The person-situation debate revisited: Effect of situation strength and trait activation on the validity of the big five personality traits in predicting job performance

Academy of Management Journal

Volumn 58, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 1149-1179

  Judge, Timothy A ^a,b,c   Zapata, Cindy P ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^d TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84939548803     PISSN: 00014273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5465/amj.2010.0837     Document Type: Article

References (233)

1. Alessandri, G., & Vecchione, M. 2012. The higher-order factors of the Big Five as predictors of job performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 53: 779-784.
2. Ali, O. E. A., Garner, I., & Magadaley, W. 2012. An exploration of the relationship between emotional intelligence and job performance in police organizations. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 27: 1-8.
3. Alker, H. A., Straub, W. F., & Leary, J. 1973. Achieving consistency: A study of basketball officiating. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 3: 335-343.
4. Argyle, M., & Lu, L. 1990. Happiness and social skills. Personality and Individual Differences, 11: 1255-1261.
5. Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Paunonen, S. V. 2002. What is the central feature of extraversion?: Social attention versus reward sensitivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83: 245-251.
6. Azen, R., & Budescu, D. V. 2003. The dominance analysis approach for comparing predictors in multiple regression. Psychological Methods, 8: 129-148.
7. Bagozzi, R. P. 1978. Salesforce performance and satisfaction as a function of individual difference, interpersonal, and situational factors. Journal of Marketing Research, 15: 517-531.
8. Bandura, A.1999. Social cognitive theory of personality. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed.): 154-196. New York: Guilford Press.
9. Barling, J., Kelloway, E. K., & Cheung, D. 1996. Time management and achievement striving interact to predict car sales performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 821-826.
10. Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. 1991. The big five personality dimensions and job performance: A metaanalysis. Personnel Psychology, 44: 1-26.
11. Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. 1993. Autonomy as a moderator of the relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78: 111-118.
12. Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. 1996. Effects of impression management and self-deception on the predictive validity of personality constructs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 261-272.
13. Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Judge, T. A. 2001. Personality and job performance at the beginning of the new millennium: What do we know and where do we go next? International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9: 9-30.
14. Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Strauss, J. P. 1993. Conscientiousness and performance of sales representatives: Test of the mediating effects of goal setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78: 715-722.
15. Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Strauss, J. P. 1994. Antecedents of involuntary turnover due to a reduction in force. Personnel Psychology, 47: 515-535.
16. Barrick, M. R., Parks, L., & Mount, M. K. 2005. Selfmonitoring as a moderator of the relationships between personality traits and performance. Personnel Psychology, 58: 745-767.
17. Barrick, M. R., Stewart, G. L., & Piotrowski, M. 2002. Personality and job performance: Test of the mediating effects of motivation among sales representatives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 43-51.
18. Bauer, T. N., Erdogan, B., Liden, R. C., & Wayne, S. J. 2006. A longitudinal study of the moderating role of extraversion: Leader-member exchange, performance, and turnover during new executive development. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 298-310.
19. Beaty, J. C., Jr., Cleveland, J. N., & Murphy, K. R. 2001. The relation between personality and contextual performance in "strong" versus "weak" situations. Human Performance, 14: 125-148.
20. Bennett, M. 1977. Testing management theories crossculturally. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62: 578-581.
21. Bentea, C. C., & Anghelache, V. 2012. Comparative aspects concerning the effects of extraversion on performance in a cognitive task in competitive and cooperative environments. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 33: 558-562.
22. Bergman, M. E., Donovan, M. A., Drasgow, F., Overton, R. C., & Henning, J. B. 2008. Test of Motowidlo et al.'s (1997) theory of individual differences in task and contextual performance. Human Performance, 21: 227-253.
23. Berry, C. M., Page, R. C., & Sackett, P. R. 2007. Effects of self-deceptive enhancement on personality-job performance relationships. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15: 94-109.
24. Bliese, P. D. 2000. An introduction to multilevel modeling techniques. Personnel Psychology, 53: 1062-1065.
25. Bluen, S. D., Barling, J., & Burns, W. 1990. Predicting sales performance, job satisfaction, and depression by using the achievement strivings and impatience- irritability dimensions of type A behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 212-216.
26. Bollen, K., & Lennox, R. 1991. Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 110: 305-314.
27. Bowen, D. E., & Ostroff, C. 2004. Understanding HRM- firm performance linkages: The role of the "strength" of the HRM system. Academy of Management Review, 29: 203-221.
