Cyclo-oxygenase-2: Pharmacology, physiology, biochemistry and relevance to NSAID therapy

British Journal of Pharmacology

Volumn 128, Issue 6, 1999, Pages 1121-1132

  Mitchell, Jane A ^a   Warner, Timothy D ^b  

^a ROYAL BROMPTON HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Celecoxib; Cyclo oxygenase 2; Inflammation; Nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs; Prostaglandins; Rofecoxib

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; DICLOFENAC; IBUPROFEN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT;

BIOCHEMISTRY; INFLAMMATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STOMACH MUCOSA;

EID: 0032737556     PISSN: 00071188     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0702897     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. AMIN, A.R., ATTUR, M., PATEL, R.N., THAKKER, G.D., MARSHALL, P.J., REDISKE, J., STUCHIN, S.A., PATEL, I.R. & ABRAMSON, S.B. (1997). Superinduction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 activity in human osteoarthritis-affected cartilage: influence of nitric oxide. J. Clin. Invest., 99, 1231-1237.
2. ANDERSON, G.D., HAUSER, S.D., MCGARITY, K.L., BREMER, M.E., ISAKSON, P.C. & GREGORY, S.A. (1996). Selective inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2 reverses inflammation and expression of COX-2 and interleukin-6 in rat adjuvant arthritis. J. Clin. Invest., 97, 2672-2679.
3. ARMSTRONG, R.A. (1996). Platelet prostanoid receptors. Pharmacol. Ther., 72, 171-191.
4. BARRY, O.P., KAZANIETZ, M.G., PRACTICO, D. & FITZGERALD, G.A. (1999). Arachidonic acid in platelet microparticles up-regulates cyclo-oxygenase-2 dependent prostaglandin formation via a protein kinase C/mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent pathway. J. Biol. Chem., 274, 7545-7556.
5. BAZAN, N.G., FLETCHER, B.S., HERSCHMAN, H.R. & MUKHERJEE, P.K. (1994). Platelet-activating factor and retinoic acid synergistically activate the inducible prostaglandin synthase gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 91, 5252-5256.
6. BEICHE, F., SCHEURER, S., BRUNE, K., GEISSLINGER, G. & GOPPELT-STRUEBE, M. (1996). Up-regulation of cyclo-oxygenase-2 mRNA in the rat spinal cord following peripheral inflammation. FEBS Lett., 390, 165-169.
7. BELVISI, M.G., SAUNDERS, M., YACOUB, M. & MITCHELL, J.A. (1998). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 induction has a profound inhibitory effect on human airway smooth muscle cell proliferation. Br. J. Pharmacol., 125, 1102-1108.
8. BISHOP-BAILEY, D., LARKIN, S.W., WARNER, T.D., CHEN, G. & MITCHELL, J.A. (1997a). Characterization of the induction of nitric oxide synthase and cyclo-oxygenase in rat aorta in organ culture. Br. J. Pharmacol., 121, 125-133.
9. BISHOP-BAILEY, D., PEPPER, J.R., HADDAD, E.B., NEWTON, R., LARKIN, S.W. & MITCHELL, J.A. (1997b). Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in human saphenous vein and internal mammary artery. Arteriosclerosis Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 17, 1644-1648.
10. BISHOP-BAILEY, D., PEPPER, J.R., LARKIN, S.W. & MITCHELL, J.A. (1998). Differential induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in human arterial and venous smooth muscle: role of endogenous prostanoids. Arteriosclerosis Thromb. Vas. Biol., 18, 1655-1661.
11. BLACK, W.C., BRIDEAU, C., CHAN, C.C., CHARLESON, S., CHAURET, N., CLAVEAU, D., ETHIER, D., GORDON, R., GREIG, G., GUAY, J., HUGHES, G., JOLICOEUR, P., LEBLANC, Y., NICOLL-GRIFFITH, D., OUIMET, N., RIENDEAU, D., VISCO, D., WANG, Z., XU, L. & PRASIT, P. (1999). 2,3-Diarylcyclopentenones as orally active, highly selective cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors. J. Med. Chem., 42, 1274-1281.
12. BLEY, K.R., HUNTER, J.C., EGLEN, R.M. & SMITH, J.A.M. (1998). The role of IP prostanoid receptors in inflammatory pain. TIPS., 19, 141-147.
13. BORDET, J.C., GUICHARDANT, M. & LAGARDE, M. (1986). Arachidonic acid strongly stimulated prostaglandin 13 (PG13) production from eicosapentaenoic acid in human endothelial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commum., 135, 403-410.
14. BREDER, C.D. & SAPER, C.B. (1996). Expression of inducible cyclo-oxygenase mRNA in the mouse brain after systemic administration of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Brain Res., 713, 64-69.
15. BREDER, C.D., DEWITT, D. & KRAIG, R.P. (1995). Characterisation of inducible cyclo-oxygenase in rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol., 355, 296-315.
