NeuroHIV and use of addictive substances

International Review of Neurobiology

Volumn 118, Issue , 2014, Pages 403-440

  Chang, Sulie L ^a   Connaghan, Kaitlyn P ^a   Wei, Yufeng ^a   Li, Ming D ^b  

^a SETON HALL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

Author keywords

NeuroHIV; Neuroinflammation; Substance abuse

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; CANNABIS; COCAINE; DELTA OPIATE RECEPTOR; KAPPA OPIATE RECEPTOR; METHAMPHETAMINE; MORPHINE; MU OPIATE RECEPTOR; NICOTINE; CYTOKINE;

ADVERSE OUTCOME; ALCOHOLISM; ARTICLE; CANNABIS ADDICTION; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1 INFECTION; METHAMPHETAMINE DEPENDENCE; MORPHINE ADDICTION; NERVOUS SYSTEM INFLAMMATION; NEUROIMMUNOLOGY; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SYSTEMIC DISEASE; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; ANIMAL; BRAIN; ENCEPHALITIS; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HIV INFECTIONS; IMMUNOLOGY; METABOLISM; PATHOLOGY; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; VIROLOGY;

ANIMALS; ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; BRAIN; CYTOKINES; ENCEPHALITIS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS;

EID: 84906773682     PISSN: 00747742     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-801284-0.00013-0     Document Type: Chapter

References (253)

1. Abreu-Villaca Y., Medeiros A.H., Lima C.S., Faria F.P., Filgueiras C.C., Manhaes A.C. Combined exposure to nicotine and ethanol in adolescent mice differentially affects memory and learning during exposure and withdrawal. Behavioural Brain Research 2007, 181(1):136-146. 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.03.035.
2. Agatsuma S., Dang M.T., Li Y., Hiroi N. N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors on striatal neurons are essential for cocaine cue reactivity in mice. Biological Psychiatry 2010, 67(8):778-780. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.12.023.
3. Aggarwal S.K., Carter G.T., Sullivan M.D., ZumBrunnen C., Morrill R., Mayer J.D. Medicinal use of cannabis in the United States: Historical perspectives, current trends, and future directions. Journal of Opioid Management 2009, 5(3):153-168.
4. Aksenov M.Y., Aksenova M.V., Mactutus C.F., Booze R.M. D1/NMDA receptors and concurrent methamphetamine+ HIV-1 Tat neurotoxicity. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2012, 7(3):599-608. 10.1007/s11481-012-9362-3.
5. Aksenov M.Y., Hasselrot U., Bansal A.K., Wu G., Nath A., Anderson C., et al. Oxidative damage induced by the injection of HIV-1 Tat protein in the rat striatum. Neuroscience Letters 2001, 305(1):5-8.
6. Alkhatib G., Combadiere C., Broder C.C., Feng Y., Kennedy P.E., Murphy P.M., et al. CC CKR5: A RANTES, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta receptor as a fusion cofactor for macrophage-tropic HIV-1. Science 1996, 272(5270):1955-1958.
7. Aller M.A., Arias J.L., Lorente L., Nava M.P., Duran H.J., Arias J. Neuro-immune-endocrine functional system and vascular pathology. Medical Hypotheses 2001, 57(5):561-569. 10.1054/mehy.2001.1408.
8. Amara S.G., Kuhar M.J. Neurotransmitter transporters: Recent progress. Annual Review of Neuroscience 1993, 16:73-93. 10.1146/annurev.ne.16.030193.000445.
9. Anthony I.C., Bell J.E. The neuropathology of HIV/AIDS. International Review of Psychiatry 2008, 20(1):15-24. 10.1080/09540260701862037.
10. Antinori A., Arendt G., Becker J.T., Brew B.J., Byrd D.A., Cherner M., et al. Updated research nosology for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neurology 2007, 69(18):1789-1799. 10.1212/01.WNL.0000287431.88658.8b.
11. Antinori A., Trotta M.P., Lorenzini P., Torti C., Gianotti N., Maggiolo F., et al. Virological response to salvage therapy in HIV-infected persons carrying the reverse transcriptase K65R mutation. Antiviral Therapy 2007, 12(8):1175-1183.
12. Athyros V.G., Liberopoulos E.N., Mikhailidis D.P., Papageorgiou A.A., Ganotakis E.S., Tziomalos K., et al. Association of drinking pattern and alcohol beverage type with the prevalence of metabolic syndrome, diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, and peripheral arterial disease in a Mediterranean cohort. Angiology 2007, 58(6):689-697. 10.1177/0003319707306146.
13. Avdoshina V., Biggio F., Palchik G., Campbell L.A., Mocchetti I. Morphine induces the release of CCL5 from astrocytes: Potential neuroprotective mechanism against the HIV protein gp120. Glia 2010, 58(13):1630-1639. 10.1002/glia.21035.