28. Bowers, K. S. 1973. Situationism in psychology: An analysis and a critique. Psychological Review, 80: 307-336.
29. Brown, T. J., Mowen, J. C., Donovan, D. T., & Licata, J. W. 2002. The customer orientation of service workers: Personality trait effects on self- and supervisor performance ratings. JMR, Journal of Marketing Research, 39: 110-119.
30. Budescu, D. V. 1993. Dominance analysis: A new approach to the problem of relative importance of predictors in multiple regression. Psychological Bulletin, 114: 542-551.
31. Burke, L. A., & Witt, L. A. 2002. Moderators of openness to experience-performance relationship. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17: 712-721.
32. Buss, D. M. 2009. An evolutionary formulation of person-situation interactions. Journal of Research in Personality, 43: 241-242.
33. Caldwell, S. D., Herold, D. M., & Fedor, D. B. 2004. Toward an understanding of the relationships among organizational change, individual differences, and changes in person-environment fit: A cross-level study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 868-882.
34. Campion, M. A., Morgeson, F. P., & Mayfield, M. S. 1999. O∗NET's theoretical contributions to job analysis research. In N. G. Peterson, M. D. Mumford, W. C. Borman, P. R. Jeanneret & E. A. Fleishman (Eds.), An occupational information system for the 21st century: The development of O∗NET: 297-304. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
35. Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. 1993. When do individual differences matter? A paradoxical theory of personality coherence. Psychological Inquiry, 4: 247-271.
36. Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. 2005. Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56: 453-484.
37. Cattell, R. B. 1963. Personality, role, mood, and situation perception: A unifying theory of modulators. Psychological Review, 70: 1-18.
38. Cattell, R. B., Eber, H. W., & Tatsuoka, M. M. 1970. Handbook for the sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16 PF). Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.
39. Cavazotte, F., Moreno, V., & Hickmann, M. 2012. Effects of leader intelligence, personality and emotional intelligence on transformational leadership and managerial performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 23: 443-455.
40. Chan, D., & Schmitt, N. 2002. Situational judgment and job performance. Human Performance, 15: 233-254.
41. Chernick, M. R. 2008. Bootstrap methods: A guide for practitioners and researchers. Hoboken, NJ: Sage.
42. Chiaburu, D. S., Oh, I., Berry, C. M., Li, N., & Gardner, R. G. 2011. The five-factor model of personality traits and organizational citizenship behaviors: A metaanalysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96: 1140-1166.
43. Church, A. T., Ortiz, F. A., Katigbak, M. S., Avdeyeva, T. V., Emerson, A. M., Vargas-Flores, J. de J., & Ibanez Reyes, J. 2003. Measuring individual and cultural differences in implicit trait theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85: 332-347.
44. Connor-Smith, J. K., & Flachsbart, C. 2007. Relations between personality and coping: a meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93: 1080-1107.
45. Conte, J. M., & Gintoft, J. N. 2005. Polychronicity, Big Five personality dimensions, and sales performance. Human Performance, 18: 427-444.
46. Conte, J. M., & Jacobs, R. R. 2003. Validity evidence linking polychronicity and Big Five personality dimensions to absence, lateness, and supervisory performance ratings. Human Performance, 16: 107-129.
47. Cooper, W. H., & Withey, M. J. 2009. The strong situation hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13: 62-72.
48. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. 1980. Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38: 668-678.
49. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. 1988. From catalog to classification: Murray's needs and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55: 258-265.
50. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. 1992. The NEOPI-R: Revised NEO personality inventory and NEO fivefactor inventory. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
51. Crant, J. M. 1995. The proactive personality scale and objective job performance among real estate agents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80: 532-537.
52. Cronbach, L. J. 1957. The two disciplines of psychology. The American Psychologist, 12: 671-684.
53. Cronbach, L. J. 1975. Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. The American Psychologist, 30: 116-127.
54. Crook, A. E., Beier, M. E., Cox, C. B., Kell, H. J., Hanks, A.R., & Motowidlo, S. J. 2011. Measuring relationships between personality, knowledge, and performance using single-response situational judgment tests. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 19: 363-373.
55. Day, D. V., & Silverman, S. B. 1989. Personality and job performance: Evidence of incremental validity. Personnel Psychology, 42: 25-36.
56. DeGroot, T., & Kluemper, D. 2007. Evidence of predictive and incremental validity of personality factors, vocal attractiveness and the situational interview. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15: 30-39.
57. DeYoung, C. G., Peterson, J. B., & Higgins, D. M. 2005. Sources of openness/intellect: Cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the fifth factor of personality. Journal of Personality, 73: 825-858.
58. Diener, E., Larsen, R. J., & Emmons, R. A. 1984. Person 3 situation interactions: Choice of situations and congruence response models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47: 580-592.