16. CATELLA-LAWSON, F., MCADAM, B., MORRISON, B.W., KAPOOR, S., KUJUBU, D., ANTES, L., LASSETER, K.C., QUAN, H., GERTZ, B.J. & FITZGERALD, G.A. (1999). Effects of specific inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase-2 on sodium balance, hemodynamics, and vasoactive eicosanoids. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 289, 735-741.
17. CHAKRABORTY, I., DAS, S.K., WANG, J. & DEY, S.K. (1996). Developmental expression of the cyclo-oxygenase-1 and cyclo-oxygenase-2 genes in the peri-implantation mouse uterus and their differential regulation by the blastocyst and ovarian steroids. J. Mol. Endocrinol., 6, 107-122.
18. CHAN, C.C., BOYCE, S., BRIDEAU, C., FORD-HUTCHINSON, A.W., GORDON, R., GUAY, D., HILL, R.G. LI, C.S., MANCINI, J., PENNETON, M., PRASIT, P,. RASORI, R., RIENDEAU, D., ROY, P., TAGARI, P., VICKERS, P., WONG, E. & RODGER, I.W. (1995). Pharmacology of a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, L-745,337: a novel nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent with an ulcerogenic sparing effect in rat and nonhuman primate stomach. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 274, 1531-1537.
19. CHAN, C.C. & RODGER, I.W. (1997). Selective cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for inflammatory diseases. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 407, 157-161.
20. CHAN, C., BOYCE, S., BRIDEAU, C., CHARLESON, C., CROMLISH, W., ETHIER, D., EVANS, J., FORD-HUTCHINSON, A.W., FORREST, M.J., GAUTHIER, J.Y., GORDON, R., GRESSER, M., GUAY, J., KARGMAN, S., KENNEDY, B., LEBLANC, Y., LEGER, S., MANCINI, J., O'NEILL, G.P., OUELLET, M., PATRICK, D., PERCIVAL, M.D., PERRIER, H., PRASIT, P. & RODGER, I. (1999). Rofecoxib [Vioxx, MK-0966; 4-(4′-Methylsulfonylphenyl)-3-pheyl-2-(5H)-furanone]: a potent and orally active cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitor. Pharmacological and biochemical profiles. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 290, 551-560.
21. CIRINO, G. (1998). Multiple controls in inflammation. Extracellular and intracellular phospholipase A2, inducible and constitutive cyclo-oxygenase, and inducible nitric oxide synthase. Biochem. Pharmacol., 55, 105-111.
22. CLÀRIA, D. & SHERHAN, C.N. (1995). Aspirin triggers previously undescribed bioactive eicosanoids by human endothelial cell-leukocyte interactions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 92, 9475-9479.
23. COWBURN, A.S., SLADEK, K., SOJA, J., ADAMEK, L., NIZANKOWSKA, E., SZCZEKLIK, A., LAM, B.K., PENROSE, J.F., AUSTEN, F.K., HOLGATE, S.T. & SAMPSON, A.P. (1998). Overexpression of leukotriene C4 synthase in bronchial biopsies from patients with aspirin-intolerant asthma. J. Clin. Invest., 101, 834-846.
24. DECATERINA, R., GIANNESSI, D., MAZZONE, A., BERNINI, W., LAZZERINI, G., MAFFEI, S., CERRI, M., SALVATORE, I., & WEKSLER, B. (1990). Vascular prostacyclin is increased in patients ingesting omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids before coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Circulation, 82, 428-436.
25. DE LA TORRE, J.C. (1997). Cerebromicrovascular pathology in Alzheimer's disease compared to normal aging. Gerontology, 43, 26-43.
26. DEWITT, D.L. (1991). Prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase: regulation of enzyme expression. Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 1083, 121-134.
27. DEWITT, D.L. & SMITH, W.L. (1988). Primary structure of prostaglandin G/H synthase from sheep vesicular gland determined from the complementary DNA sequence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 1412-1416.
28. DIRIG, D.M., ISAKSON, P.C. & YAKSH, T.L. (1998). Effect of COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition on induction and maintenance of carrageenan-evoked thermal hyperalgesia in rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 285, 1031-1038.
29. DUBOIS, R.N., ABRAMSON, S.B., CROFFORD, L., GUPTA, R.A., SIMON, L.S., VAN DE PUTTE, L.B.A. & LIPSKY, P.E. (1998). Cyclo-oxygenase in biology and disease. FASEB J., 12, 1063-1073.
30. FENG, L., XIA, Y., GARCIA, G.E., HWANG, D. & WILSON, C.B. (1995). Involvement of reactive oxygen intermediates in cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression induced by interleukin-I, tumor necrosis factor-α, and lipopolysaccharide. J. Clin. Invest., 95, 1669-1675.