14. Azaryan A.V., Clock B.J., Cox B.M. Mu opioid receptor mRNA in nucleus accumbens is elevated following dopamine receptor activation. Neurochemical Research 1996, 21(11):1411-1415.
15. Ballester L.Y., Capo-Velez C.M., Garcia-Beltran W.F., Ramos F.M., Vazquez-Rosa E., Rios R., et al. Up-regulation of the neuronal nicotinic receptor alpha7 by HIV glycoprotein 120: Potential implications for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2012, 287(5):3079-3086. 10.1074/jbc.M111.262543.
16. Bartus R.T. On neurodegenerative diseases, models, and treatment strategies: Lessons learned and lessons forgotten a generation following the cholinergic hypothesis. Experimental Neurology 2000, 163(2):495-529. 10.1006/exnr.2000.7397.
17. Ben Amar M. Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2006, 105(1-2):1-25. 10.1016/j.jep.2006.02.001.
18. Berman S.M., Kuczenski R., McCracken J.T., London E.D. Potential adverse effects of amphetamine treatment on brain and behavior: A review. Molecular Psychiatry 2009, 14(2):123-142. 10.1038/mp.2008.90.
19. Bhat V.M., Cole J.W., Sorkin J.D., Wozniak M.A., Malarcher A.M., Giles W.H., et al. Dose-response relationship between cigarette smoking and risk of ischemic stroke in young women. Stroke 2008, 39(9):2439-2443. 10.1161/STROKEAHA.107.510073.
20. Bilbo S.D., Schwarz J.M. Early-life programming of later-life brain and behavior: A critical role for the immune system. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 2009, 3:14. 10.3389/neuro.08.014.2009.
21. Bland S.T., Beckley J.T., Watkins L.R., Maier S.F., Bilbo S.D. Neonatal Escherichia coli infection alters glial, cytokine, and neuronal gene expression in response to acute amphetamine in adolescent rats. Neuroscience Letters 2010, 474(1):52-57. 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.006.
22. Blednov Y.A., Benavidez J.M., Geil C., Perra S., Morikawa H., Harris R.A. Activation of inflammatory signaling by lipopolysaccharide produces a prolonged increase of voluntary alcohol intake in mice. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 2011, 25(Suppl. 1):S92-S105. 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.01.008.
23. Bleul C.C., Farzan M., Choe H., Parolin C., Clark-Lewis I., Sodroski J., et al. The lymphocyte chemoattractant SDF-1 is a ligand for LESTR/fusin and blocks HIV-1 entry. Nature 1996, 382(6594):829-833.
24. Blomster J.I., Zoungas S., Chalmers J., Li Q., Chow C.K., Woodward M., et al. The relationship between alcohol consumption and vascular complications and mortality in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2014, 37:1353-1359. 10.2337/dc13-2727.
25. Borgelt L.M., Franson K.L., Nussbaum A.M., Wang G.S. The pharmacologic and clinical effects of medical cannabis. Pharmacotherapy 2013, 33(2):195-209. 10.1002/phar.1187.
26. Bracci L., Lozzi L., Rustici M., Neri P. Binding of HIV-1 gp120 to the nicotinic receptor. FEBS Letters 1992, 311(2):115-118.
27. Brew B.J., Crowe S.M., Landay A., Cysique L.A., Guillemin G. Neurodegeneration and ageing in the HAART era. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2009, 4(2):163-174. 10.1007/s11481-008-9143-1.
28. Buch S., Yao H., Guo M., Mori T., Su T.P., Wang J. Cocaine and HIV-1 interplay: Molecular mechanisms of action and addiction. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2011, 6(4):503-515. 10.1007/s11481-011-9297-0.
29. Calatayud J., Gonzalez A. History of the development and evolution of local anesthesia since the coca leaf. Anesthesiology 2003, 98(6):1503-1508.
30. Cao J., Wang S., Wang J., Cui W., Nesil T., Vigorito M., et al. RNA deep-sequencing analysis reveals that nicotine restores impaired gene expression by viral proteins in the brains of HIV-1 transgenic rats. PLoS One 2013, 8(7):e68517. 10.1371/journal.pone.0068517.
31. Chang S.L., Beltran J.A., Swarup S. Expression of the mu opioid receptor in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transgenic rat model. Journal of Virology 2007, 81(16):8406-8411. 10.1128/JVI.00155-07.
32. Chang L., Cloak C., Yakupov R., Ernst T. Combined and independent effects of chronic marijuana use and HIV on brain metabolites. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2006, 1(1):65-76. 10.1007/s11481-005-9005-z.
