DH, Folsom AR, Jacobs DR Jr. 2004. Dietary iron intake and Type 2 diabetes incidence in postmenopausal women: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Diabetologia 47:185-94
68. Lichtenstein AH, Erkkila AT, Lamarche B, Schwab US, Jalbert SM, Ausman LM. 2003. Influence of hydrogenated fat and butter on CVD risk factors: remnant-like particles, glucose and insulin, blood pressure and C-reactive protein. Atherosclerosis 171:97-107
69. Lichtenstein AH, Schwab US. 2000. Relationship of dietary fat to glucose metabolism. Atherosclerosis 150:227-43
70. Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Borch-Johnsen K, Olsen MH, Wachtell K, et al. 2002. Risk of new-onset diabetes in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study. J. Hypertens. 20:1879-86
71. Liu S. 2002. Intake of refined carbohydrates and whole grain foods in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary heart disease. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 21:298-306
72. Liu S, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Giovannucci E, et al. 2000. A prospective study of whole-grain intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in US women. Am. J. Public Health 90:1409-15
73. Lopez-Ridaura R, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Liu S, Stampfer MJ, et al. 2004. Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women. Diabetes Care 27:134-40
74. Louheranta AM, Turpeinen AK, Vidgren HM, Schwab US, Uusitupa MI. 1999. A high-trans fatty acid diet and insulin sensitivity in young healthy women. Metabolism 48:870-75
75. Lovejoy JC, Smith SR, Champagne CM, Most MM, Lefevre M, et al. 2002. Effects of diets enriched in saturated (palmitic), monounsaturated (oleic), ortrans (elaidic) fatty acids on insulin sensitivity and substrate oxidation in healthy adults. Diabetes Care 25:1283-88
76. Lu W, Jablonski KA, Resnick HE, Jain AK, Jones KL, et al. 2003. Alcohol intake and glycemia in American Indians: the strong heart study. Metabolism 52:129-35
77. Ludwig DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. 2001. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 357:505-8
78. Lundgren H, Bengtsson C, Blohme G, Lapidus L, Sjostrom L. 1989. Adiposity and adipose tissue distribution in relation to incidence of diabetes in women: results from a prospective population study in Gothenburg, Sweden. Int. J. Obes. 13:413-23
79. Manson JE, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, et al. 1991. Physical activity and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. Lancet 338:774-78
80. Manson JE, Spelsberg A. 1994. Primary prevention of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Prev. Med. 10:172-84
81. Marshall JA, Hoag S, Shetterly S, Hamman RF. 1994. Dietary fat predicts conversion from impaired glucose tolerance to NBDDM. The San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care 17:50-56
82. Mayer-Davis EJ, D'Agostino R Jr, Karter AJ, Haffner SM, Rewers MJ, et al. 1998. Intensity and amount of physical activity in relation to insulin sensitivity: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. JAMA 279:669-74
83. McPhillips JB, Barrett-Connor E, Wingard DL. 1990. Cardiovascular disease risk factors prior to the diagnosis of impaired glucose tolerance and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in a community of older adults. Am. J. Epidemiol. 131:443-53
84. Medalie JH, Papier CM, Goldbourt U, Herman JB. 1975. Major factors in the development of diabetes mellitus in 10,000 men. Arch. Intern. Med. 135:811-17
85. Meyer KA, Kushi LH, Jacobs DR Jr, Folsom AR. 2001. Dietary fat and incidence of type 2 diabetes in older Iowa women. Diabetes Care 24:1528-35
86. Meyer KA, Kushi LH, Jacobs DR Jr, Slavin J, Sellers TA, Folsom AR. 2000. Carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and incident type 2 diabetes in older women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71:921-30
87. Monterrosa AE, Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP. 1995. Sex difference in lifestyle factors predictive of diabetes in Mexican-Americans. Diabetes Care 18:448-56
88. Montonen J, Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Aromaa A, Reunanen A. 2003. Whole-grain and fiber intake and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:622-69
89. Nakanishi N, Suzuki K, Tatara K. 2003. Alcohol consumption and risk for development of impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Japanese men. Diabetes Care 26:48-54
90. Neel JV. 1962. Diabetes mellitus: a "thrifty" genotype rendered detrimental by "progress"? Am. J. Hum. Genet. 14:353-62
91. Ohlson LO, Larsson B, Bjorntorp P, Eriksson H, Svardsudd K, et al. 1988. Risk factors for type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Thirteen and one-half years of follow-up of the participants in a study of Swedish men born in 1913. Diabetologia 31:798-805
92. Ohlson LO, Larsson B, Svardsudd K, Welin L, Eriksson H, et al. 1985. The influence of body fat distribution on the incidence of diabetes mellitus. 13.5 years of follow-up of the participants in the study of men born in 1913. Diabetes 34:1055-58
93. Okada K, Hayashi T, Tsumura K, Suematsu C, Endo G, Fujii S. 2000. Leisure-time physical activity at weekends and the risk of Type 2 diabetes mellitus in Japanese men: the Osaka Health Survey. Diabet. Med. 17:53-58