31. FLETCHER, B.S., KUJUBU, D.A., PERRIN, D.M. & HERSCHMAN, H.R. (1992). Structure of the mitogen-inducible TIS10 gene and demonstration that the TIS10-encoded protein is a functional prostaglandin G/H synthase. J. Biol. Chem., 267, 4338-4344.
32. 2 is a ligand for the adipocyte determination factor PPAR gamma. Cell, 83, 803-812.
33. FRIES, J.F., SINGH, G. & RAMEY, D.R. (1998). The clinical epidemiology of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug gastropathy. In: Vane, J.R., Botting, R.M. (eds). Clinical Significance and Potential of Selective COX-2 Inhibitors. London, U.K.: The William Harvey Press, pp. 57-65.
34. FU, J.Y., MASFERRER, J.L., SEIBERT, K., RAZ, A. & NEEDLEMAN, P. (1990). The induction and suppression of prostaglandin H2 synthase (cyclo-oxygenase) in human monocytes. J. Biol. Chem., 265, 16737-16740.
35. GARCIA RODRIGUEZ, L.A., CATTARUZZI, C., GRAZIA TRONCON, M. & AGOSTINIS, L. (1998). Risk of hospitalization for upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding associated with ketorolac, other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, calcium antagonists and other antihypertensive drugs. Arch. Intern. Med., 158, 33-39.
36. GARDINER, N.J., GILETT, S. & GRUBB, B.D. (1997). Cyclo-oxygenase in rat spinal cord: selective induction of COX-2 during peripheral inflammation. Br. J. Pharmacol., 120, 71P.
37. GEISS, S. (1999). Update on clinical developments with celecoxib, a new selective COX-2 inhibitor: what can we expect. Scand. J. Rheumatol., 109(suppl.), 31-37.
38. GENG, Y., BLANCO, F.J., CORNELISSON, M. & LOTZ, M. (1995). Regulation of cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression in normal articular chondrocytes. J. Immunol., 155, 796-801.
39. GIERSE, J.K., KOBOLDT, C.M., WALKER, M.C., SEIBERT, K. & ISAKSON, P.C. (1999). Kinetic basis for selective inhibition of cyclo-oxygenases. Biochem. J., 339, 607-614.
40. GIOVANNUCCI, E., EGAN, K.M., HUNTER, D.J., STAMPFER, M.J., COLDITZ, G.A., WILLET, W.C. & SPEIZER, F.E. (1995). Aspirin and the risk of colorectal cancer in women. N. Engl. J. Med., 333, 609-614.
41. GOODNIGHT, S.H., CAIRNS, J.A., FISHER, M. & FITZGERALD, G.A. (1992). Assessment of the therapeutic use of n-3 fatty acids in vascular disease and thrombosis. Chest, 102, S374-S384.
42. GUO, Q., WANG, L.H., RUAN, K.H. & KULMACZ, R.J. (1996). Role of Val509 in the time-dependent inhibition of human prostaglandin H synthase-s cyclo-oxygenase activity by isoform-selective agents. J. Biol. Chem., 271, 19134-19139.
43. HAMASAKI, Y. & ELING, T.E. (1995). EGF and TPA stimulate de novo synthesis of PGHS-1 and PGHS-2 through different signal transduction pathways. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 53, 225-229.
44. HAMILTON, L.C., MITCHELL, J.A & WARNER, T.D. (1999). Synergy between cyclo-oxygenase-2 induction and arachidonic acid supply in vivo: consequences for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug efficacy. FASEB J., 2, 245-251.
45. HAN, S.W., LEI, Z.M. & RAO, C.V. (1996). Up-regulation of cyclo-oxygenase-2 gene expression by chorionic gonadotrophin in mucosal cells from human fallopian tubes. Endocrinology, 137, 2929-2937.
46. HARRIS, R.C., MCKANNA, J.A., AKAI, Y., JACOBSON, H.R., DUBOIS, R.N. & BREYER, M.D. (1994). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 is associated with the macula densa of rat kidney and increases with salt restriction. J. Clin. Invest., 94, 2504-2510.
47. HAWKEY, C.J. (1996). Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug gastropathy: causes and treatment. Scand. J. Gastroenterol., 220, 124-127.
48. HAY, C.H., TREVETHICK, M.A., WHEELDON, A., BOWERS, J.S. & DE BELLEROCHE, J.S. (1997). The potential role of spinal cord cyclo-oxygenase-2 in the development of Freund's complete adjuvant-induced changes in hyperalgesia and allodynia. Neuroscience, 78, 843 150.
49. 2 and cyclo-oxygenase-2. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 220, 681-686.
50. HEMLER, M. & LANDS, W.E. (1976). Purification of the cyclo-oxygenase that forms prostaglandins. Demonstration of two forms of iron in the holoenzyme. J. Biol. Chem., 251, 5575-5579.