59. Doherty, R. W. 1997. The emotional contagion scale: A measure of individual differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21: 131-154.
60. Downey, L. A., Lee, B., & Stough, C. 2011. Recruitment consultant revenue: Relationships with IQ, personality, and emotional intelligence. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 19: 280-286.
61. Dubinsky, A. J., & Hartley, S. W. 1986. Antecedents of retail salesperson performance: A path-analytic perspective. Journal of Business Research, 14: 253-268.
62. Dudley, N. M., McFarland, L. A., Goodman, S. A., Hunt, S. T., & Sydell, E. J. 2005. Racial differences in socially desirable responding in selection contexts. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85: 50-64.
63. Efron, B. 1987. Better bootstrap confidence intervals. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 82: 171-185.
64. Ekehammar, B. 1974. Interactionism in personality from a historical perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 81: 1026-1048.
65. Erez, A., & Judge, T. A. 2001. Relationship of core self-evaluations to goal-setting, motivation, and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86: 1270-1290.
66. Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. 1999. Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4: 272-299.
67. Fallon, J. D., Avis, J. M., Kudisch, J. D., Gornet, T. P., & Frost, A. 2000. Conscientiousness as a predictor of productive and counterproductive behaviors. Journal of Business and Psychology, 15: 339-349.
68. Fannin, N., & Dabbs, J. M. 2003. Testosterone and the work of firefighters: Fighting fires and delivering medical care. Journal of Research in Personality, 37: 107-115.
69. Feist, G. J. 1998. A meta-analysis of personality in scientific and artistic creativity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2: 290-309.
70. Ferris, G. R., Witt, L. A., & Hochwarter, W. A. 2001. Interaction of social skill and general mental ability on job performance and salary. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86: 1075-1082.
71. Fine, S. 2006. Relationships between personality measures and job performance ratings among far eastern couriers. Applied H.R.M. Research, 11: 69-72.
72. Forehand, G. A., & von Haller Gilmer, B. 1964. Environmental variation in studies of organizational behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 62: 361-382.
73. Funder, D. C. 2001. Personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 52: 197-221.
74. Funder, D. C. 2006. Towards a resolution of the personality triad: Persons, situations, and behaviors. Journal of Research in Personality, 40: 21-34.
75. Funder, D. C. 2008. Persons, situations, and person- situation interactions. In O. P. John, R. W. Robbins & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed.): 568-580. New York: Guilford Press.
76. Furnham, A., Jackson, C. J., & Miller, T. 1999. Personality, learning style, and work performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 27: 1113-1122.
77. Gallagher, D. J. 1990. Extraversion, neuroticism and appraisal of stressful academic events. Personality and Individual Differences, 11: 1053-1057.
78. Goldberg, L. R. 1990. An alternative "description of personality": The big-five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59: 1216-1229.
79. Goldberg, L. R. 1993. The structure of phenotypic personality traits. The American Psychologist, 48: 26-34.
80. Gough, H. G. 1988. Manual for the California Psychological Inventory (Rev. ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
81. Graham, W. K., & Calendo, J. T. 1969. Personality correlates of supervisory ratings. Personnel Psychology, 22: 483-487.
82. Graziano, W. G., & Eisenberg, N.1997Agreeableness: A dimension of personality. In R. Hogan, J. A. Johnson & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology: 795-824. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
83. Graziano, W. G., Feldesman, A. B., & Rahe, D. F. 1985. Extraversion, social cognition, and the salience of aversiveness in social encounters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49: 971-980.
84. Graziano, W. G., Hair, E. C., & Finch, J. F. 1997. Competitiveness mediates the link between personality and group performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73: 1394-1408.
85. Graziano, W. G., Jensen-Campbell, L. A., & Hair, E. C. 1996. Perceiving interpersonal conflict and reacting to it: The case for agreeableness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70: 820-835.
86. Guion, R. M., & Gottier, R. F. 1965. Validity of personality measures in personnel selection. Personnel Psychology, 18: 135-164.
87. Haney, C., & Zimbardo, P. G. 2009. Persistent dispositionalism in interactionist clothing: Fundamental attribution error in explaining prison abuse. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35: 807-814.
88. Harrison, S. H., Sluss, D. M., & Ashforth, B. E. 2011. Curiosity adapted the cat: The role of trait curiosity in newcomer adaptation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96: 211-220.
89. Hattrup, K., O'Connell, M. S., & Wingate, P. H. 1998. Prediction of multi-dimensional criteria: Distinguishing task and contextual performance. Human Performance, 11: 305-319.
90. Hayes, T. L., Roehm, H. A., & Castellano, J. P. 1994. Personality correlates of success in total quality manufacturing. Journal of Business and Psychology, 8: 397-411.