33. Chang S.L., Connaghan K.P. Behavioral and molecular evidence for a feedback interaction between morphine and HIV-1 viral proteins. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2012, 7(2):332-340. 10.1007/s11481-011-9324-1.
34. Chang S.L., Moldow R.L., House S.D., Zadina J.E. Morphine affects the brain-immune axis by modulating an interleukin-1 beta dependent pathway. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 1996, 402:35-42.
35. Chang S.L., Patel N.A., Romero A.A., Thompson J., Zadina J.E. FOS expression induced by interleukin-1 or acute morphine treatment in the rat hypothalamus is attenuated by chronic exposure to morphine. Brain Research 1996, 736(1-2):227-236.
36. Chang S.L., Vigorito M. Role of HIV-1 infection in addictive behavior: A study of an HIV-1 transgenic rat model. American Journal of Infectious Diseases 2006, 2(2):98-106.
37. Chao C.C., Hu S., Sheng W.S., Peterson P.K. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by human fetal microglial cells: Regulation by other cytokines. Developmental Neuroscience 1995, 17(2):97-105.
38. Chen R., Zhou H., Beltran J., Malellari L., Chang S.L. Differential expression of cytokines in the brain and serum during endotoxin tolerance. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2005, 163(1-2):53-72. 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2005.02.012.
39. Choi D.Y., Lee M.K., Hong J.T. Lack of CCR5 modifies glial phenotypes and population of the nigral dopaminergic neurons, but not MPTP-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Neurobiology of Disease 2012, 49C:159-168. 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.08.001.
40. Cicala C., Arthos J., Selig S.M., Dennis G., Hosack D.A., Van Ryk D., et al. HIV envelope induces a cascade of cell signals in non-proliferating target cells that favor virus replication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2002, 99(14):9380-9385.
41. Clapham P.R., McKnight A. HIV-1 receptors and cell tropism. British Medical Bulletin 2001, 58:43-59.
42. Clark P.A., Capuzzi K., Fick C. Medical marijuana: Medical necessity versus political agenda. Medical Science Monitor 2011, 17(12):RA249-RA261.
43. Cristiani S.A., Pukay-Martin N.D., Bornstein R. Marijuana use and cognitive function in HIV-infected people. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2004, 16:330-335.
44. Crocq M.A. Alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, and mental disorders. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 2003, 5(2):175-185.
45. Cui W.Y., Wang J., Wei J., Cao J., Chang S.L., Gu J., et al. Modulation of innate immune-related pathways in nicotine-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Amino Acids 2012, 43(3):1157-1169. 10.1007/s00726-011-1171-0.
46. Cui W.Y., Zhao S., Polanowska-Grabowska R., Wang J., Wei J., Dash B., et al. Identification and characterization of poly(I:C)-induced molecular responses attenuated by nicotine in mouse macrophages. Molecular Pharmacology 2013, 83(1):61-72. 10.1124/mol.112.081497.
47. Cummings S., Parham E.S., Strain G.W., American Dietetic Association Position of the American Dietetic Association: Weight management. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2002, 102(8):1145-1155.
48. Dansak D.A. Medical use of recreational drugs by AIDS patients. Journal of Addictive Diseases 1997, 16(3):25-30. 10.1300/J069v16n03_03.
49. De Simone R., Ajmone-Cat M.A., Carnevale D., Minghetti L. Activation of alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor by nicotine selectively up-regulates cyclooxygenase-2 and prostaglandin E2 in rat microglial cultures. Journal of Neuroinflammation 2005, 2(1):4.
50. de Wied D., Diamant M., Fodor M. Central nervous system effects of the neurohypophyseal hormones and related peptides. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 1993, 14(4):251-302. 10.1006/frne.1993.1009.
51. Deyo R.A., Smith D.H., Johnson E.S., Donovan M., Tillotson C.J., Yang X., et al. Opioids for back pain patients: Primary care prescribing patterns and use of services. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 2011, 24(6):717-727. 10.3122/jabfm.2011.06.100232.
52. Di Chiara G., Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1988, 85(14):5274-5278.
53. Dickie P., Felser J., Eckhaus M., Bryant J., Silver J., Marinos N., et al. HIV-associated nephropathy in transgenic mice expressing HIV-1 genes. Virology 1991, 185(1):109-119.
54. Di Minno M.N., Russolillo A., Lupoli R., Ambrosino P., Di Minno A., Tarantino G. Omega-3 fatty acids for the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. World Journal of Gastroenterology 2012, 18(41):5839-5847. 10.3748/wjg.v18.i41.5839.
55. Djousse L., Gaziano J.M. Alcohol consumption and heart failure: A systematic review. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 2008, 10(2):117-120.
56. D'Souza D.C., Sewell R.A., Ranganathan M. Cannabis and psychosis/schizophrenia: Human studies. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2009, 259(7):413-431. 10.1007/s00406-009-0024-2.