51. HENRY, D., DREW, A. & BEUZEVILLE, S. (1998). Adverse drug reactions in the gastrointestinal system attributed to ibuprofen. In: Rainsford, K.D., Powanda, M.C. (eds). Safety and Efficacy of Non-prescription (OTC) Analgesics and NSAIDs. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 19-45.
52. HENRY, D.H., LIM, L.L.-Y., GARCIA-RODRIGUEZ, L.A., PEREZ GUTTHAN, S., CARSON, J.L., GRIFFITH, M., SAVAGE, R., LOGAN, R., MORIDE, Y., HAWKEY, C., HILLS, S. & FRIES, J.T. (1996). Variability in risk of gastrointestinal complications with individual non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: results of a collaborative meta-analysis. Brit. Med. J., 312, 1563-1566.
53. HOLTZMAN, M.J., TURK, J. & SHORNICK, L.P. (1992). Identification of a pharmacologically distinct prostaglandin H synthase in cultured epithelial cells. J. Biol. Chem., 267, 21438-21445.
54. HONSTRA, G., VAN HOUWELINGEN, A.C., KIVITS, G.A., FISHER, S. & UEDELHOVEN, W. (1990). Influence of dietary fish on eicosanoid metabolism in man. Prostaglandins, 40, 311-329.
55. HUGHES, A.K., PADILLA, E., KUTCHERA, W.A., MICHAEL, J.R. & KOHAN, D.E. (1995). Endothelin-1 induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in rat mesangial cells. Kidney Int., 47, 53-61.
56. HWANG, D., JANG, B.C., YU, G. & BOUDREAU, M. (1997). Expression of mitogen-inducible cyclo-oxygenase induced by lipopolysaccharide: mediation through both mitogen-activated protein kinase and NK-kB signaling pathways in macrophages. Biochem. Pharmacol., 54, 87-96.
57. 2 production human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells: concomitant and differential release. FASEB J., 113, 1025-1030.
58. JOURDAN, K.B., MITCHELL, J.A. & EVANS, T.W. (1997). Release of isoprostanes by human pulmonary artery in organ culture by a cyclo-oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase dependent mechanism. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 120, 1280-1285.
59. KANG, R.Y., FREIRE-MOAR, J., SIGAL, E. & CHU, C.Q. (1996). Expression of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in human and an animal model of rheumatoid arthritis. Br. J. Rheumatol., 35, 711-718.
60. KATO, T., ISHIGURO, N., IWATA, H., KOJIMA, T., ITO, T. & NARUSE, K. (1998). Up-regulation of COX2 expression by uni-axial cyclic stretch in human lung fibroblast cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 244, 615-619.
61. KIM, Y. & FISCHER, S.M. (1998). Transcriptional regulation of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in mouse skin carcinoma cells. Regulatory role of CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins in the differential expression of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in normal and neoplastic tissues. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 27686-27694.
62. KITAMURA, Y., SHIMOHAMA, S., KOIKE, H., KAKIMURA, J.I., MATSUOKA, Y., NOMURA, Y., GEBICKE-HAERTER, P.J. & TANIGUCHI, T. (1999). Increased expression of cyclo-oxygenase and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma in Alzheimer's disease brains. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 254, 582-586.
63. KLEIN-NULEND, J., BURGER, E.H., SEMEINS, C.M., RAISZ, L.G. & PILBEAM, C.C. (1997). Pulsating fluid flow stimulates prostaglandin release and inducible prostaglandin G/H synthase mRNA expression in primary mouse bone cells. J. Bone Miner. Res., 12, 45-51.
64. KLIEWER, S.A., LENHARD, J.M., WILLSON, T.M., PATEL, I., MORRIS, D.C. & LEHMANN, J.M. (1995). A prostaglandin J2 metabolite binds peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and promotes adipocyte differentiation. Cell, 83, 813-819.
65. KOWALSKI, M.L. (1995). Aspirin sensitive rhinosinusitis and asthma. Allergy Proc., 16, 77-80.
66. KUJUBU, D.A., FLETCHER, B.S., VARNUM, B.C., LIM, R.W. & HERSCHMAN, H.R. (1991). TIS10, a phorbol ester tumor-promoter inducible mRNA from Swiss 3T3 cells, encodes a novel prostaglandin synthase/cyclo-oxygenase homologue. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 12866-12672.
67. KURUMBAIL, R.G., STEVENS, A.M., GIERSE, J.K., MCDONALD, J.J., STEGEMAN, R.A., PAK, J.Y., GILDEHAUS, D., MIYASHIRO, J.M., PENNING, T.D., SEIBERT, K., ISAKSON, P.C. & STALLINGS, W.C. (1996). Structural basis for selective inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase-2 by anti-inflammatory agents. Nature, 384, 644-648.
