A review of the effect of diet on cardiovascular calcification

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Volumn 16, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 8861-8883

  Nicoll, Rachel ^a   Howard, John McLaren ^b   Henein, Michael Y ^a  

^a UMEÅ UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^b Acumen Lab   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Antioxidants; Cardiovascular calcification; Coronary calcification; Diet; Homocysteine; Minerals; Transfats; Vitamins; 3 fats

Indexed keywords

25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; CALCITRIOL; CALCIUM; CATALASE; EPIGALLOCATECHIN GALLATE; GAMMA LINOLENIC ACID; GLUCOSE; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; HOMOCYSTEINE; INSULIN; LINOLEIC ACID; MAGNESIUM; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; OSTEOCALCIN; PHOSPHATE; PHYTOMENADIONE; POLYPHENOL DERIVATIVE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; RESVERATROL; RETINOL; RETINOL BINDING PROTEIN; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; THIOCTIC ACID; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; VITAMIN B GROUP; VITAMIN K GROUP; ANTIOXIDANT;

ABDOMINAL AORTIC CALCIFICATION; AORTIC VALVE CALCIFICATION; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CALCIFICATION; CALCIUM BINDING; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CORONARY ARTERY CALCIFICATION; DIET; FAT INTAKE; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERINSULINEMIA; HYPERPARATHYROIDISM; INFLAMMATION; KIDNEY CALCIFICATION; MACRONUTRIENT; MINERAL INTAKE; MITRAL ANNULUS CALCIFICATION; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN INTAKE; REVIEW; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION; ADVERSE EFFECTS; ANIMAL; ASYMPTOMATIC DISEASE; DIETARY SUPPLEMENT; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; VASCULAR CALCIFICATION; WESTERN DIET;

ANIMALS; ANTIOXIDANTS; ASYMPTOMATIC DISEASES; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; DIET, WESTERN; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; HUMANS; VASCULAR CALCIFICATION;

EID: 84928138827     PISSN: 16616596     EISSN: 14220067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijms16048861     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. Nicoll, R.; Henein, M. Arterial and valvular calcification: A systemic diffuse disease. ICF J. 2013, 1, 19-24.
2. Nicoll, R.; Henein, M.Y. Arterial calcification: Friend or foe? Int. J. Cardiol. 2013, 167, 322-327.
3. Rennenberg, R.J.M.W.; Kessels, A.G.H.; Schurgers, J.L.; van Engelshoven, J.M.A.; de Leeuw, P.W.; Kroon, A.A. Vascular calcification as a marker of increased cardiovascular risk: A meta-analysis. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 2009, 5, 185-197.
4. Detrano, R.; Guerci, A.D.; Carr, J.J.; Bild, D.E.; Burke, G.; Folsom, A.R.; Liu, K.; Shea, S.; Szklo, M.; Bluemke, D.A.; et al. Coronary calcium as a predictor of coronary events in four racial or ethnic groups. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 358, 1336-1345.
5. Nicoll, R.; Henein, M. Extensive coronary calcification: A clinically unrecognised condition. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol. 2010, 8, 701-705.
6. Peters, S.A.; Bakker, M.; den Ruijter, H.M.; Bots, M.L. Added value of CAC in risk stratification for cardiovascular events: A systematic review. Eur. J. Clin. Investig. 2012, 42, 110-116.
7. Möhlenkamp, S.; Lehmann, N.; Greenland, P.; Moebus, S.; Kälsch, H.; Schmermund, A.; Dragano, N.; Stang, A.; Siegrist, J.; Mann, K.; et al. Coronary artery calcium score improves cardiovascular risk prediction in persons without indication for statin therapy. Atherosclerosis 2011, 215, 229-236.
8. Shanahan, C.M.; Cary, N.R.; Metcalfe, J.C.; Weissberg, P.L. High espression of genes for calcification-regulating proteins in human atherosclerotic plaque. J. Clin. Investig. 1994, 93, 2393-2402.
9. Schmid, K.; McSharry, W.O.; Pameijer, C.H.; Binette, J.P. Chemical and physicochemical studies on the mineral deposits of the human atherosclerotic aorta. Atherosclerosis 1980, 37, 199-210.
10. Min, H.; Morony, S.; Sarosi, I.; Dunstan, C.R.; Capparelli, C.; Scully, S.; Van, G.; Kaufman, S.; Kostenuik, P.J.; Lacey, D.L.; et al. Osteoprotegerin reverses osteoporosis by inhibiting endosteal osteoclasts and prevents vascular calcification by blocking a process resembling osteoclastogenesis. J. Exp. Med. 2000, 192, 463-474.
11. Lomashvili, K.; Garg, P.; O'Neill, W.C. Chemical and hormonal determinants of vascular calcification in vitro. Kidney Int. 2006, 69, 1464-1470.
12. Henein, M.; Owen, A. Statins moderate coronary atheroma but not coronary calcification: Results from meta-analyses. Scand. Cardiovasc. J. 2010, 44, 3.
13. Rossebø, A.B.; Pedersen, T.R.; Boman, K.; Brudi, P.; Chambers, J.B.; Egstrup, K.; Gerdts, E.; Gohlke-Bärwolf, C.; Holme, I.; Kesäniemi, Y.A.; et al. Intensive lipid lowering with simvastatin and ezetimibe in aortic stenosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 359, 1343-1356.
14. Jensky, N.E.; Criqui, M.H.; Wright, M.C.; Wassel, C.L.; Brody, S.A.; Allison, M.A. Blood pressure and vascular calcification. Hypertension 2010, 55, 990-997.
15. Pletcher, M.J.; Sibley, C.T.; Pignone, M.; Vittinghoff, E.; Greenland, P. Interpretation of the coronary artery calcium score in combination with conventional cardiovascular risk factors: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Circulation 2013, 128, 1076-1084.
16. Park, H.A.; Lee, J.S.; Kuller, L.H. Relationship between premenopausal dietary intake and postmenopausal subclinical atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 2006, 186, 420-427.
17. Snell-Bergeon, J.K.; Chartier-Logan, C.; Maahs, D.M.; Ogden, L.G.; Hokanson, J.E.; Kinney, G.L.; Eckel, R.H.; Ehrlich, J.; Rewers, M. Adults with type 1 diabetes eat a high-fat atherogenic diet that is associated with coronary artery calcium. Diabetologia 2009, 52, 801-809.
18. Son, Y.K.; Lee, S.M.; Kim, S.E.; Kim, K.H.; Lee, S.Y.; Bae, H.R.; Han, J.Y.; Park, Y.; An, W.S. Association between vascular calcification scores on plain radiographs and fatty acid contents of erythrocyte membrane in hemodialysis patients. J. Ren. Nutr. 2012, 22, 58-66.