91. Helmreich, R. L., Sawin, L. L., & Carsrud, A. L. 1986. The honeymoon effect in job performance: Temporal increases in the predictive power of achievement motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71: 185-188.
92. Hmel, B. A., & Pincus, A. L. 2002. The meaning of autonomy: On and beyond the interpersonal circumplex. Journal of Personality, 70: 277-310.
93. Hobfoll, S. E. 1989. Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. The American Psychologist, 443: 513-524.
94. Hochwarter, W. A., Perrewé, P. L., Ferris, G. R., & Brymer, R. A. 1999. Job satisfaction and performance: The moderating effects of value attainment and affective disposition. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54: 296-313.
95. Hofstee, W. K. B., de Raad, B., & Goldberg, L. R. 1992. Integration of the Big Five and circumplex approaches to trait structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63: 146-163.
96. Hogan, R. 1971. Personality characteristics of highly rated policemen. Personnel Psychology, 24: 679-686.
97. Hogan, R. 2007. Personality and the fate of organizations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
98. Hogan, R. 2009. Much ado about nothing: The person- situation debate. Journal of Research in Personality, 43: 249.
99. Hogan, J., Rybicki, S. L., Motowidlo, S. J., & Borman, W. C. 1998. Relations between contextual performance, personality, and occupational advancement. Human Performance, 11: 189-207.
100. Hollenbeck, J. R., Williams, C. R., & Klein, H. J. 1989. An empirical examination of the antecedents of commitment to difficult goals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 18-23.
101. Hough, L. M. 1992. The "big five" personality variables - construct confusion: Description versus prediction. Human Performance, 5: 139-155.
102. Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. 1990. Methods of metaanalysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
103. Hunthausen, J. M., Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., & Hammer, L. B. 2003. A field study of frame-ofreference effects on personality test validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 545-551.
104. Hurtz, G. M., & Donovan, J. J. 2000. Personality and job performance: The Big Five revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 869-879.
105. Ickes, W. 1982. A basic paradigm for the study of personality, roles, and social behavior. In W. Ickes & E. Knowles (Eds.), Personality, roles, and social behavior: 305-341. New York: Springer.
106. Jackson, J. J., Wood, D., Bogg, T., Walton, K. E., Harms, P. D., & Roberts, B. W. 2010. What do conscientious people do? Development and validation of the Behavioral Indicators of Conscientiousness (BIC). Journal of Research in Personality, 44: 501-511.
107. Jacobs, R. R., Conte, J. M., Day, D. V., Silva, J. M., & Harris, R. 1996. Selecting bus drivers: Multiple predictors, multiple perspectives on validity, and multiple estimates of utility. Human Performance, 9: 199-217.
108. Jenkins, M., & Griffith, R. 2004. Using personality constructs to predict performance: Narrow or broad bandwidth. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19: 255-269.
109. Jensen-Campbell, L. A., Knack, J. M., Waldrip, A. M., & Campbell, S. D. 2007. Do personality traits associated with self-control influence the regulation of anger and aggression? Journal of Research in Personality, 41: 403-424.
110. Johnson, J. W. 2000. A heuristic method for estimating the relative weight of predictor variables in multiple regression. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35: 1-19.
111. Johnson, J. W. 2003. Toward a better understanding of the relationship between personality and individual job performance. In M. R. Barrick & A. M. Ryan (Eds.), Personality and work: 83-120. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
112. Johnson, J. W. 2004. Factors affecting relative weights: The influence of sampling and measurement error. Organizational Research Methods, 7: 283-299.
113. Johnson, J. W., & LeBreton, J. M. 2004. History and use of relative importance indices in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 7: 238-257.
114. Johnson, M. K., Rowatt, W. C., & Petrini, L. 2011. A new trait on the market: Honesty-humility as a unique predictor of job performance ratings. Personality and Individual Differences, 50: 857-862.
115. Joshi, A., & Roh, H. 2009. The role of context in work team diversity research: A meta-analytic review. Academy of Management Journal, 52: 599-627.
116. Joyce, W., Slocum, J. W., & Von Glinow, M. A. 1982. Person-situation interaction: Competing models of fit. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 3: 265-280.
117. Judge, T. A., & Cable, D. M. 1997. Applicant personality, organizational culture, and organization attraction. Personnel Psychology, 50: 359-394.
118. Judge, T. A., LePine, J. A., & Rich, B. L. 2006. Loving yourself abundantly: Relationship of the narcissistic personality to self- and other perceptions of workplace deviance, leadership, and task and contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 762-776.