68. LANEUVILLE, O., BREUER, D.K., XU, N., HUAN, Z.H., GAGE, D.A., WATSON, J.T., LAGARDE, M., DEWITT, D.L. & SMITH, W.L. (1995). Fatty acid substrate specificities of human prostaglandin-endoperoxide H synthase-1 and -2. Formation of 12-hydroxy-(9Z, 13E/Z, 15Z)-octadecatrienoic acids from alpha-linolenic acid. J. Biol. Chem., 270, 19330-19336.
69. LANZA, F.L., RACK, M.F., SIMON, T.J., QUAN, H., BOLOGNESE, J.A., HOOVER, M.E., WILSON, F.R. & HARPER, S.E. (1999). Specific inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase-2 with MK-0966 is associated with less gastroduodenal damage than either aspirin or ibuprofen. Ailment. Pharmacol. Ther., 13, 761-767.
70. LI, Y., SMITH, T., GRABSKI, S. & DEWITT, D.L. (1998). The membrane association sequences of the prostaglandin endoperoxide synthases-1 and -2 isozymes. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 29830-29837.
71. MARCHESELLI, V.L. & BAZAN, N.G. (1996). Sustained induction of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 by seizures in hippocampus. Inhibition by a platelet-activating factor antagonist. J. Biol. Chem., 271, 24794-24799.
72. MASFERRER, J.L., REDDY, S.T., ZWEIFEL, B.S., SEIBERT, K., NEEDLEMAN, P., GILBERT, R.S. & HERSCHMAN, H.R. (1994). In vivo glucorticoids regulate cyclo-oxygenase-2 but not cyclo-oxygenase-1 in peritoneal macrophages. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 270, 1340-1344.
73. MASFERRER, J.L., ZWEIFEL, B.S., SEIBERT, K. & NEEDLEMAN, P. (1990). Selective regulation of cellular cyclo-oxygenase by dexamethasone and endotoxin in mice. J. Clin. Invest., 86, 1375-1379.
74. MCADAM, B.F., CATELLA-LAWSON, F., MARDINI, I.A., KAPOOR, S., LAWSON, J.A. & FITZGERALD, G.A. (1999). Systemic biosynthesis of prostacyclin by cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2: the human pharmacology of a selective inhibitor of COX-2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 96, 272-277.
75. MCCARTNEY, S.A., MITCHELL, J.A., FAIRCLOUGH, P.D., FARTHING, M.J.G. & WARNER, T.D. (1999). Selective COX-2 inhibitors and human inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 13, 1115-1117.
76. MCKANNA, J.A., ZHANG, M.Z., WANG, J.L., CHENG, H. & HARRIS, R.C. (1998). Constitutive expression of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in rat vas deferens. Am. J. Physiol., 275, R227-R233.
77. MEAD, E.A., SMITH, W.L. & DEWITT, D.L. (1993). Differential inhibition of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase (cyclo-oxygenase) isozymes by aspriin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J. Biol. Chem., 268, 6610-6614.
78. MILLER, C., ZHANG, M., HE, Y., ZHAO, J., PELLETIER, J.P., MARTEL-PELLETIER, J. & DI BATTISTA, J.A. (1998). Transcriptional induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 gene by okadaic acid inhibition of phosphatase activity in human chondrocytes: co-stimulation of AP-1 and CRE nuclear binding proteins. J. Cell. Biochem., 69, 392-413.
79. MITCHELL, J.A. & BELVISI, M.G. (1997). Too many COX (cyclo-oxygenase) spoil the broth: aspirin-sensitive asthma and 5-lypoxygenase. Thorax, 52, 933-935.
80. MITCHELL, J.A., AKARASEREENONT, P., THIEMERMANN, C., FLOWER, R.J. & VANE, J.R. (1993). Selectivity of nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs as inhibitors of constitutive and inducible cyclo-oxygenase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 90, 11693-11697.
81. MITCHELL, J.A., BELVISI, M., AKARASEREENONT, P., ROBBINS, R., KWON, O.J., CROXTALL, J., BARNES, P.J. & VANE, J.R. (1994). Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 by cytokines in humun pulmonary epithelial cells: regulation by dexamethasone. Br. J. Pharmacol., 113, 1008-1014.
82. MITCHELL, J.A. & EVANS, T.W. (1998). Cyclooxygenase-2 as a therapeutic target. Inflam. Res., 47, S88-S92.
83. MIYAMOTO, T., OGINO, N., YAMAMOTO, S. & HAYAISHIM, O. (1976). Purification of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthetase from bovine vesicular gland microsomes. J. Biol. Chem., 251, 2629-2636.
84. MIZUNO, H., SAKAMOTO, C., MATSUDA, K., WADA, K., UCHIDA, T., NOGUCHI, H., AKAMATSU, T. & KASUGA, M. (1997). Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in gastric mucosal lesions and its inhibition by the specific antagonist delays healing in mice. Gastroenterology, 112, 387-397.