57. Dunn W., Sanyal A.J., Brunt E.M., Unalp-Arida A., Donohue M., McCullough A.J., et al. Modest alcohol consumption is associated with decreased prevalence of steatohepatitis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Journal of Hepatology 2012, 57(2):384-391. 10.1016/j.jhep.2012.03.024.
58. Ehrhart J., Obregon D., Mori T., Hou H., Sun N., Bai Y., et al. Stimulation of cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) suppresses microglial activation. Journal of Neuroinflammation 2005, 2:29. 10.1186/1742-2094-2-29.
59. Elenkov I.J. Effects of catecholamines on the immune response. NeuroImmune Biology 2007, 7:189-206. 10.1016/s1567-7443(07)00210-4.
60. El-Hage N., Podhaizer E.M., Sturgill J., Hauser K.F. Toll-like receptor expression and activation in astroglia: Differential regulation by HIV-1 Tat, gp120, and morphine. Immunological Investigations 2011, 40:498-522. 10.3109/08820139.2011.561904.
61. Espinosa E., Bermudez-Rattoni F. Behavior-immunity relationship: The role of cytokines. Revista de Investigación Clínica 2001, 53(3):240-253.
62. Fattore L., Cossu G., Spano M.S., Deiana S., Fadda P., Scherma M., et al. Cannabinoids and reward: Interactions with the opioid system. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology 2004, 16(1-2):147-158.
63. Fattore L., Spano S., Cossu G., Deiana S., Fadda P., Fratta W. Cannabinoid CB(1) antagonist SR 141716A attenuates reinstatement of heroin self-administration in heroin-abstinent rats. Neuropharmacology 2005, 48(8):1097-1104. 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.01.022.
64. Feldman R.S., Meyer J.S., Quenzer L.F. Principles of neuropsychopharmacology 1997, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
65. Fernandez-Espejo E., Viveros M.P., Nunez L., Ellenbroek B.A., Rodriguez de Fonseca F. Role of cannabis and endocannabinoids in the genesis of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 2009, 206(4):531-549. 10.1007/s00213-009-1612-6.
66. Ferris M.J., Frederick-Duus D., Fadel J., Mactutus C.F., Booze R.M. The human immunodeficiency virus-1-associated protein, Tat1-86, impairs dopamine transporters and interacts with cocaine to reduce nerve terminal function: A no-net-flux microdialysis study. Neuroscience 2009, 159(4):1292-1299. 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.024.
67. Filip M., Golda A., Zaniewska M., McCreary A.C., Nowak E., Kolasiewicz W., et al. Involvement of cannabinoid CB1 receptors in drug addiction: Effects of rimonabant on behavioral responses induced by cocaine. Pharmacological Reports 2006, 58(6):806-819.
68. Friend D.M., Keefe K.A. A role for D1 dopamine receptors in striatal methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity. Neuroscience Letters 2013, 555:243-247. 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.08.039.
69. Fuchs F., Damm J., Gerstberger R., Roth J., Rummel C. Activation of the inflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor interleukin-6 during inflammatory and psychological stress in the brain. Journal of Neuroinflammation 2013, 10:140. 10.1186/1742-2094-10-140.
70. Gala R.R. Prolactin and growth hormone in the regulation of the immune system. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 1991, 198(1):513-527.
71. Gendelman H.E., Genis P., Jett M., Zhai Q.H., Nottet H.S. An experimental model system for HIV-1-induced brain injury. Advances in Neuroimmunology 1994, 4(3):189-193.
72. Gendelman H.E., Zheng J., Coulter C.L., Ghorpade A., Che M., Thylin M., et al. Suppression of inflammatory neurotoxins by highly active antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-associated dementia. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 1998, 178(4):1000-1007.
73. Genis P., Jett M., Bernton E.W., Boyle T., Gelbard H.A., Dzenko K., et al. Cytokines and arachidonic metabolites produced during human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected macrophage-astroglia interactions: Implications for the neuropathogenesis of HIV disease. The Journal of Experimental Medicine 1992, 176(6):1703-1718.
74. Ghitza U.E., Preston K.L., Epstein D.H., Kuwabara H., Endres C.J., Bencherif B., et al. Brain mu-opioid receptor binding predicts treatment outcome in cocaine-abusing outpatients. Biological Psychiatry 2010, 68(8):697-703. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.003.
75. Ghozland S., Matthes H.W., Simonin F., Filliol D., Kieffer B.L., Maldonado R. Motivational effects of cannabinoids are mediated by mu-opioid and kappa-opioid receptors. The Journal of Neuroscience 2002, 22(3):1146-1154.