19. He, K.; Liu, K.; Daviglus, M.L.; Mayer-Davis, E.; Jenny, N.S.; Jiang, R.; Ouyang, P.; Steffen, L.M.; Siscovick, D.; Wu, C.; et al. Intakes of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish in relation to measurements of subclinical atherosclerosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 1111-1118.
20. Sekikawa, A.; Curb, J.D.; Ueshima, H.; Lee, S.Y.; Bae, H.R.; Han, J.Y.; Park, Y.; An, W.S. Marine-derived n-3 fatty acids and atherosclerosis in Japanese, Japanese-American, and white men. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2008, 52, 417-424.
21. Sekikawa, A.; Miura, K.; Lee, S.; Fujiyoshi, A.; Edmundowicz, D.; Kadowaki, T. Long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and incidence rate of coronary artery calcification in Japanese men in Japan and white men in the USA: Population based prospective cohort study. Heart 2014, 100, 569-573.
22. Ueeda, M.; Doumei, T.; Takaya, Y.; Shinohata, R.; Katayama, Y.; Ohnishi, N.; Takaishi, A.; Miyoshi, T.; Hirohata, S.; Kusachi, S. Serum n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels correlate with the extent of coronary plaques and calcifications in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circ. J. 2008, 72, 1836-1843.
23. Heine-Bröring, R.C.; Brouwer, I.A.; Proença, R.V.; van Rooij, F.J.; Hofman, A.; Oudkerk, M.; Witteman, J.C.; Geleijnse, J.M. Intake of fish and marine n-3 fatty acids in relatio.n to coronary calcification: The Rotterdam Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 91, 1317-1323.
24. Drolet, M.C.; Couet, J.; Arsenault, M. Development of aortic valve sclerosis or stenosis in rabbits: Role of cholesterol and calcium. J. Heart Valve Dis. 2008, 17, 381-387.
25. Birt, D.F.; Pour, P.M. Interaction of dietary fat and protein in spontaneous diseases of Syrian golden hamsters. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1985, 75, 127-133.
26. Burgess, N.A.; Reynolds, T.M.; Williams, N.; Pathy, A.; Smith, S. Evaluation of four animal models of intrarenal calcium deposition and assessment of the influence of dietary supplementation with essential fatty acids on calcification. Urol. Res. 1995, 23, 239-242.
27. Kanai, S.; Uto, K.; Honda, K.; Hagiwara, N.; Oda, H. Eicosapentaenoic acid reduces warfarin-induced arterial calcification in rats. Atherosclerosis 2011, 215, 43-51.
28. Schlemmer, C.K.; Coetzer, H.; Claassen, N.; Kruger, M.C.; Rademeyer, C.; van Jaarsveld, L.; Smuts, C.M. Ectopic calcification of rat aortas and kidneys is reduced with n-3 fatty acid supplementation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1998, 59, 221-227.
29. Kummerow, F.A.; Zhou, Q.; Mahfouz, M.M. Effect of trans fatty acids on calcium influx into human arterial endothelial cells. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 70, 832-838.
30. Abedin, M.; Lim, J.; Tang, T.B.; Park, D.; Demer, L.L.; Tintut, Y. n-3 Fatty acids inhibit vascular calcification via the p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ pathways. Circ. Res. 2006, 98, 727-729.
31. Lutsey, P.L.; Jacobs, D.R., Jr.; Kori, S.; Mayer-Davis, E.; Shea, S.; Steffen, L.M.; Szklo, M.; Tracy, R. Whole grain intake and its cross-sectional association with obesity, insulin resistance, inflammation, diabetes and subclinical CVD: The MESA Study. Br. J. Nutr. 2007, 98, 397-405.
32. Danielsen, R.; Sigvaldason, H.; Thorgeirsson, G.; Sigfússon, N. Predominance of aortic calcification as an atherosclerotic manifestation in women: The Reykjavik Study. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1996, 49, 383-387.
33. Van Gils, M.J.; Bodde, M.C.; Cremers, L.G.; Dippel, D.W.; van der Lugt, A. Determinants of calcification growth in atherosclerotic carotid arteries: A serial multi-detector CT angiography study. Atherosclerosis 2013, 227, 95-99.
34. Meigs, J.B.; Larson, M.G.; D'Agostino, R.B.; Levy, D.; Clouse, M.E.; Nathan, D.M.; Wilson, P.W.; O'Donnell, C.J. Coronary artery calcification in type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance: The framingham offspring study. Diabetes Care 2002, 25, 1313-1319.
35. Kronmal, R.A.; McClelland, R.L.; Detrano, R.; Shea, S.; Lima, J.A.; Cushman, M.; Bild, D.E.; Burke, G.L. Risk factors for the progression of coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic subjects: Results from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Circulation 2007, 115, 2722-2730.
36. Barascuk, N.; Ganz, M.; Nielsen, M.; Register, T.C.; Rasmussen, L.M.; Karsdal, M.A.; Christiansen, C. Abdominal aortic calcification quantified by the Morphological Atherosclerotic Calcification Distribution (MACD) index is associated with features of the metabolic syndrome. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 2011, 11, 75.
37. Schauer, I.E.; Snell-Bergeon, J.K.; Bergman, B.C.; Maahs, D.M.; Kretowski, A.; Eckel, R.H.; Rewers, M. Insulin resistance, defective insulin-mediated fatty acid suppression, and coronary artery calcification in subjects with and without type 1 diabetes: The CACTI study. Diabetes 2011, 60, 306-314.
38. Moebus, S.; Stang, A.; Möhlenkamp, S.; Dragano, N.; Schmermund, A.; Slomiany, U.; Hoffmann, B.; Bauer, M.; Broecker-Preuss, M.; Mann, K.; et al. Association of impaired fasting glucose and coronary artery calcification as a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis in a population-based cohort-Results of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study. Diabetologia 2009, 52, 81-89.
39. Tanaka, M.; Fukui, M.; Tomiyasu, K.; Akabame, S.; Nakano, K.; Hasegawa, G.; Oda, Y.; Nakamura, N. U-shaped relationship between insulin level and coronary artery calcification (CAC). J. Atheroscler. Thromb. 2010, 17, 1033-1040.
40. Liu, F.; Zhong, H.; Liang, J.Y.; Fu, P.; Luo, Z.J.; Zhou, L.; Gou, R.; Huang, J. Effect of high glucose levels on the calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells by inducing osteoblastic differentiation and intracellular calcium deposition via BMP-2/Cbfα-1 pathway. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B 2010, 11, 905-911
41. Zhou, Y.B.; Zhang, J.; Cai, Y.; Teng, X.; Duan, X.H.; Song, J.Q.; Du, J.; Tang, C.S.; Qi, Y.F. Insulin resistance induces medial artery calcification in fructose-fed rats. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 2012, 237, 50-57.