85. MONCADA, S., GRYGLEWSKI, R., BUNTING, S. & VANE, J.R. (1976). An enzyme isolated from arteries transforms PG endoperoxides to an unstable substance that inhibits platelet aggregation. Nature, 263, 663-665.
86. MORISSET, S., PATRY, C., LORA, M. & DE BRUM-FERNANDES, A.J. (1998). Regulation of cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression in culture by interleukin-1α, tumor necrosis factor-α, glucocorticoids, and 17β-estradiol. J. Rheumatol., 25, 1146-1153.
87. MORRISON, B.W., CHRISTENSEN, S., YUAN, W., BROWN, J., AMLANI, S. & SEIDENBERG, B. (1999). Analgesic efficacy of the cyclo-oxygenase-2-specific inhibitor rofecoxib in post-dental surgery pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin. Ther., 21, 943-953.
88. MORROW, J.D. & ROBERTS, L.J. (1997). The isoprostanes: unique bioactive products of lipid peroxidation. Prog. Lipid Res., 36, 1-21.
89. MURATA, H., KAWANO, S., TSUJI, S., TSUJI, M., SAWAOKA, H., KIMURA, Y., SHIOZAKI, H. & HORI, M. (1999). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 overexpression enhances lymphatic invasion and metastasis in human gastric carcinoma. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 94, 451-455.
90. NEGISHI, M., SUGIMOTO, Y. & ICHIKAWA, A. (1995). Molecular mechanisms of diverse actions of prostanoid receptors. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 259, 109-119.
91. O'BANION, M.K., WINN, V.D. & YOUNG, D.A. (1992). CDAN cloning and functional activity of a glucocorticoid-regulated inflammatory cyclo-oxygenase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89, 4888-4892.
92. PASINETTI, G.M. (1998). Cyclo-oxygenase and inflammation in Alzheimer's disease: experimental approaches and clinical interventions. J. Neurosci. Res., 54, 1-6.
93. PASSINETTI, G.M. & AISEN, P.S. (1998). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression is increased in frontal cortex of Alzheimer's disease brain. Neuroscience, 87, 319-324.
94. PERCIVAL, M.D., OUELLET, M., VINCENT, C.J., YERGEY, J.A., KENNEDY, B.P. & O'NEILL, G.P. (1994). Purification and characterisation of recombinant human cyclo-oxygenase-2. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 315, 111-118.
95. 2 synthase-1. Nature, 367, 243-249.
96. PIERCE, K.L. & REGAN, J.W. (1998). Prostanoid receptor heterogeneity through alternative mRNA splicing. Life Sci., 62, 1479-1483.
97. PLANAS, A.M., SORIANO, M.A., RODRIGUEZ-FARRE, E. & FERER, I. (1995). Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 mRNA and protein following transient focal ischaemia in the rat brain. Neurosci. Lett., 200, 187-190.
98. PRATICO, D., LAWSON, J.A. & FITZGERALD, G.A. (1995). Cyclo-oxygenase-dependent formation of the isoprostane, 8-epi prostaglandin F2 alpha. J. Biol. Chem., 270, 9800-9808.
99. RADOMSKI, M.W., PALMER, R.M.J. & MONCADA, S. (1976). The anti-aggregating properties of vascular endothelium: interactions between prostacyclin and nitric oxide. Br. J. Pharmacol., 92, 181-187.
100. REDDY, S.T. & HERSCHMAN, H.R. (1994). Ligand-induced prostaglandin synthesis requires expression of the T1S10/PGS-2 prostaglandin synthase gene in murine fibroblasts and macrophages. J. Biol. Chem., 269, 15473-15480.
101. REGINATO, M.J., KRAKOW, S.L., BAILEY, S.T. & LAZAR, M.A. (1998). Prostaglandins promote and block adipogenesis through opposing effects on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 1855-1858.
102. REUTER, B.K., ASFAHA, S., BURET, A., SHARKEY, K.A. & WALLACE, J.L. (1996). Exacerbation of inflammation-associated colonic injury in rat through inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase-2. J. Clin. Invest., 98, 2076-2085.
103. RIENDEAU, D., PERCIVAL, M.D., BOYCE, S., BRIDEAU, C., CHARLESON, S., CROMLISH, W., ETHIER, D., EVANS, J., FALGUEYRET, J.P., FORD-HUTCHINSON, A.W., GORDON, R., GREIG, G., GRESSER, M., GUAY, J., KARGMAN, S., LEGER, S., MANCINI, J.A., O'NEILL, G., OUELLET, M., RODGER, I.W., THERIEN, M., WANG, Z., WEBB, J.K., WONG, E. & CHAN, C.C. (1997). Biochemical and pharmacological profile of a tetrasubstituted furanone as a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor. Br. J. Pharmacol., 121, 105-117.
104. RIMARACHIN, J.A., JACOBSON, J.A., SZABO, P., MACLOUF, J., CREMINON, C. & WEKSLER, B.B. (1994). Regulation of cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression in aortic smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler. Thromb., 14, 1021-1031.