76. Giovannetti A., Ensoli F., Mazzetta F., De Cristofaro M., Pierdominici M., Muratori D.S., et al. CCR5 and CXCR4 chemokine receptor expression and beta-chemokine production during early T cell repopulation induced by highly active anti-retroviral therapy. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 1999, 118(1):87-94.
77. Gisslen M., Svennerholm B., Fuchs D., Hagberg L. Neurological efficacy of stavudine, zidovudine, and lamivudine. Lancet 1998, 352(9125):402-403.
78. Giulian D., Vaca K., Noonan C.A. Secretion of neurotoxins by mononuclear phagocytes infected with HIV-1. Science 1990, 250(4987):1593-1596.
79. Giunta B., Ehrhart J., Townsend K., Sun N., Vendrame M., Shytle D., et al. Galantamine and nicotine have a synergistic effect on inhibition of microglial activation induced by HIV-1 gp120. Brain Research Bulletin 2004, 64(2):165-170.
80. Goerig M., Bacon D., van Zundert A. Carl Koller, cocaine, and local anesthesia: Some less known and forgotten facts. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2012, 37(3):318-324. 10.1097/AAP.0b013e31825051f3.
81. Gonzalez-Scarano F., Martin-Garcia J. The neuropathogenesis of AIDS. Nature Reviews. Immunology 2005, 5(1):69-81. 10.1038/nri1527.
82. Gorelick D.A., Kim Y.K., Bencherif B., Boyd S.J., Nelson R., Copersino M., et al. Imaging brain mu-opioid receptors in abstinent cocaine users: Time course and relation to cocaine craving. Biological Psychiatry 2005, 57(12):1573-1582. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.026.
83. Gorry P.R., Ong C., Thorpe J., Bannwarth S., Thompson K.A., Gatignol A., et al. Astrocyte infection by HIV-1: Mechanisms of restricted virus replication, and role in the pathogenesis of HIV-1-associated dementia. Current HIV Research 2003, 1(4):463-473.
84. Gould T.J., Lommock J.A. Nicotine enhances contextual fear conditioning and ameliorates ethanol-induced deficits in contextual fear conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience 2003, 117(6):1276-1282. 10.1037/0735-7044.117.6.1276.
85. Granet E. Noninflammatory proctalgias and allied anorectal dyscrasias. The American Journal of Gastroenterology 1957, 28(4):394-402.
86. Gulick D., Gould T.J. Nicotine acts in the anterior cingulate, but not dorsal or ventral hippocampus, to reverse ethanol-induced learning impairments in the plus-maze discriminative avoidance task. Addiction Biology 2011, 16(1):176-188. 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2010.00209.x.
87. Gurwell J.A., Nath A., Sun Q., Zhang J., Martin K.M., Chen Y., et al. Synergistic neurotoxicity of opioids and human immunodeficiency virus-1 Tat protein in striatal neurons in vitro. Neuroscience 2001, 102(3):555-563.
88. Gutala R., Wang J., Hwang Y.Y., Haq R., Li M.D. Nicotine modulates expression of amyloid precursor protein and amyloid precursor-like protein 2 in mouse brain and in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Brain Research 2006, 1093(1):12-19. 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.03.100.
89. Hahn Y.K., Vo P., Fitting S., Block M.L., Hauser K.F., Knapp P.E. beta-Chemokine production by neural and glial progenitor cells is enhanced by HIV-1 Tat: Effects on microglial migration. Journal of Neurochemistry 2010, 114(1):97-109. 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06744.x.
90. Han D.D., Gu H.H. Comparison of the monoamine transporters from human and mouse in their sensitivities to psychostimulant drugs. BMC Pharmacology 2006, 6:6. 10.1186/1471-2210-6-6.
91. Hanson D.J. History of alcohol and drinking around the world Retrieved from. http://www2.potsdam.edu/alcohol/Controversies/1114796842.html.
92. Hauser K.F., El-Hage N., Buch S., Berger J.R., Tyor W.R., Nath A., et al. Molecular targets of opiate drug abuse in neuroAIDS. Neurotoxicity Research 2005, 8(1-2):63-80.
93. Hernandez S.L., Sheyner I., Stover K.T., Stewart J.T. Dronabinol treatment of refractory nausea and vomiting related to peritoneal carcinomatosis. The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care 2013, 10.1177/1049909113504240.
94. Herz A. Opioid reward mechanisms: A key role in drug abuse?. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 1998, 76(3):252-258.
95. Hesselgesser J., Taub D., Baskar P., Greenberg M., Hoxie J., Kolson D.L., et al. Neuronal apoptosis induced by HIV-1 gp120 and the chemokine SDF-1 alpha is mediated by the chemokine receptor CXCR4. Current Biology 1998, 8(10):595-598.