42. Chonan, O.; Takahashi, R.; Yasui, H.; Watanuki, M. Effects of β-1-4 linked galactooligosaccharides on use of magnesium and calcification of the kidney and heart in rats fed excess dietary phosphorus and calcium. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 1996, 60, 1735-1737.
43. Sterck, J.G.; Ritskes-Hoitinga, J.; Beynen, A.C. Inhibitory effect of high protein intake on nephrocalcinosis in female rats. Br. J. Nutr. 1992, 67, 223-233.
44. Gigliotti, J.C.; Smith, A.L.; Jaczynski, J.; Tou, J.C. Consumption of krill protein concentrate prevents early renal injury and nephrocalcinosis in female Sprague-Dawley rats. Urol. Res. 2011, 39, 59-67.
45. Wen, S.F.; Huang, T.P.; Moorthy, A.V. Effects of low-protein diet on experimental diabetic neuropathy in the rat. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 1985, 106, 589-597.
46. Brown, E.M. Role of the calcium-sensing receptor in extracellular calcium homeostasis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2013, 27, 333-343.
47. Wang, T.K.; Bolland, M.J.; van Pelt, N.C.; Horne, A.M.; Mason, B.H.; Ames, R.W.; Grey, A.B.; Ruygrok, P.N.; Gamble, G.D.; Reid, I.R. Relationships between vascular calcification, calcium metabolism, bone density, and fractures. J. Bone Miner Res. 2010, 25, 2777-2785.
48. Samelson, E.J.; Booth, S.L.; Fox, C.S.; Tucker, K.L.; Wang, T.J.; Hoffmann, U.; Cupples, L.A.; O'Donnell, C.J.; Kiel, D.P. Calcium intake is not associated with increased coronary artery calcification: The Framingham Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 96, 1274-1280.
49. Spence, L.A.; Weaver, C.M. Calcium intake, vascular calcification, and vascular disease. Nutr. Rev. 2013, 71, 15-22.
50. Kim, J.H.; Yoon, J.W.; Kim, K.W.; Lee, E.J.; Lee, W.; Cho, S.H.; Shin, C.S. Increased dietary calcium intake is not associated with coronary artery calcification. Int. J. Cardiol. 2012, 157, 429-431.
51. Kwak, S.M.; Kim, J.S.; Choi, Y.; Chang, Y.; Kwon, M.J.; Jung, J.G.; Jeong, C.; Ahn, J.; Kim, H.S.; Shin, H.; et al. Dietary intake of calcium and phosphorus and serum concentration in relation to the risk of coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic adults. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2014, 34, 1763-1769.
52. Raffield, L.M.; Agarwal, S.; Cox, A.J.; Hsu, F.C.; Carr, J.J.; Freedman, B.I.; Xu, J.; Bowden, D.W.; Vitolins, M.Z. Cross-sectional analysis of calcium intake for associations with vascular calcification and mortality in individuals with type 2 diabetes from the Diabetes Heart Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 100, 1029-1035.
53. Agata, U.; Park, J.H.; Hattori, S.; Iimura, Y.; Ezawa, I.; Akimoto, T.; Omi, N. The effect of different amounts of calcium intake on bone metabolism and arterial calcification in ovariectomised rats. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. (Tokyo) 2013, 59, 29-36.
54. Hsu, H.H.; Culley, N.C. Effects of dietary calcium on atherosclerosis, aortic calcification, and icterus in rabbits fed a supplemental cholesterol diet. Lipids Health Dis. 2006, 5, 16.
55. Moe, S.M.; Chen, N.X.; Newman, C.L.; Gattone, V.H., 2nd.; Organ, J.M.; Chen, X.; Allen, M.R. A comparison of calcium to zoledronic acid for improvement of cortical bone in an animal model of CKD. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2014, 29, 902-910.
56. Cancela, A.L.; Santos, R.D.; Titan, S.M.; Goldenstein, P.T.; Rochitte, C.E.; Lemos, P.A.; dos Reis, L.M.; Graciolli, F.G.; Jorgetti, V.; Moysés, R.M. Phosphorus is associated with coronary artery disease in patients with preserved renal function. PLo S ONE 2012, 7, e36883.
57. Linefsky, J.P.; O'Brien, K.D.; Katz, R.; de Boer, I.H.; Barasch, E.; Jenny, N.S.; Siscovick, D.S.; Kestenbaum, B. Association of serum phosphate levels with aortic valve sclerosis and annular calcification: The cardiovascular health study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2011, 58, 291-297.
58. Shin, S.; Kim, K.J.; Chang, H.J.; Cho, I.; Kim, Y.J.; Choi, B.W.; Rhee, Y.; Lim, S.K.; Yang, W.I.; Shim, C.Y.; et al. Impact of serum calcium and phosphate on coronary atherosclerosis detected by cardiac computed tomography. Eur. Heart J. 2012, 33, 2873-2881.
59. Civitelli, R.; Ziambaras, K. Calcium and phosphate homeostasis: Concerted interplay of new regulators. J. Endocrinol. Investig. 2011, 34, 3-7.
60. Calvo, M.S.; Uribarri, J. Public Health impact of dietary phosphorus excess on bone and cardiovascular health in the general population. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.053934.
61. Linefsky, J.P.; O'Brien, K.D.; Sachs, M.; Katz, R.; Eng, J.; Michos, E.D.; Budoff, M.J.; de Boer, I.; Kestenbaum, B. Serum phosphate is associated with aortic valve calcification in the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Atherosclerosis 2014, 233, 331-337.
62. McCarty, M.F.; Di Nicolantonio, J.J. Bioavailable dietary phosphate, a mediator of cardiovascular disease, may be decreased with plant-based diets, phosphate binders, niacin, and avoidance of phosphate additives. Nutrition 2014, 30, 739-747.
63. Tuttle, K.R.; Short, R.A. Longitudinal relationships among coronary artery calcification, serum phosphorus, and kidney function. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009, 4, 1968-1973.
64. Figueiredo, C.P.; Rajamannan, N.M.; Lopes, J.B.; Caparbo, V.F.; Takayama, L.; Kuroishi, M.E.; Oliveira, I.S.; Menezes, P.R.; Scazufca, M.; Bonfá, E.; et al. Serum phosphate and hip bone mineral density as additional factors for high vascular calcification scores in a community-dwelling: The São Paulo Ageing & Health Study (SPAH). Bone 2013, 52, 354-359.