105. RISTIMAKI, A., GARFINKEL, S., WESSENDORF, J., MACIAG, T. & HLA, T. (1994). Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 by interleukin-1α. Evidence for post-transcriptional regulation. J. Biol. Chem., 269, 11769-11775.
106. ROBERTSON, R.P. (1998). Dominance of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in the regulation of pancreatic islet prostaglandin synthesis. Diabetes, 47, 1379-1383.
107. ROSEN, G.D., BIRKENMEIER, T.M., RAZ, A. & HOLTZMAN, M.J. (1989). Identification of a cyclo-oxygenate-related gene and its potential role in prostaglandin formation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Common., 164, 1358-1365.
108. ROSSAT, J., MAILLARD, M., NUSSBERGER, J., BRUNNER, H.R. & BURNIER, M. (1999). Renal effects of selective cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibition in normotensive salt-depleted subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 66, 76-84.
109. 2, release by intact cells expressing cyclo-oxygenase-2: evidence for a 'two component' model. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 288, 1101-1108.
110. SCHWARTZ, J.I., CHAN, C.C., MUKHOPADHYAY, S., MCBRIDE, K.J., JONES, T.M., ADCOCK, S., MORITZ, C., HEDGES, J., GRASING, K., DOBRATZ, D., COHEN, R.A., DAVIDSON, M.H., BACHMAN, K.A. & GERTZ, B.J. (1999). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibition by rofecoxib reverses naturally occurring fever in humans. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 65, 653-660.
111. SEIBERT, K., ZHANG, Y., LEAHY, K., HAUSER, S., MASFERRER, J. & ISAKSON, P. (1997). Distribution of COX-1 and COX-2 in normal and inflamed tissues. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 400A, 167-170.
112. SMALLEY, W.E. & DUBOIS, R.N. (1997). Colorectal cancer and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Adv. Pharmacol., 39, 1-20.
113. SNEDDON, J.M. & VANE, J.R. (1988). Endothelial derived relaxing factor reduces platelet adhesion to bovine endothelial cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 2800-2804.
114. SORLI, C.H., ZHANG, H.J., ARMSTRONG, M.B., RAJOTTE, R.V., MACLOUF, J. & ROBERTSON, R.P. (1998). Basal expression of cyclo-oxygenase-2 and nuclear factor-interleukin 6 are dominant and co-ordinately regulated by interleukin 1 in the pancreatic islet. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 95, 1788-1793.
115. SOUSA, A.R., PFISTER, R., CHRISTIE, P.E., LANE, S.J., NASSER, S.M., SCHMITZ-SCHUMANN, M. & LEE, T.H. (1997). Enhanced expression of cyclo-oxygenase isoenzyme 2 (COX-2) in asthmatic airways and its cellular distribution in aspirin-sensitive asthma. Thorax, 52, 940-945.
116. SPENCER, A.G., WOODS, J.W., ARAKAWA, T., SINGER, I.I. & SMITH, W.L. (1998). Subcellular localization of prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthases-1 and -2 by immunoelectron microscopy. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 9886-9893.
117. STEWART, W.F., KAWAS, C., CORRADA, M. & METER, E.J. (1997). Risk of Alzheimer's disease and duration of NSAID use. Neurology, 489, 626-632.
118. STROEBEL, M. & GOPPELT-STRUEBE, M. (1994). Signal transduction pathways responsible for serotonin-mediated prostaglandin G/H synthase expression in rat mesangial cells. J. Biol. Chem., 269, 22952-22957.
119. 3 production from cicosapentaenoic acid in 3T3 fibroblast cells and cultured bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Thromb. Res., 45, 581-589.
120. TAZAWA, R., XU, X.M., WU, K.K. & WANG, L.H. (1994). Characterization of the genomic structure, chromosomal location and promoter of human prostaglandin H synthase-2 gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 203, 190-199.
121. TETRADIS, S., PILBEAM, C.C., LIU, Y. & KREAM, B.E. (1996). Parathyroid hormone induces prostaglandin G/H synthase-2 expression by a cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate-mediated pathway in the murine osteoblastic cell line MC3T3-E1. Endocrinology, 137, 5435-5440.
122. TOCCO, G., FREIRE-MOAR, J., SCHREIBER, S., SAKHI, S., AISEN, P. & PASINETTI, G. (1997). Maturational regulation and regional induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in rat brain: implications for Alzeimer's diseuse. Exp. Neurol., 144, 339-349.
123. TUCKER, O.N., DANNENBERG, A.J., YANG, E.K., ZHANG, F., TENG, L., DALY, J.M., SOSLOW, R.A., MASFERRER, J.L., WOERNER, B.M., KOKI, A.T. & FAHEY III, T.J. (1999). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression is up-regulated in human pancreatic cancer. Cancer Res., 59, 987-990.