96. Holden J.E., Jeong Y., Forrest J.M. The endogenous opioid system and clinical pain management. AACN Clinical Issues 2005, 16(3):291-301.
97. Homji N.F., Mao X., Langsdorf E.F., Chang S.L. Endotoxin-induced cytokine and chemokine expression in the HIV-1 transgenic rat. Journal of Neuroinflammation 2012, 9:3. 10.1186/1742-2094-9-3.
98. Horuk R., Martin A.W., Wang Z., Schweitzer L., Gerassimides A., Guo H., et al. Expression of chemokine receptors by subsets of neurons in the central nervous system. Journal of Immunology 1997, 158(6):2882-2890.
99. Hosoi T., Nomura Y. Functional role of acetylcholine in the immune system. Frontiers in Bioscience 2004, 9:2414-2419.
100. House S.D., Mao X., Wu G., Espinelli D., Li W.X., Chang S.L. Chronic morphine potentiates the inflammatory response by disrupting interleukin-1beta modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2001, 118(2):277-285.
101. Howard G., Wagenknecht L.E., Burke G.L., Diez-Roux A., Evans G.W., McGovern P., et al. Cigarette smoking and progression of atherosclerosis: The atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. JAMA 1998, 279(2):119-124.
102. Hyman S.E., Malenka R.C., Nestler E.J. Neural mechanisms of addiction: The role of reward-related learning and memory. Annual Review of Neuroscience 2006, 29:565-598. 10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113009.
103. Jankovic B.D., Radulovic J. Enkephalins, brain and immunity: Modulation of immune responses by methionine-enkephalin injected into the cerebral cavity. The International Journal of Neuroscience 1992, 67(1-4):241-270.
104. Jayaram-Lindstrom N., Hammarberg A., Beck O., Franck J. Naltrexone for the treatment of amphetamine dependence: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2008, 165(11):1442-1448. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08020304.
105. Jayaram-Lindstrom N., Konstenius M., Eksborg S., Beck O., Hammarberg A., Franck J. Naltrexone attenuates the subjective effects of amphetamine in patients with amphetamine dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33(8):1856-1863. 10.1038/sj.npp.1301572.
106. Jiang J., Aiken C. Maturation of the viral core enhances the fusion of HIV-1 particles with primary human T cells and monocyte-derived macrophages. Virology 2006, 346(2):460-468.
107. Jones A., McMillan M.R., Jones R.W., Kowalik G.T., Steeden J.A., Pruessner J.C., et al. Habitual alcohol consumption is associated with lower cardiovascular stress responses-A novel explanation for the known cardiovascular benefits of alcohol?. Stress 2013, 16(4):369-376. 10.3109/10253890.2013.777833.
108. Justinova Z., Tanda G., Munzar P., Goldberg S.R. The opioid antagonist naltrexone reduces the reinforcing effects of Delta 9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in squirrel monkeys. Psychopharmacology 2004, 173(1-2):186-194. 10.1007/s00213-003-1693-6.
109. Kass M., Chang S.L. Transgenic rodent models. The neurology of AIDS 2010, Oxford University Press, New York. H.E. Gendelman, I. Grant, I.P. Everall, S.A. Lipton, S. Swindells (Eds.).
110. Kass M.D., Liu X., Vigorito M., Chang L., Chang S.L. Methamphetamine-induced behavioral and physiological effects in adolescent and adult HIV-1 transgenic rats. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2010, 5(4):566-573. 10.1007/s11481-010-9221-z.
111. Katz N. The impact of opioids on the endocrine system. Pain Management Rounds 2005, 1(9):1-6.
112. Kaul M., Lipton S.A. Chemokines and activated macrophages in HIV gp120-induced neuronal apoptosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1999, 96(14):8212-8216.
113. Kaul M., Zheng J., Okamoto S., Gendelman H.E., Lipton S.A. HIV-1 infection and AIDS: Consequences for the central nervous system. Cell Death and Differentiation 2005, 12(Suppl. 1):878-892. 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401623.
114. Kesby J.P., Hubbard D.T., Markou A., Semenova S. Expression of HIV gp120 protein increases sensitivity to the rewarding properties of methamphetamine in mice. Addiction Biology 2012, 10.1111/adb.12023.
115. Khurdayan V.K., Buch S., El-Hage N., Lutz S.E., Goebel S.M., Singh I.N., et al. Preferential vulnerability of astroglia and glial precursors to combined opioid and HIV-1 Tat exposure in vitro. The European Journal of Neuroscience 2004, 19(12):3171-3182.
116. Kihara T., Shimohama S., Sawada H., Kimura J., Kume T., Kochiyama H., et al. Nicotinic receptor stimulation protects neurons against beta-amyloid toxicity. Annals of Neurology 1997, 42(2):159-163.