65. Razzaque, M.S. Phosphate toxicity and vascular mineralization. Contrib. Nephrol. 2013, 180, 74-85.
66. Nishizawa, Y.; Jono, S.; Ishimura, E.; Shioi, A. Hyperphosphatemia and vascular calcification in end-stage renal disease. J. Ren. Nutr. 2005, 15, 178-182.
67. Yamada, S.; Tokumoto, M.; Tatsumoto, N.; Taniguchi, M.; Noguchi, H.; Nakano, T.; Masutani, K.; Ooboshi, H.; Tsuruya, K.; Kitazono, T. Phosphate overload directly induces systemic inflammation and malnutrition as well as vascular calcification in uremia. Am. J. Physiol. Ren. Physiol. 2014, 306, F1418-F1428.
68. Louvet, L.; Buchel, J.; Steppan, S.; Passlick-Deetjen, J.; Massy, Z.A. Magnesium prevents phosphate-induced calcification in human aortic vascular smooth muscle cells. Nephrol. Dial Transplant. 2014, 28, 869-878.
69. Bonjour, J.P.; Gue'guen, L.; Palacios, C.; Shearer, M.J.; Weaver, C.M. Minerals and vitamins in bone health: The potential value of dietary enhancement. Br. J. Nutr. 2009, 101, 1581-1596.
70. Hruby, A.; O'Donnell, C.J.; Jacques, P.F.; Meigs, J.B.; Hoffmann, U.; McKeown, N.M. Magnesium intake is inversely associated with coronary artery calcification: The framingham heart study. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2014, 7, 59-69.
71. Ishimura, E.; Okuno, S.; Kitatani, K.; Tsuchida, T.; Yamakawa, T.; Shioi, A.; Inaba, M.; Nishizawa, Y. Significant association between the presence of peripheral vascular calcification and lower serum magnesium in hemodialysis patients. Clin. Nephrol. 2007, 68, 222-227.
72. Meema, H.E.; Oreopoulos, D.G.; Rapoport, A. Serum magnesium level and arterial calcification in end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 1987, 32, 388-394.
73. Tzanakis, I.; Virvidakis, K.; Tsomi, A.; Mantakas, E.; Girousis, N.; Karefyllakis, N.; Papadaki, A.; Kallivretakis, N.; Mountokalakis, T. Intra-and extracellular magnesium levels and atheromatosis in haemodialysis patients. Magnes. Res. 2004, 17, 102-108.
74. Salem, S.; Bruck, H.; Bahlmann, F.H.; Peter, M.; Passlick-Deetjen, J.; Kretschmer, A.; Steppan, S.; Volsek, M.; Kribben, A.; Nierhaus, M.; et al. Relationship between magnesium and clinical biomarkers on inhibition of vascular calcification. Am. J. Nephrol. 2012, 35, 31-39.
75. Planells, E.; Llopis, J.; Perán, F.; Aranda, P. Changes in tissue calcium and phosphorus content and plasma concentrations of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin after long-term magnesium deficiency in rats. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 1995, 14, 292-298.
76. Pen, J.X.; Li, L.; Wang, X.; Zhang, Y.H.; Li, X.F.; Wu, S.Y. The effect of the magnesium supplementation on vascular calcification in rats. Zhongguo Ying Yong Sheng Li Xue Za Zhi 2012, 28, 20-23.
77. Nagase, N.; Saijo, Y.; Nitta, H.; Tamura, Y.; Orino, S.; Akaike, Y.; Mori, H. Myocardial disorders caused by magnesium deficiency in diabetic KK mice. Magnesium 1989, 8, 307-315.
78. Adamczyk, A.; Stolarz-Skrzypek, K.; Wesołowska, A.; Czarnecka, D. Vitamin D and vitamin D receptor activators in treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc. Hematol. Disord. Drug Targets 2014, 14, 34-44
79. Turner, A.G.; Hanrath, M.A.; Morris, H.A.; Atkins, G.J.; Anderson, P.H. The local production of 1,25(OH)2D3 promotes osteoblast and osteocyte maturation. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2013, 144, 114-118.
80. Leiben, L.; Masuyama, R.; Torrekens, S.; van Looveren, R.; Schrooten, J.; Baatsen, P.; Lafage-Proust, M.-H.; Dresselaers, T.; Jian, Q.F.; Bonewald, L.F.; et al. Normocalcemia is maintained in mice under conditions of calcium malabsorption by vitamin D-induced inhibition of bone mineralisation. J. Clin. Investig. 2012, 122, 1803-1815.
81. Kang, Y.H.; Jin, J.S.; Yi, D.W.; Son, S.M. Bone morphogenetic protein-7 inhibits vascular calcification induced by high vitamin D in mice. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2010, 221, 299-307.
82. Tang, F.T.; Chen, S.R.; Wu, X.Q.; Wang, T.Q.; Chen, J.W.; Li, J.; Bao, L.P.; Huang, H.Q.; Liu, P.Q. Hypercholesterolemia accelerates vascular calcification induced by excessive vitamin D via oxidative stress. Calcif. Tissue Int. 2006, 79, 326-339.
83. Ellam, T.; Hameed, A.; Ul Haque, R.; Muthana, M.; Wilkie, M.; Francis, S.E.; Chico, T.J. Vitamin D deficiency and exogenous vitamin D excess similarly increase diffuse atherosclerotic calcification in apolipoprotein e knockout mice. PLo S ONE 2014, 9, e88767.
84. Schmidt, N.; Brandsch, C.; Kühne, H.; Thiele, A.; Hirche, F.; Stangl, G.I. Vitamin D receptor deficiency and low vitamin D diet stimulate aortic calcification and osteogenic key factor expression in mice. PLo S ONE 2012, 7, e35316.
85. Schmidt, N.; Brandsch, C.; Schutkowski, A.; Hirche, F.; Stangl, G.I. Dietary vitamin D inadequacy accelerates calcification and osteoblast-like cell formation in the vascular system of LDL receptor knockout and wild-type mice. J. Nutr. 2014, 144, 638-646.
86. Michos, E.D.; Streeten, E.A.; Ryan, K.A.; Rampersaud, E.; Peyser, P.A.; Bielak, L.F.; Shuldiner, A.R.; Mitchell, B.D.; Post, W. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d levels are not associated with subclinical vascular disease or C-reactive protein in the old order amish. Calcif. Tissue Int. 2009, 84, 195-202.
87. Walker, M.D.; Cong, E.; Kepley, A.; di Tullio, M.R.; Rundek, T.; Homma, S.; Lee, J.A.; Liu, R.; Young, P.; Zhang, C.; et al. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d level and subclinical cardiovascular disease in primary hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2014, 99, 671-680.