119. King, L. A., Walker, L. M., & Broyles, S. J. 1996. Creativity and the five-factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 30: 189-203.
120. Kirkcaldy, B., & Furnham, A. 1991. Extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and recreational choice. Personality and Individual Differences, 12: 737-745.
121. Koestner, R., & Losier, G. F. 1996. Distinguishing reactive versus reflective autonomy. Journal of Personality, 64: 465-494.
122. Ksionzky, S., & Mehrabian, A. 1986. Temperament characteristics of successful police dispatchers: Work settings requiring continuous rapid judgments and responses to complex information. Journal of Police Science & Administration, 14: 45-48.
123. LaHuis, D. M., Martin, N. R., & Avis, J. M. 2005. Investigating nonlinear conscientiousness-job performance relations for clerical employees. Human Performance, 18: 199-212.
124. Law, K. S., Wong, C., & Mobley, W. H. 1998. Toward a taxonomy of multidimensional constructs. Academy of Management Review, 23: 741-755.
125. Lawrence, A. D. 2004. Screening for person-job fit: Incremental validity of a congruence based approach to assessment (Doctoral dissertation, University of Akron, 2004). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65: 1060.
126. LeBreton, J. M., Ployhart, R. E., & Ladd, R. T. 2004. A Monte Carlo comparison of relative importance methodologies. Organizational Research Methods, 7: 258-282.
127. LeBreton, J. M., & Tonidandel, S. 2008. Multivariate relative importance: Extending relative weight analysis to multivariate criterion spaces. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 329-345.
128. Lewin, K. 1936. Principles of topological psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
129. Lipsey, M. W. 2003. Those confounded moderators in meta-analysis: Good, bad, and ugly. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587: 69-81.
130. Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., & Straus, R. 2003. Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 35: 641-658.
131. Lorenzo-Seva, U., Ferrando, P. J., & Chico, E. 2010. Two SPSS programs for interpreting multiple regression results. Behavior Research Methods, 42: 29-35.
132. Loveland, J. M., Gibson, L. W., Lounsbury, J. W., & Huffstetler, B. C. 2005. Broad and narrow personality traits in relation to the job performance of camp counselors. Child and Youth Care Forum, 34: 241-255.
133. Lucas, G. H. 1985. The relationship between job attitudes, personal characteristics, and job outcomes: A study of retail store managers. Journal of Retailing, 61: 35-62.
134. Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. 2009. If the person- situation debate is really over, why does it still generate so much negative affect? Journal of Research in Personality, 43: 146-149.
135. Lusch, R. F., & Serpkenci, R. R. 1990. Personal differences, job tension, job outcomes, and store performance: A study of retail store managers. Journal of Marketing, 54: 85-101.
136. MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Jarvis, C. B. 2005. The problem of measurement model misspecification in behavioral and organizational research and some recommended solutions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 710-730.
137. Maxham, J. G., Netemeyer, R. G., & Lichtenstein, D. R. 2008. The retail value chain: Linking employee perceptions to employee performance, customer evaluations, and store performance. Marketing Science, 27: 147-167.
138. McCrae, R. R. 1987. Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52: 1258-1265.
139. McCrae, R. R. 2001. 5 years of progress: A reply to Block. Journal of Research in Personality, 35: 108-113.
140. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. 1990. Personality in adulthood. New York: Guilford Press.
141. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. 1997. Personality trait structure as a human universal. The American Psychologist, 52: 509-516.
142. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. 1999. A five-factor theory of personality. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed.): 139-153. New York: Guilford Press.
143. McManus, M. A., & Kelly, M. L. 1999. Personality measures and biodata: Evidence regarding their incremental predictive value in the life insurance industry. Personnel Psychology, 52: 137-148.
144. Meyer, R. D., Dalal, R. S., & Bonaccio, S. 2009. A metaanalytic investigation into the moderating effects of situational strength on the conscientiousness- performance relationship. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30: 1077-1102.
145. Meyer, R. D., Dalal, R. S., & Hermida, R. 2010.A reviewand synthesis of situational strength in the organizational sciences. Journal of Management, 36: 121-140.
146. Mills, C. J., & Bohannon, W. E. 1980. Personality characteristics of effective state police officers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 44: 703-742.
147. Mischel, W. 1968. Personality and assessment. New York: Wiley.
148. Mischel, W. 1973. Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychological Review, 80: 252-283.
149. Mischel, W. 1977. The interaction of person and situation. In D. Magnusson & N. S. Endler (Eds.), Personality at the crossroads: Current issues in interactional psychology: 333-352. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
150. Mischel, W. 2009. From "personality and assessment" (1968) to "personality science" (2009). Journal of Research in Personality, 43: 282-290.
151. Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. 1995. A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. Psychological Review, 102: 246-268.
152. Monson, T. C., Hesley, J. W., & Chernick, L. 1982. Specifying when personality traits can and cannot predict behavior: An alternative to abandoning the attempt to predict single-act criteria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43: 385-399.
153. Moon, H. K., Livne, E., & Marinova, S. V. 2013. Understanding the independent influence of duty and achievement-striving when predicting the relationship between conscientiousness and organizational cultural profiles and helping behaviors. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95: 225-232.
154. Morgeson, F. P., Campion, M.A., Dipboye, R. L., Hollenbeck, J. R., Murphy, K., & Schmitt, N. 2007a. Are we getting fooled again? Coming to terms with limitations in the use of personality tests for personnel selection. Personnel Psychology, 60: 1029-1049.
155. Morgeson, F. P., Campion, M.A., Dipboye, R. L., Hollenbeck, J. R., Murphy, K., & Schmitt, N. 2007b. Reconsidering the use of personality tests in personnel selection contexts. Personnel Psychology, 60: 683-729.
156. Motowidlo, S. J., Brownlee, A. L., & Schmit, M. J. 2008. Effects of personality characteristics on knowledge, skill, and performance in servicing retail customers. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 16: 272-281.
157. Mount, M. K., & Barrick, M. R. 1995. The big five personality dimensions: Implications for research and practice in human resourcemanagement. In G. R. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management, vol. 13: 153-200. Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
158. Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Stewart, G. L. 1998. Fivefactor model of personality and performance in jobs involving interpersonal interactions. Human Performance, 11: 145-165.
159. Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Strauss, J. P. 1994. Validity of observer ratings of the Big Five personality factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79: 272-280.
160. Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Strauss, J. P. 1999. The joint relationship of conscientiousness and ability with performance: Test of the interaction hypothesis. Journal of Management, 25: 707-721.
161. Mount, M. K., Oh, I. S., & Burns, M. 2008. Incremental validity of perceptual speed and accuracy over general mental ability. Personnel Psychology, 61: 113-139.
162. Mount, M. K., Witt, L. A., & Barrick, M. R. 2000. Incremental validity of empirically keyed biodata scales over GMA and the five factor personality constructs. Personnel Psychology, 53: 299-323.
163. Murphy, K. R., & Dzieweczynski, J. L. 2005. Why don't measures of broad dimensions of personality perform better as predictors of job performance? Human Performance, 18: 343-357.
164. Murray, H. A. 1938. Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
165. Newman, D. A. 2009. Missing data techniques and low response rates. In C. E. Lance & R. J. Vandenberg (Eds.), Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: 7-36. London: Routledge.
166. Norris, G. W. 2002. Using measures of personality and self-efficacy to predict work performance (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International, 63: 2098.
167. O'Connell, M. S., Hattrup, K., Doverspike, D., & Cober, A. 2002. The validity of the mini simulations for Mexican retail salespeople. Journal of Business and Psychology, 16: 593-599.
168. Ones, D. S., Dilchert, S., Viswesvaran, C., & Judge, T. A. 2007. In support of personality assessment in organizational settings. Personnel Psychology, 60: 995-1027.
169. Ono, M., Sachau, D. A., Deal, W. P., Englert, D. R., & Taylor, M. D. 2011. Cognitive ability, emotional intelligence, and the Big Five personality dimensions as predictors of criminal investigator performance. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 38: 471-491.
170. O'Reilly, C. A., Chatman, J., & Caldwell, D. F. 1991. People and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit. Academy of Management Journal, 34: 487-516.
171. Orpen, C. 1985. The effects of need for achievement and need for independence on the relationship between perceived job attributes and managerial satisfaction and performance. International Journal of Psychology, 20: 207-219.
172. Peters, L. H., Fisher, C. D., & O'Connor, E. J. 1982. The moderating effect of situational control of performance variance on the relationship between individual differences and performance. Personnel Psychology, 35: 609-621.
173. Peterson, N. G., Mumford, M. D., Borman, W. C., Jeanneret, P. R., Fleishman, E. A., Levin, K. Y., & Dye, D.M. 2001. Understanding work using the Occupational Information Network (O∗Net): Implications for practice and research. Personnel Psychology, 54: 451-492.
174. Puffer, S. M. 1987. Pro-social behavior, noncompliant behavior, and work performance among commission salespeople. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72: 615-621.
175. Pugh, G. 1985. California psychological inventory and police selection. Journal of Police Science & Administration, 13: 172-177.