117. Kikuchi-Utsumi K., Ishizaka M., Matsumura N., Watabe M., Aoyama K., Sasakawa N., et al. Involvement of the alpha(1D)-adrenergic receptor in methamphetamine-induced hyperthermia and neurotoxicity in rats. Neurotoxicity Research 2013, 24(2):130-138. 10.1007/s12640-012-9369-9.
118. Kim B.O., Liu Y., Ruan Y., Xu Z.C., Schantz L., He J.J. Neuropathologies in transgenic mice expressing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat protein under the regulation of the astrocyte-specific glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter and doxycycline. The American Journal of Pathology 2003, 162(5):1693-1707. 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)64304-0.
119. Koob G.F. Negative reinforcement in drug addiction: The darkness within. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2013, 23(4):559-563. 10.1016/j.conb.2013.03.011.
120. Koob G.F., Le Moal M. Plasticity of reward neurocircuitry and the 'dark side' of drug addiction. Nature Neuroscience 2005, 8(11):1442-1444. 10.1038/nn1105-1442.
121. Koob G.F., Le Moal M. Addiction and the brain antireward system. Annual Review of Psychology 2008, 59:29-53. 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093548.
122. Krashin D.L., Merrill J.O., Trescot A.M. Opioids in the management of HIV-related pain. Pain Physician 2012, 15(3 Suppl.):ES157-ES168.
123. Kumar A.M., Fernandez J.B., Singer E.J., Commins D., Waldrop-Valverde D., Ownby R.L., et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the central nervous system leads to decreased dopamine in different regions of postmortem human brains. Journal of Neurovirology 2009, 15(3):257-274. 10.1080/13550280902973952.
124. Landa L., Sulcova A., Slais K. Involvement of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptor activity in the development of behavioural sensitization to methamphetamine effects in mice. Neuro Endocrinology Letters 2006, 27(1-2):63-69.
125. Largent-Milnes T.M., Guo W., Wang H.Y., Burns L.H., Vanderah T.W. Oxycodone plus ultra-low-dose naltrexone attenuates neuropathic pain and associated mu-opioid receptor-Gs coupling. The Journal of Pain 2008, 9(8):700-713. 10.1016/j.jpain.2008.03.005.
126. LaShomb A.L., Vigorito M., Chang S.L. Further characterization of the spatial learning deficits in the human immunodeficiency virus-1 transgenic rat. Journal of Neurovirology 2008, 15:14-24.
127. Ledent C., Valverde O., Cossu G., Petitet F., Aubert J.F., Beslot F., et al. Unresponsiveness to cannabinoids and reduced addictive effects of opiates in CB1 receptor knockout mice. Science 1999, 283(5400):401-404.
128. Leonard S., Mexal S., Freedman R. Smoking, genetics and schizophrenia: Evidence for self medication. Journal of Dual Diagnosis 2007, 3(3-4):43-59. 10.1300/J374v03n03_05.
129. Leri F., Zhou Y., Goddard B., Cummins E., Kreek M.J. Effects of high-dose methadone maintenance on cocaine place conditioning, cocaine self-administration, and mu-opioid receptor mRNA expression in the rat brain. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006, 31(7):1462-1474. 10.1038/sj.npp.1300927.
130. Leri F., Zhou Y., Goddard B., Levy A., Jacklin D., Kreek M.J. Steady-state methadone blocks cocaine seeking and cocaine-induced gene expression alterations in the rat brain. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 19(4):238-249. 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2008.09.004.
131. Li M.D., Cao J., Wang S., Wang J., Sarkar S., Vigorito M., et al. Transcriptome sequencing of gene expression in the brain of the HIV-1 transgenic rat. PLoS One 2013, 8(3):e59582. 10.1371/journal.pone.0059582.
132. Li M.D., Kane J.K., Matta S.G., Blaner W.S., Sharp B.M. Nicotine enhances the biosynthesis and secretion of transthyretin from the choroid plexus in rats: Implications for beta-amyloid formation. The Journal of Neuroscience 2000, 20(4):1318-1323.
133. Li F., Tsien J.Z. Memory and the NMDA receptors. The New England Journal of Medicine 2009, 361(3):302-303. 10.1056/NEJMcibr0902052.
134. Lindl K.A., Marks D.R., Kolson D.L., Jordan-Sciutto K.L. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder: Pathogenesis and therapeutic opportunities. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2010, 5(3):294-309. 10.1007/s11481-010-9205-z.
135. Liu X., Chang L., Vigorito M., Kass M., Li H., Chang S.L. Methamphetamine-induced behavioral sensitization is enhanced in the HIV-1 transgenic rat. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2009, 4(3):309-316. 10.1007/s11481-009-9160-8.