88. De Boer, I.H.; Kestenbaum, B.; Shoben, A.B.; Michos, E.D.; Sarnak, M.J.; Siscovick, D.S. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D levels inversely associate with risk for developing coronary artery calcification. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009, 20, 1805-1812.
89. García-Canton, C.; Bosch, E.; Ramírez, A.; Gonzalez, Y.; Auyanet, I.; Guerra, R.; Perez, M.A.; Fernández, E.; Toledo, A.; Lago, M.; et al. Vascular calcification and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in non-dialysis patients with chronic kidney disease stages 4 and 5. Nephrol. Dial.Transplant. 2011, 26, 2250-2256.
90. Lee, S.Y.; Kim, H.Y.; Gu, S.W.; Kim, H.J.; Yang, D.H. 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and vascular calcification in predialysis and dialysis patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2012, 35, 349-354.
91. Young, K.A.; Snell-Bergeon, J.K.; Naik, R.G.; Hokanson, J.E.; Tarullo, D.; Gottlieb, P.A.; Garg, S.K.; Rewers, M. Vitamin D deficiency and coronary artery calcification in subjects with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011, 34, 454-458.
92. Dishmon, D.A.; Dotson, J.L.; Munir, A.; Nelson, M.D.; Bhattacharya, S.K.D.; Cruz, I.A.; Davis, R.C.; Weber, K.T. Hypovitaminosis D and valvular calcification in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Med. Sci. 2009, 337, 312-316.
93. Arad, Y.; Spadaro, L.A.; Roth, M.; Scordo, J.; Goodman, K.; Sherman, S.; Lerner, G.; Newstein, D.; Guerci, A.D. Serum concentration of calcium, 1,25 vitamin D and parathyroid hormone are not correlated with coronary calcifications. An electron beam computed tomography study. Coron. Artery Dis. 1998, 9, 513-518.
94. Watson, K.E.; Abrolat, M.L.; Malone, L.L.; Hoeg, J.M.; Doherty, T.; Detrano, R.; Demer, L.L. Active serum vitamin D levels are inversely correlated with coronary calcification. Circulation 1997, 96, 1755-1760.
95. Yokoyama, K. Study on vascular calcification in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD): Special reference to active vitamin D (VD) treatment. Nihon Jinzo Gakkai Shi 1993, 35, 1171-1180.
96. Allison, M.A.; Carr, J.J.; Langer, R.D.; Cochrane, B.B.; Hendrix, S.L.; Hsia, J.; Hunt, J.R.; Lewis, C.E.; Margolis, K.L.; Robinson, J.G.; et al. Calcium/vitamin D supplementation and coronary artery calcification in the Women's Health Initiative. Menopause 2010, 17, 683-691.
97. Hsia, J.; Heiss, G.; Ren, H.; Allison, M.; Dolan, N.C.; Greenland, P.; Heckbert, S.R.; Johnson, K.C.; Manson, J.E.; Sidney, S.; et al. Calcium/vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular events. Circulation 2007, 115, 846-854.
98. Pearson, D.A. Bone health and osteoporosis: The role of vitamin K and potential antagonism by anticoagulants. Nutr. Clin. Pract. 2007, 22, 517-544.
99. Palaniswamy, C.; Aronow, W.S.; Sekhri, A.; Adapa, S.; Ahn, C.; Singh, T.; Malhotra, B.; Lerner, R. Warfarin use and prevalence of coronary artery calcification assessed by multislice computed tomography. Am. J. Ther. 2012, 21, 148-151.
100. Schurgers, L.J.; Joosen, I.A.; Laufer, E.M.; Chatrou, M.L.; Herfs, M.; Winkens, M.H.; Westenfeld, R.; Veulemans, V.; Krueger, T.; Shanahan, C.M.; et al. Vitamin K-antagonists accelerate atherosclerotic calcification and induce a vulnerable plaque phenotype. PLo S ONE 2012, 7, e43229.
101. Lerner, R.G.; Aronow, W.S.; Sekhri, A.; Palaniswamy, C.; Ahn, C.; Singh, T.; Sandhu, R.; McClung, J.A. Warfarin use and the risk of valvular calcification. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2009, 7, 2023-2027.
102. Fusaro, M.; Tripepi, G.; Noale, M.; Plebani, M.; Zaninotto, M.; Piccoli, A.; Naso, A.; Miozzo, D.; Giannini, S.; Avolio, M.; et al. Prevalence of vertebral fractures, vascular calcifications, and mortality in warfarin treated hemodialysis patients. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol. 2013, in press.
103. Beulens, J.W.; Bots, M.L.; Atsma, F.; Bartelink, M.L.; Prokop, M.; Geleijnse, J.M.; Witteman, J.C.; Grobbee, D.E.; van der Schouw, Y.T. High dietary menaquinone intake is associated with reduced coronary calcification. Atherosclerosis 2009, 203, 489-493.
104. Geleijnse, J.M.; Vermeer, C.; Grobbee, D.E.; Schurgers, L.J.; Knapen, M.H.; van der Meer, I.M.; Hofman, A.; Witteman, J.C. Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: The Rotterdam Study. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 3100-3105.
105. Shea, M.K.; Booth, S.L.; Miller, M.E.; Burke, G.L.; Chen, H.; Cushman, M.; Tracy, R.P.; Kritchevsky, S.B. Association between circulating vitamin K1 and coronary calcium progression in community-dwelling adults: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 98, 197-208.
106. Fusaro, M.; Noale, M.; Viola, V.; Galli, F.; Tripepi, G.; Vajente, N.; Plebani, M.; Zaninotto, M.; Guglielmi, G.; Miotto, D.; et al. Vitamin K, vertebral fractures, vascular calcifications, and mortality: VItamin K Italian (VIKI) dialysis study. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2012, 27, 2271-2278.
107. Dalmeijer, G.W.; van der Schouw, Y.T.; Vermeer, C.; Magdeleyns, E.J.; Schurgers, L.J. Circulating matrix Gla protein is associated with coronary artery calcification and vitamin K status in healthy women. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2013, 24, 624-628.
108. Dalmeijer, G.W.; van der Schouw, Y.T.; Booth, S.L; de Jong, P.A.; Beulens, J.W. Phylloquinone concentrations and the risk of vascular calcification in healthy women. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2014, 34, 1587-1590.
109. Pilkey, R.M.; Morton, A.R.; Boffa, M.B.; Noordhof, C.; Day, A.G.; Su, Y.; Miller, L.M. Koschinsky, M.L.; Booth, S.L. Subclinical vitamin K deficiency in hemodialysis patients. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2007, 49, 432-439.