176. Quick, B. G. 2003. The demand-control/support model of job strain, neuroticism, and conscientiousness as predictors of job outcomes in juvenile correctional officers (Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Commonwealth University, 2003). Dissertation Abstracts International, 64: 2935.
177. Raja, U., & Johns, G. 2010. The joint effects of personality and job scope on in-role performance, citizenship behavior and creativity. Human Relations, 20: 1-25.
178. Riggio, R. E. 1986. Assessment of basic social skills. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51: 649-660.
179. Roberts, B. W. 2009. Back to the future: Personality and assessment and personality development. Journal of Research in Personality, 43: 137-145.
180. Roberts, B. W., & Caspi, A. 2001. Personality development and the person-situation debate: It's déjà vu all over again. Psychological Inquiry, 12: 104-109.
181. Robertson, I. T., Baron, H., Gibbons, P., MacIver, R., & Nyfield, G. 2000. Conscientiousness and managerial performance. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73: 171-180.
182. Robie, C., & Ryan, R. A. 1999. Effects of nonlinearity and heteroscedasticity on the validity of conscientiousness in predicting overall job performance. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 7: 157-170.
183. Sackett, P. R., Gruys, M. L., & Ellingson, J. E. 1998. Ability-personality interactions when predicting job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83: 545-556.
184. Salgado, J. F. 1997. The five factor model of personality and job performance in the European Community. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 30-43.
185. Salgado, J. F., & Rumbo, A. 1997. Personality and job performance in financial service managers. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13: 261-273.
186. Savoy, P. J. 2004. Development and validation of a measure of self-directed learning competency (Doctoral dissertation, Kent State University, 2004). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65: 2670.
187. Schmitt, N. 2004. Beyond the Big Five: Increases in understanding and practical utility. Human Performance, 17: 347-357.
188. Schneider, B. 1987. The people make the place. Personnel Psychology, 40: 437-453.
189. Schneider, B. M. 2002. Using the Big Five personality factors in the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, California Psychological Inventory, and Inwald Personality Inventory to predict police performance (Doctoral dissertation, Florida International University, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International, 63: 2098.
190. Schuerger, J. M., Kochevar, K. F., & Reinwald, J. E. 1982. Male and female correction officers: Personality and rated performance. Psychological Reports, 51: 223-228.
191. Slocum, J. W., & Hand, H. H. 1971. Prediction of job success and employee satisfaction for executives and foremen. Training and Development Journal, 25: 28-36.
192. Slocum, J. W., Miller, J., & Misshauk, M. 1970. Needs, environmental work satisfaction, and job performance. Training and Development Journal, 24: 12-15.
193. Small, R. J., & Rosenberg, L. J. 1977. Determining job performance in the industrial sales force. Industrial Marketing Management, 6: 99-102.
194. Smillie, L. D., Yeo, G. B., Furnham, A. F., & Jackson, C. J. 2006. Benefits of all work and no play: The relationship between neuroticism and performance as a function of resource allocation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 139-155.
195. Snyder, M., & Ickes, W. 1985. Personality and social behavior. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology, vol. 2 (3rd ed.): 883-947. New York: Random House.
196. Steel, P. D., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. 2002. Comparing meta-analytic moderator estimation techniques under realistic conditions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 96-111.
197. Steers, R. M. 1975. Effects of need for achievement on the job performance-job attitude relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60: 678-682.
198. Steers, R. M., & Spencer, D. G. 1977. The role of achievement motivation in job design. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62: 472-479.
199. Stewart, G. L. 1996. Reward structure as a moderator of the relationship between extraversion and sales performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 619-627.
200. Stewart, G. L. 1999. Trait bandwidth and stages of job performance: Assessing differential effects for conscientiousness and its subtraits. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84: 959-968.
201. Stewart, G. L., & Nandkeolyar, A. K. 2006. Adaptation and intraindividual variation in sales outcomes: Exploring the interactive effects of personality and environmental opportunity. Personnel Psychology, 59: 307-332.
202. Strauss, J. P., Barrick, M. R., & Connerley, M. L. 2001. An investigation of personality similarity effects (relational and perceived) on peer and supervisor ratings and the role of familiarity and liking. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74: 637-657.
203. Sutherland, R., De Bruins, G. P., & Crous, F. 2007. The relation between conscientiousness, empowerment, and performance. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 5: 60-67.
204. Swann, W. B., Jr., & Seyle, C. 2005. Personality psychology's comeback and its emerging symbiosis with social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31: 155-165.
205. Switzer, F. S., Paese, P. W., & Drasgow, F. 1992. Bootstrap estimates of standard errors in validity generalization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77: 123-129.