94. Paffenbarger RS Jr, Wing AL. 1973. Chronic disease in former college students. XII. Early precursors of adult-onset diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Epidemiol. 97:314-23
95. Palmer AJ, Roze S, Valentine WJ, Spinas GA, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ. 2004. Intensive lifestyle changes or metformin in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: modeling the long-term health economic implications of the diabetes prevention program in Australia, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Clin. Ther. 26:304-21
96. Pan XR, Li GW, Hu YH, Wang JX, Yang WY, et al. 1997. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care 20:537-44
97. Paolisso G, Barbagallo M. 1997. Hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and insulin resistance: the role of intracellular magnesium. Am. J. Hypertens. 10:346-55
98. Parikh SJ, Yanovski JA. 2003. Calcium intake and adiposity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:281-87
99. Pereira MA, Jacobs DR Jr, Pins JJ, Raatz SK, Gross MD, et al. 2002. Effect of whole grains on insulin sensitivity in overweight hyperinsulinemic adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 75:848-55
100. Pereira MA, Jacobs DR Jr, Van Horn L, Slattery ML, Kartashov AI, Ludwig DS. 2002. Dairy consumption, obesity, and the insulin resistance syndrome in young adults: the CARDIA Study. JAMA 287:2081-89
101. Pereira MA, Ludwig DS. 2001. Dietary fiber and body-weight regulation. Observations and mechanisms. Pediatr. Clin. N. Am. 48:969-80
102. Perry IJ. 2001. Commentary: smoking and diabetes - accumulating evidence of a causal link. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30:554-55
103. Raben A, Vasilaras TH, Moller AC, Astrup A. 2002. Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: different effects on ad libitum food intake and body weight after 10 wk of supplementation in overweight subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76:721-29
104. Rimm EB, Chan J, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. 1995. Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men. Br. Med. J. 310:555-59
105. Rimm EB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, et al. 1993. Cigarette smoking and the risk of diabetes in women. Am. J. Public Health 83:211-14
106. Rosengren A, Dotevall A, Wilhelmsen L, Thelle D, Johansson S. 2004. Coffee and incidence of diabetes in Swedish women: a prospective 18-year follow-up study. J. Intern. Med. 255:89-95
107. Sairenchi T, Iso H, Nishimura A, Hosoda T, Irie F, et al. 2004. Cigarette smoking and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among middle-aged and elderly Japanese men and women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 160:158-62
108. Salazar-Martinez E, Willett WC, Ascherio A, Manson JE, Leitzmann MF, et al. 2004. Coffee consumption and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann. Intern. Med. 140:1-8
109. Salmeron J, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Spiegelman D, et al. 1997. Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of NIDDM in men. Diabetes Care 20:545-50
110. Salmeron J, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. 2001. Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73:1019-26
111. Salmeron J, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Wing AL, Willett WC. 1997. Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 277:472-77
112. Samaha FF, Iqbal N, Seshadri P, Chicano KL, Daily DA, et al. 2003. A low-carbohydrate as compared with a low-fat diet in severe obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:2074-81
113. Saremi A, Tulloch-Reid M, Knowler WC. 2003. Coffee consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 26:2211-12
114. Schulze MB, Liu S, Rimm EB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. 2004. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and dietary fiber intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes in younger and middle-aged women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80:348-56
115. Schulze MB, Manson JE, Ludwig DS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, et al. 2004. Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middle-aged women. JAMA 292:927-34
116. Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. 2003. Processed meat intake and incidence of Type 2 diabetes in younger and middle-aged women. Diabetologia 46:1465-73
117. Sierksma A, Patel H, Ouchi N, Kihara S, Funahashi T, et al. 2004. Effect of moderate alcohol consumption on adiponectin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and insulin sensitivity. Diabetes Care 27:184-89
118. Slattery ML. 2000. Diet, lifestyle, and colon cancer. Semin. Gastrointest. Dis. 11:142-46
119. Song Y, Manson JE, Buring JE, Liu S. 2004. A prospective study of red meat consumption and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and elderly women: the Women's Health Study. Diabetes Care 27:2108-15
120. Song Y, Manson JE, Buring JE, Liu S. 2004. Dietary magnesium intake in relation to plasma insulin levels and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 27:59-65
121. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Manson JE, Arky RA, et al. 1988. A prospective study of moderate alcohol drinking and risk of diabetes in women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 128:549-58
122. Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Manson JE, Rimm EB, Willett WC. 2000. Primary prevention of coronary heart disease in women through diet and lifestyle. N. Engl. J. Med. 343:16-22
123. Stevens J, Ahn K, Juhaeri Houston D, Steffan L, Couper D. 2002. Dietary fiber intake and glycemic index and incidence of diabetes in African-American and white adults: the ARIC study. Diabetes Care 25:1715-21
124. Stumvoll M, Haring HU. 2002. Glitazones: clinical effects and molecular mechanisms. Ann. Med. 34:217-24
125. Sugimori H, Miyakawa M, Yoshida K, Izuno T, Takahashi E, et al. 1998. Health risk assessment for diabetes mellitus based on longitudinal analysis of MHTS database. J. Med. Syst. 22:27-32
126. Summers LK, Fielding BA, Bradshaw HA, Ilic V, Beysen C, et al. 2002. Substituting dietary saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat changes abdominal fat distribution and improves insulin sensitivity. Diabetologia 45:369-77
127. Thorburn A, Muir J, Proietto J. 1993. Carbohydrate fermentation decreases hepatic glucose output in healthy subjects. Metabolism 42:780-85
128. Tordoff MG, Alleva AM. 1990. Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51:963-69
129. Tosiello L. 1996. Hypomagnesemia and diabetes mellitus. A review of clinical implications. Arch. Intern. Med. 156:1143-48
130. Tsumura K, Hayashi T, Suematsu C, Endo G, Fujii S, Okada K. 1999. Daily alcohol consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes in Japanese men: the Osaka Health Survey. Diabetes Care 22:1432-37
131. Tuomilehto J, Hu G, Bidel S, Lindstrom J, Jousilahti P. 2004. Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among middle-aged Finnish men and women. JAMA 291:1213-19
132. Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hamalainen H, et al. 2001. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N. Engl. J. Med. 344:1343-50
133. van Dam RM. 2003. The epidemiology of lifestyle and risk for type 2 diabetes. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 18:1115-25
134. van Dam RM, Feskens EJ. 2002. Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Lancet 360:1477-78
135. van Dam RM, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. 2002. Dietary patterns and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in U.S. men. Ann. Intern. Med. 136:201-9
136. van Dam RM, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. 2002. Dietary fat and meat intake in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 25:417-24
137. Vessby B, Unsitupa M, Hermansen K, Riccardi G, Rivellese AA, et al. 2001. Substituting dietary saturated for monounsaturated fat impairs insulin sensitivity in healthy men and women: The KANWU Study. Diabetologia 44:312-19
138. Wannamethee SG, Camargo CA Jr, Manson JE, Willett WC, Rimm EB. 2003. Alcohol drinking patterns and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among younger women. Arch. Intern. Med. 163:1329-36
139. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Alberti KG. 2000. Physical activity, metabolic factors, and the incidence of coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Arch. Intern. Med. 160:2108-16
140. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Perry IJ. 2001. Smoking as a modifiable risk factor for type 2 diabetes in middle-aged men. Diabetes Care 24:1590-95
141. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Perry IJ, Alberti KG. 2002. Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type II diabetes. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 56:542-48
142. Watanabe M, Barzi F, Neal B, Ueshima H, Miyoshi Y, et al. 2002. Alcohol consumption and the risk of diabetes by body mass index levels in a cohort of 5,636 Japanese. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 57:191-97
143. Wei M, Gaskill SP, Haffner SM, Stern MP. 1997. Waist circumference as the best predictor of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) compared to body mass index, waist/hip ratio and other anthropometric measurements in Mexican Americans - a 7-year prospective study. Obes. Res. 5:16-23
144. Wei M, Gibbons LW, Mitchell TL, Kampert JB, Blair SN. 2000. Alcohol intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 23:18-22
145. Weinstein AR, Sesso HD, Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, et al. 2004. Relationship of physical activity vs body mass index with type 2 diabetes in women. JAMA 292:1188-94
146. Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, Sicree R, King H. 2004. Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care 27:1047-53
147. Will JC, Galuska DA, Ford ES, Mokdad A, Calle EE. 2001. Cigarette smoking and diabetes mellitus: evidence of a positive association from a large prospective cohort study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30:540-46
148. Willett WC, Leibel RL. 2002. Dietary fat is not a major determinant of body fat. Am. J. Med. 113(Suppl. 9B):47-59
149. Wilson JG, Lindquist JH, Grambow SC, Crook ED, Maher JF. 2003. Potential role of increased iron stores in diabetes. Am. J. Med. Sci. 325:332-39
150. Wilson PW, Anderson KM, Kannel WB. 1986. Epidemiology of diabetes mellitus in the elderly. The Framingham Study. Am. J. Med. 80:3-9
151. Yusuf S, Gerstein H, Hoogwerf B, Pogue J, Bosch J, et al. 2001. Ramipril and the development of diabetes. JAMA 286:1882-85
152. Zilkens RR, Burke V, Watts G, Beilin LJ, Puddey IB. 2003. The effect of alcohol intake on insulin sensitivity in men: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 26:608-12