110. Shea, M.K.; O'Donnell, C.J.; Hoffmann, U.; Dallal, G.E.; Dawson-Hughes, B.; Ordovas, J.M.; Price, P.A.; Williamson, M.K.; Booth, S.L. Vitamin K supplementation and progression of coronary artery calcium in older men and women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 89, 1799-1807.
111. McCabe, K.M.; Booth, S.L.; Fu, X.; Shobeiri, N.; Pang, J.J.; Adams, M.A.; Holden, R.M. Dietary vitamin K and therapeutic warfarin alter the susceptibility to vascular calcification in experimental chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2013, 83, 835-844.
112. Schurgers, L.J.; Spronk, H.M.; Skepper, J.N.; Hackeng, T.M.; Shanahan, C.M.; Vermeer, C.; Weissberg, P.L.; Proudfoot, D. Post-translational modifications regulate matrix Gla protein function: Importance for inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2007, 5, 2503-2511.
113. Spronk, H.M.; Soute, B.A.; Schurgers, L.J.; Thijssen, H.H.; de Mey, J.G.; Vermeer, C. Tissue-specific utilization of menaquinone-4 results in the prevention of arterial calcification in warfarin-treated rats. J. Vasc. Res. 2003, 40, 531-537.
114. Cranenburg, E.C.; Brandenburg, V.M.; Vermeer, C.; Stenger, M.; Mühlenbruch, G.; Mahnken, A.H.; Gladziwa, U.; Ketteler, M.; Schurgers, L.J. Uncarboxylated matrix Gla protein (uc MGP) is associated with coronary artery calcification in haemodialysis patients. Thromb. Haemost. 2009, 101, 359-366.
115. Liabeuf, S.; Olivier, B.; Vemeer, C.; Theuwissen, E.; Magdeleyns, E.; Aubert, C.E.; Brazier, M.; Mentaverri, R.; Hartemann, A.; Massy, Z.A. Vascular calcification in patients with type 2 diabetes: The involvement of matrix Gla protein. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2014, 13, 85.
116. Shea, M.K.; O'Donnell, C.J.; Vermeer, C.; Magdeleyns, E.J.; Crosier, M.D.; Gundberg, C.M.; Ordovas, J.M.; Kritchevsky, S.B.; Booth, S.L. Circulating uncarboxylated matrix Gla protein is associated with vitamin K nutritional status, but not coronary artery calcium, in older adults. J. Nutr. 2011, 141, 1529-1534.
117. Hirasaka, N.; Liang, X.M.; Mune, M. Atherosclerosis and vascular calcification in hemodialysis patients. Clin. Calcium. 2004, 14, 85-90.
118. Chavan, S.N.; More, U.; Mulgund, S.; Saxena, V.; Sontakke, A.N. Effect of supplementation of vitamin C and E on oxidative stress in osteoporosis. Indian J. Clin. Biochem. 2007, 22, 101-105.
119. Ahmadi, N.; Tsimikas, S.; Hajsadeghi, F.; Saeed, A.; Nabavi, V.; Bevinal, M.A.; Kadakia, J.; Flores, F.; Ebrahimi, R.; Budoff, M.J. Relation of oxidative biomarkers, vascular dysfunction, and progression of coronary artery calcium. Am. J. Cardiol. 2010, 105, 459-466.
120. Watanabe, K.; Ohara, M.; Suzuki, T.; Ouchi, M.; Suzuki, K.; Hashimoto, M.; Saigusa, T.; Aoyama, J.; Nakano, H.; Oba, K. Aortic arch calcification detectable on chest X-ray films is associated with plasma diacron-reactive oxygen metabolites in patients with type 2 diabetes but without cardiovascular disease. J. Nippon. Med. Sch. 2013, 80, 410-419.
121. Liberman, M.; Bassi, E.; Martinatti, M.K.; Lario, F.C.; Wosniak, J.; Pomerantzeff, P.M.; Laurindo, F.R. Oxidant generation predominates around calcifying foci and enhances progression of aortic valve calcification. Atheroscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2008, 28, 463-470.
122. Muteliefu, G.; Enomoto, A.; Niwa, T. Indoxyl sulfate promotes proliferation of human aortic smooth muscle cells by inducing oxidative stress. J. Ren. Nutr. 2009, 19, 29-32.
123. Mody, N.; Parhami, F.; Sarafian, T.A.; Demer, L.L. Oxidative stress modulates osteoblastic differentiation of vascular and bone cells. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2001, 31, 509-519.
124. Valabhji, J.; McColl, A.J.; Richmond, W.; Schachter, M.; Rubens, M.B.; Elkeles, R.S. Total antioxidant status and coronary artery calcification in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001, 24, 1608-1613.
125. Conaway, H.H.; Henning, P.; Lerner, U.H. Vitamin A metabolism, action and role in skeletal homeostasis. Endocr. Rev. 2013, 34, 766-797.
126. Hatzigeorgiou, C.; Taylor, A.J.; Feuerstein, I.M.; Bautista, L.; O'Malley, P.G. Antioxidant vitamin intake and subclinical coronary atherosclerosis. Prev. Cardiol. 2006, 9, 75-81.
127. Huang, G.; Wang, D.; Khan, U.I.; Zeb, I.; Manson, J.E.; Miller, V.; Hodis, H.N.; Budoff, M.J.; Merriam, G.R.; Harman, S.M.; et al. Associations between retinol-binding protein 4 and cardiometabolic risk factors and subclinical atherosclerosis in recently postmenopausal women: Cross-sectional analyses from the KEEPS Study. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2012, 11, 52.
128. Huk, D.J.; Hammond, H.L.; Kegechika, H.; Lincoln, J. Increased dietary intake of vitamin A promotes aortic valve calcification in vivo. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2013, 33, 285-293.
129. McQuillan, B.M.; Hung, J.; Beilby, J.P.; Nido, M.; Thompson, P.L. Antioxidant vitamins and the risk of carotid atherosclerosis. The Perth Carotid Ultrasound Disease Assessment study (CUDAS). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2001, 38, 1788-1794.
130. Klipstein-Grobusch, K.; Launer, L.J.; Geleijnse, J.M.; Boeing, H.; Hofman, A.; Witteman, J.C. Serum carotenoids and atherosclerosis. The Rotterdam Study. Atherosclerosis 2000, 148, 49-56.
131. Nieves, J.W. Osteoporosis: The role of micronutrients. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 81, 1232S-1239S.
132. Arad, Y.; Spadaro, L.A.; Roth, M.; Newstein, D.; Guerci, A.D. Treatment of asymptomatic adults with elevated coronary calcium scores with atorvastatin, vitamin C, and vitamin E: The St. Francis Heart Study randomized clinical trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005, 46, 166-172.