206. Taylor, P. J., Pajo, K., Cheung, G. W., & Stringfield, P. 2004. Dimensionality and validity of a structured telephone reference check procedure. Personnel Psychology, 57: 745-772.
207. Tett, R. P., & Burnett, D. D. 2003. A personality trait-based interactionist model of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 500-517.
208. Tett, R. P., & Christiansen, N. D. 2007. Personality tests at the crossroads: A response to Morgeson, Campion, Dipboye, Hollenbeck, Murphy, and Schmitt (2007). Personnel Psychology, 60: 967-993.
209. Tett, R. P., & Guterman, H. A. 2000. Situation trait relevance, trait expression, and cross situational consistency: Testing a principle of trait activation. Journal of Research in Personality, 34: 397-423.
210. Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., & Rothstein, M. 1991. Personality measures as predictors of job performance: A metaanalytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44: 703-742.
211. Thoresen, C. J., Bradley, J. C., Bliese, P. D., & Thoresen, J. D. 2004. The Big Five personality traits and individual job performance growth trajectories in maintenance and transitional job states. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 835-853.
212. Toh, S. M., Morgeson, F. P., & Campion, M. A. 2008. Human resource configurations: Investigating fit with the organizational context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 864-882.
213. Toole, D. L., Gavin, J. F., Murdy, L. B., & Sells, S. B. 1972. The differential validity of personality, personal history, and aptitude data for minority and nonminority employees. Personnel Psychology, 25: 661-673.
214. Tonidandel, S., LeBreton, J. M., & Johnson, J. W. 2009. Determining the statistical significance of relative weights. Psychological Methods, 14: 387-399.
215. Trevino, L. K. 1986. Ethical decision making in organizations: A person-situation interactionist model. Academy of Management Review, 11: 601-617.
216. Van Scooter, J. R., & Motowidlo, S. J. 1996. Interpersonal facilitation and job dedication as separate facets of contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 525-531.
217. Vinchur, A. J., Schippmann, J. S., Switzer, F. S., & Roth, P. L. 1998. A meta-analytic review of predictors of job performance for salespeople. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83: 586-597.
218. Viswesvaran, C., & Sanchez, J. I. 1998. Moderator search in meta-analysis: A review and cautionary note on existing approaches. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58: 77-87.
219. Wallace, C., & Chen, G. 2006. A multilevel integration of personality, climate, self-regulation, and performance. Personnel Psychology, 59: 529-557.
220. Wanous, J. P., & Hudy, M. J. 2001. Single-item reliability: A replication and extension. Organizational Research Methods, 4: 361-375.
221. Warr, P., Bartram, D., & Martin, T. 2005. Personality and sales performance: Situational variation and interactions between traits. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13: 87-91.
222. Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. 1984. Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96: 465-490.
223. Weekes, E. M. 1994. The influence of personality dimensions and physical abilities on a pistol shooting task (Doctoral dissertation, University of Houston, 1994). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55: 3447.
224. Weiss, H. M., & Adler, S. 1984. Personality and organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 6: 1-50.
225. Wiggins, J. S. 1991. Agency and communion as conceptual coordinates for the understanding and measurement of interpersonal behavior. In W. M. Grove & D. Ciccetti (Eds.), Thinking clearly about psychology: Personality and psychopathology, vol. 2: 89-113. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
226. Withey, M. J., Gellatly, I. R., & Annett, M. 2005. The moderating effect of situation strength on the relationship between personality and provision of effort. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35: 1587-1608.
227. Witt, L. A. 2002. The interactive effects of extraversion and conscientiousness on performance. Journal of Management, 28: 835-851.
228. Witt, L. A., Andrews, M. C., & Carlson, D. S. 2004. When conscientiousness isn't enough: Emotional exhaustion and performance among call center customer service representatives. Journal of Management, 30: 149-160.
229. Witt, L. A., Burke, L. A., Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. 2002. The interactive effects of conscientiousness and agreeableness on job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 164-169.
230. Witt, L. A., & Ferris, G. R. 2003. Social skill as a moderator of the conscientiousness-performance relationship: Convergent results across studies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 809-821.
231. Wright, P. M., Kacmar, K. M., MacMahan, G. C., & Deleeuw, K. 1995. P5f(M3A): Cognitive ability as a moderator of the relationship between personality and job performance. Journal of Management, 21: 1129-1139.
232. Yang, B., Kim, Y., & McFarland, R. G. 2011. Individual differences and sales performance: A distal-proximal mediation model of self-efficacy, conscientiousness, and extraversion. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 31: 371-382.
233. Zuckerman, M. 1996. The psychobiological model for impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking: A comparative approach. Neuropsychobiology, 34: 125-129.