124. UKAWA, H., YAMAKUNI, H., KATO, S. & TAKEUCHI, K. (1998). Effects of cyclo-oxygenase-2 selective and nitric oxide releasing nonsteroidal inflammatory drugs on mucosul ulcerogenic and healing responses of the stomach. Dig. Dis. Sci., 43, 2003-2011.
125. VANE, J.R. (1971). Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like-drugs. Nature, 231, 232-235.
126. VANE, J.R., BAKHLE, Y.S. & HOTTING, R.M. (1998). Cyclo-oxygenase-1 and 2. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 38, 97-120.
127. VANE, J.R., MITCHELL, J.A., APPLETON, I., TOMLINSON, A., BISHOP-BAILEY, D., CROXTALL, J. & WILLOUGHBY, D.A. (1994). Inducible isoforms of cyclo-oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase in inflammation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 91, 2046-2050.
128. VIO, C.P., CESPEDES, C., GALLARDO, P. & MASFERRER, J.L. (1997). The identification of cyclo-oxygenase-1 and cyclo-oxygenase-2. Hypertension, 30, 687-692.
129. VON SCHACKY, C. & WEBER, P.C. (1985). Metabolism and effects on platelet function of the purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in humans. J. Clin. Invest., 76, 2446-2450.
130. WALLACE, J.L., BAK, A., MCKNIGHT, W., ASFAHA, S., SHARKEY, K.A. & MACNAUGHTON, W.K. (1998b). Cyclo-oxygenase-1 contributes to inflammatory responses in rats and mice: implications for gastrointestinal toxicity. Gastroenterology, 115, 101-109.
131. WALLACE, J.L., REUTER, B.K., MCKNIGHT, W. & BAK, A. (1998a). Selective inhibitors of cyclo-oxygenase-2: are they really effective, selective, and GI-safe? J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 27, S28-S34.
132. WARNER, T.D., GIULIANO, F., VOJNOVIC, I., BUKASA, A., MITCHELL, J.A. & VANE, J.R. (1999). Nonsteroid drug selectivities for cyclo-oxygenase-1 versus cyclo-oxygenase-2 correlate with human gastrointestinal toxicity: a full in vitro analysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 96, 7563-7568.
133. WILLIAMS, C.S., SMALLY, W. & DUBOIS, R.N. (1997). Aspirin use and potential mechanisms for colorectal cancer prevention. J. Clin. Invest., 100, 1-5.
134. WILLIAMS, T.J. & PECK, M.J. (1977). Role of prostaglandin-mediated vasodilatation in inflammation. Nature, 270, 530-532.
135. WILLINGALE, H.L., GARDINER, N.J., MCLYMONT, N., GIBLETT, S. & GRUB, B.D. (1997). Prostanoids synthesized by cyclo-oxygenase isoforms in rat spinal cord and their contribution to the development of neuronal hyperexcitability. Br. J. Pharmacol., 122, 1593-1604.
136. WILLIS, A.L., SMITH, D.L. & VIGO, C. (1986). Suppression of principal atherosclerotic mechanisms by prostacyclins and other eicosanoids. Prog. Lipid. Res., 25, 645-666.
137. WU, K.K. (1995). Inducible cyclo-oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase. Adv. Pharmacol., 33, 179-207.
138. XIE, W. & HERSCHMAN, H.R. (1996). Transcriptional regulation of prostaglandin synthase 2 gene expression by platelet-derived growth factor and serum. J. Biol. Chem., 271, 31742-31748.
139. XIE, W.L., CHIPMAN, J.G., ROBERTSON, D.L., ERIKSON, R.L. & SIMMONS, D.L. (1991). Expression of a mitogen-responsive gene encoding prostaglandin synthase is regulated by mRNA splicing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 88, 2692-2696.
140. YAMAMOTO, K., ARAKAWA, T., UEDA, N. & YAMAMOTO, S. (1995). Transcriptional roles of nuclear factor κB and nuclear factor-interleukin-6 in the tumour necrosis factor α-independent induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in MC3T3-E1 cells. J. Biol. Chem., 270, 31315-31320.
141. YAMAMOTO, T. & NOZAKI-TAGUCHI, N. (1996). Analysis of the effects of cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-1 and COX-2 in spinal nociceptive transmission using indomethacin, a non-selective COX inhibitor, and NS398, a COX-2 selective inhibitor. Brain Res., 739, 104-110.
142. ZIMMERMAN, K.C., SARBIA, M., SCHROR, K. & WEBER, A.A. (1998). Constitutive cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression in healthy human and rabbit gastric mucosa. Mol. Pharmacol., 54, 536-540.
143. ZIMMERMAN, K.C., SARBIA, M., WEBER, A.A., BORCHARD, F., GABBERT, H.E. & SCHROR, K. (1999). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression in human esophageal carcinoma. Cancer Res., 59, 198-204.