133. Takata, T.; Ikeda, M.; Kodama, H.; Kitagawa, N. Treatment of pseudoxanthoma elasticum with tocopherol acetate and ascorbic acid. Pediatr. Dermatol. 2007, 24, 424-425.
134. Vasudev, S.C.; Chandy, T.; Sharma, C.P. Glutaraldehyde treated bovine pericardium: Changes in calcification due to vitamins and platelet inhibitors. Artif. Organs. 1997, 21, 1007-1013.
135. Aggarwal, B.B.; Sundaram, C.; Prasad, S.; Kannappan, R. Tocotrienols, the vitamin E of the 21st century: Its potential against cancer and other chronic diseases. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2010, 80, 1613-1631.
136. Naina Mohamed, I.; Borhanuddin, B.; Shuid, A.N.; Mohd Fozi, N.F. Vitamin E and bone structural changes: An evidence-based review. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2012, 2012, 250584
137. Vogt, M.T.; San Valentin, R.; Forrest, K.Y.; Nevitt, M.C.; Cauley, J.A. Bone mineral density and aortic calcification: the Study of Osteoporotic Fractures. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 1997, 45, 140-145.
138. Van Woudenbergh, G.J.; Vliegenthart, R.; van Rooij, F.J.; Hofman, A.; Oudkerk, M.; Witteman, J.C.; Geleijnse, J.M. Coffee consumption and coronary calcification: The Rotterdam Coronary Calcification Study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2008, 28, 1018-1023.
139. Rehman, H.; Krishnasamy, Y.; Haque, K.; Thurman, R.G.; Lemasters, J.J.; Schnellmann, R.G.; Zhong, Z. Green tea polyphenols stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis and improve renal function after chronic cyclosporin a treatment in rats. PLo S ONE 2013, 38, e65029.
140. Beazley, K.E.; Lima, F.; Borras, T.; Nurminskaya, M. Attenuation of chondrogenic transformation in vascular smooth muscle by dietary quercetin in the MGP-deficient mouse model. PLo S ONE 2013, 8, e76210.
141. Liu, Y.; Liu, W.; Sun, G.; Wei, X.; Yi, D. Calcification resistance of procyanidin-treated decellularized porcine aortic valves in vivo. Heart Surg. Forum. 2009, 12, E24-E29.
142. Peng, C.C.; Hsieh, C.L.; Ker, Y.B.; Wang, H.Y.; Chen, K.C.; Peng, R.Y. Selected nutraceutic screening by therapeutic effects on doxorubicin-induced chronic kidney disease. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2012, 56, 1541-1558.
143. Nicoll, R.; Henein, M.Y. Alcohol and the heart. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2011, 35, 1737-1738.
144. Vliegenthart, R.; Oei, H.H.; van den Elzen, A.P.; van Rooij, F.J.; Hofman, A.; Oudkerk, M.; Witteman, J.C. Alcohol consumption and coronary calcification in general population. Arch. Intern. Med. 2004, 164, 2355-2660.
145. Tomayko, E.J.; Cachia, A.J.; Chung, H.R.; Wilund, K.R. Resveratrol supplementation reduces aortic atherosclerosis and calcification and attenuates loss of aerobic capacity in a mouse model of uremia. J. Med. Food 2014, 17, 278-283.
146. Kim, H.S.; Shin, H.I.; Lim, H.S.; Lee, T.Y.; Lee, K.; Jeong, D. α-Lipoic acid attenuates coxsackievirus B3-induced ectopic calcification in heart, pancreas, and lung. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2013, 432, 378-383.
147. Bassi, E.; Liberman, M.; Martinatti, M.K.; Bortolotto, L.A.; Leurindo, F.R. Lipoic acid, but not tempol, preserves vascular compliance and decreases medial calcification in a model of elastocalcinosis. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 2014, 47, 119-127.
148. Ivanovski, O.; Nikolov, I.G.; Drueke, B.T.; Massy, A.Z. Atherosclerosis and vascular calcification in uraemia-A new experimental model. Prilozi 2007, 28, 11-24.
149. Muteliefu, G.; Shimizu, H.; Enomoto, A.; Nishijima, F.; Takahashi, M.; Niwa, T. Indoxyl sulfate promotes vascular smooth muscle cell senescence with upregulation of p53, p21 and prelamin A through oxidative stress. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 2012, 303, C126-C134.
150. Nakahara, T.; Sato, H.; Shimizu, T.; Tanaka, T.; Matsui, H.; Kawai-Kowase, K.; Sato, M.; Iso. T.; Arai, M.; Kurabayashi, M. Fibroblast growth factor-2 induces osteogenic differentiation through a Runx2 activation in vascular smooth muscle cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2010, 394, 243-248.
151. Stanger, O.; Herrmann, W.; Pietrzik, K.; Fowler, B.; Geisel, J.; Dierkes, J.; Weger, M. DACH-LIGA Homocystein (German, Austrian and Swiss Homocysteine Society): Consensus paper on the rational clinical use of homocysteine, folic acid and B-vitamins in cardiovascular and thrombotic diseases: Guidelines and recommendations. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2003, 41, 1392-1403.
152. Clarke, R.; Halsey, J.; Lewington, S.; Lonn, E.; Armitage, J.; Manson, J.E.; Bønaa, K.H.; Spence, J.D.; Nygård, O.; Jamison. R.; et al. Effects of lowering homocysteine levels with B vitamins on cardiovascular disease, cancer, and cause-specific mortality: Meta-analysis of 8 randomized trials involving 37,485 individuals. Arch. Intern. Med. 2010, 170, 1622-1631.
153. Clarke, R. Lowering blood homocysteine with folic acid-based supplements: Meta-analysis of randomised trials. Indian Heart J. 2000, 52, S59-S64.
154. Homocysteine Lowering Trialists' Collaboration. Dose-dependent effects of folic acid on blood concentrations of homocysteine: A meta-analysis of the randomized trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 82, 806-812.
155. Ebbing, M.; Bønaa, K.H.; Arnesen, E.; Ueland, P.M.; Nordrehaug, J.E.; Rasmussen, K.; Njølstad, I.; Nilsen, D.W.; Refsum, H.; Tverdal, A.; et al. Combined analyses and extended follow-up of two randomized controlled homocysteine-lowering B-vitamin trials. J. Intern. Med. 2010, 268, 367-382.
156. Sarwar, A.B.; Sarwar, A.; Rosen, B.D.; Nasir, K. Measuring subclinical atherosclerosis: Is homocysteine relevant? Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2007, 45, 1667-1677.
157. Kim, B.J.; Kim, B.S.; Kang, J.H. Plasma homocysteine and coronary artery calcification in Korean men. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2014, 22, 478-485.
158. Sun, Q.; Jia, X.; Gao, J.; Mou, W.; Tong, H.; Wen, X.; Tian, Y. Association of serum homocysteine levels with the severity and calcification of coronary atherosclerotic plaques detected by coronary CT angiography. Int. Angiol. 2014, 33, 316-323.
159. Van Campenhout, A.; Moran, C.S.; Parr, A.; Clancy, P.; Rush, C.; Jakubowski, H.; Golledge, J. Role of homocysteine in aortic calcification and osteogenic cell differentiation. Atherosclerosis 2009, 202, 557-566.
160. Bozbas, H.; Yildirir, A.; Atar, I.; Pirat, B.; Eroglu, S.; Aydinalp, A.; Ozin, B.; Muderrisoglu, H. Effects of serum levels of novel atherosclerotic risk factors on aortic valve calcification. J. Heart Valve Dis. 2007, 16, 387-393.
161. Held, C.; Sumner, G.; Sheridan, P.; McQueen, M.; Smith, S.; Dagenais, G.; Yusuf, S.; Lonn, E. Correlations between plasma homocysteine and folate concentrations and carotid atherosclerosis in high-risk individuals: Baseline data from the Homocysteine and Atherosclerosis Reduction Trial (HART). Vasc. Med. 2008, 13, 245-253.
162. Rasouli, M.L.; Nasir, K.; Blumenthal, R.S.; Park, R.; Aziz, D.C.; Budoff, M.J. Plasma homocysteine predicts progression of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 2005, 181, 159-165.
163. Russo, D.; Corrao, S.; Miranda, I.; Ruocco, C.; Manzi, S.; Elefante, R.; Brancaccio, D.; Cozzolino, M.; Biondi M.L.; Andreucci, V.E. Progression of coronary artery calcification in predialysis patients. Am. J. Nephrol. 2007, 27, 152-158.
164. He, J.; Reilly, M.; Yang, W.; Chen, J.; Go, A.S.; Lash, J.P.; Rahman, M.; De Filippi, C.; Gadegbeku, C.; Kanthety, R.; et al. Risk factors for coronary artery calcium among patients with chronic kidney disease (from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort Study). Am. J. Cardiol. 2012, 110, 1735-1741.
165. Petrović, D.; Obrenović, R.; Stojimirović, B. Risk factors for aortic valve calcification in patients on regular hemodialysis. Int. J. Artif. Organs. 2009, 32, 173-179.
166. Hodis, H.N.; Mack, W.J.; Dustin, L.; Mahrer, P.R.; Azen, S.P.; Detrano, R.; Selhub, J.; Alaupovic, P.; Liu, C.R.; Liu, C.H.; et al. High-dose B vitamin supplementation and progression of subclinical atherosclerosis: A randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2009, 40, 730-736.
167. Budoff, M.J.; Ahmadi, N.; Gul, K.M.; Liu, S.T.; Flores, F.R.; Tiano, J.; Takasu, J.; Miller, E.; Tsimikas, S. Aged garlic extract supplemented with B vitamins, folic acid and L-arginine retards the progression of subclinical atherosclerosis: A randomized clinical trial. Prev. Med. 2009, 49, 101-107.
168. Ahmadi, N.; Nabavi, V.; Hajsadeghi, F.; Zeb, I.; Flores, F.; Ebrahimi, R.; Budoff, M. Aged garlic extract with supplement is associated with increase in brown adipose, decrease in white adipose tissue and predict lack of progression in coronary atherosclerosis. Int. J. Cardiol. 2013, 168, 2310-2314
169. Demer, L.L. Vascular calcification and osteoporosis: Inflammatory responses to oxidised lipids. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2002, 31, 737-741.
170. Maziere, C.; Salle, V.; Gomila, C.; Maziere, J.C. Oxidised low density lipoprotein increases RANKL level in human vascular cells. Involvement of oxidative stress. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2013, 440, 295-299.
171. Hofbauer, L.C.; Brueck, C.C.; Shanahan, C.M.; Schoppet, M.; Dobnig, H. Vascular calcification and osteoporosis-From clinical observation towards molecular understanding. Osteoporos. Int. 2007, 18, 251-259.
172. Anagnostis, P.; Karagiannis, A.; Kakafika, A.I.; Tziomalos, K.; Athyros, V.G.; Mikhailidis, D.P. Atherosclerosis and osteoporosis: Age-dependent degenerative processes or related entities? Osteoporosis Int. 2009, 20, 197-207.
173. Fukami, K.; Yamagishi, S.I.; Okuda, S. Role of AGEs-RAGE system in cardiovascular disease. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2013, 20, 2395-2402.
174. Wang, Y.; Zhang, Z.Y.; Chen, X.Q.; Wang, X.; Cao, H.; Liu, S.W. Advanced glycation end products promote human aortic smooth muscle cell calcification in vitro via activating NF-κ B and down-regulating IGF1R expression. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2013, 34, 480-486.
175. Wei, Q.; Ren, X.; Jiang, Y.; Jin, H.; Liu, N.; Li, J. Advanced glycation end products accelerate rat vascular calcification through RAGE/oxidative stress. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 2013, 13, 13.
176. Tanikawa, T.; Okada, Y.; Tanikawa, R.; Tanaka, Y. Advanced glycation end products induce calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells through RAGE/p38 MAPK. J. Vasc. Res. 2009, 46, 572-580.
177. Chang, L.; Zhao, J.; Xu, J.; Jiang, W.; Tang, C.S.; Qi, Y.F. Effects of taurine and homocysteine on calcium homeostasis and hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anions in rat myocardial mitochondria. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2004, 31, 237-243.
178. Zhang, X.; Li, H.; Jin, H.; Ebin, Z.; Brodsky, S.; Goligorsky, M.S. Effects of homocysteine on endothelial nitric oxide production. Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol. 2000, 279, F671-F678.
179. Yang, Y.; Yu, F.; Li, J.X.; Tang, C.S.; Li, C.Y. Promoting effect of hyperhomocysteinemia on vascular calcification in rats. Zhongguo Ying Yong Sheng Li Xue Za Zhi 2004, 20, 333-336.
180. Vervoort, L.M.; Ronden, J.E.; Thijssen, H.H. The potent antioxidant activity of the vitamin K cycle in microsomal lipid peroxidation. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1999, 54, 871-876.
181. Hiruma, Y.; Nakahama, K.; Fujita, H.; Morita, I. Vitamin K2 and geranylgeraniol, its side chain component, inhibited osteoclast formation in a different manner. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2004, 314, 24-30.