136. Locati M., Murphy P.M. Chemokines and chemokine receptors: Biology and clinical relevance in inflammation and AIDS. Annual Review of Medicine 1999, 50:425-440.
137. Lutge E.E., Gray A., Siegfried N. The medical use of cannabis for reducing morbidity and mortality in patients with HIV/AIDS. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, 4:1-45. CD005175. 10.1002/14651858.CD005175.pub3.
138. Lynch M.E., Campbell F. Cannabinoids for treatment of chronic non-cancer pain; a systematic review of randomized trials. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2011, 72(5):735-744. 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.03970.x.
139. Mahajan S.D., Schwartz S.A., Shanahan T.C., Chawda R.P., Nair M.P. Morphine regulates gene expression of alpha- and beta-chemokines and their receptors on astroglial cells via the opioid mu receptor. Journal of Immunology 2002, 169(7):3589-3599.
140. Maragos W.F., Young K.L., Turchan J.T., Guseva M., Pauly J.R., Nath A., et al. Human immunodeficiency virus-1 Tat protein and methamphetamine interact synergistically to impair striatal dopaminergic function. Journal of Neurochemistry 2002, 83(4):955-963.
141. Marin P., Maus M., Desagher S., Glowinski J., Premont J. Nicotine protects cultured striatal neurones against N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated neurotoxicity. Neuroreport 1994, 5(15):1977-1980.
142. Martin M., Ledent C., Parmentier M., Maldonado R., Valverde O. Cocaine, but not morphine, induces conditioned place preference and sensitization to locomotor responses in CB1 knockout mice. The European Journal of Neuroscience 2000, 12(11):4038-4046.
143. Martin-Sanchez E., Furukawa T.A., Taylor J., Martin J.L. Systematic review and meta-analysis of cannabis treatment for chronic pain. Pain Medicine 2009, 10(8):1353-1368. 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00703.x.
144. Marutle A., Warpman U., Bogdanovic N., Lannfelt L., Nordberg A. Neuronal nicotinic receptor deficits in Alzheimer patients with the Swedish amyloid precursor protein 670/671 mutation. Journal of Neurochemistry 1999, 72(3):1161-1169.
145. McArthur J.C. HIV dementia: An evolving disease. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2004, 157(1-2):3-10. 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.08.042.
146. McArthur J.C., Haughey N., Gartner S., Conant K., Pardo C., Nath A., et al. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated dementia: An evolving disease. Journal of Neurovirology 2003, 9(2):205-221. 10.1080/13550280390194109.
147. McArthur J.C., Steiner J., Sacktor N., Nath A. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurocognitive disorders: Mind the gap. Annals of Neurology 2010, 67(6):699-714. 10.1002/ana.22053.
148. McCarthy L., Wetzel M., Sliker J.K., Eisenstein T.K., Rogers T.J. Opioids, opioid receptors, and the immune response. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2001, 62(2):111-123.
149. Meazza C., Pagani S., Travaglino P., Bozzola M. Effect of growth hormone (GH) on the immune system. Pediatric Endocrinology Reviews 2004, 1(Suppl. 3):490-495.
150. Meucci O., Fatatis A., Simen A.A., Bushell T.J., Gray P.W., Miller R.J. Chemokines regulate hippocampal neuronal signaling and gp120 neurotoxicity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1998, 95(24):14500-14505.
151. Miguez M.J., Shor-Posner G., Morales G., Rodriguez A., Burbano X. HIV treatment in drug abusers: Impact of alcohol use. Addiction Biology 2003, 8(1):33-37. 10.1080/1355621031000069855.
152. Mihailescu S., Drucker-Colin R. Nicotine and brain disorders. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 2000, 21(2):97-104.
153. Mihailescu S., Drucker-Colin R. Nicotine, brain nicotinic receptors, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Archives of Medical Research 2000, 31(2):131-144.
154. Miller A.M., Stella N. CB2 receptor-mediated migration of immune cells: It can go either way. British Journal of Pharmacology 2008, 153(2):299-308. 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707523.
155. Molina-Holgado F., Molina-Holgado E., Guaza C., Rothwell N.J. Role of CB1 and CB2 receptors in the inhibitory effects of cannabinoids on lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide release in astrocyte cultures. Journal of Neuroscience Research 2002, 67(6):829-836.
156. Molitor F., Truax S.R., Ruiz J.D., Sun R.K. Association of methamphetamine use during sex with risky sexual behaviors and HIV infection among non-injection drug users. The Western Journal of Medicine 1998, 168(2):93-97.
157. Moran L.M., Aksenov M.Y., Booze R.M., Webb K.M., Mactutus C.F. Adolescent HIV-1 transgenic rats: Evidence for dopaminergic alterations in behavior and neurochemistry revealed by methamphetamine challenge. Current HIV Research 2012, 10(5):415-424.
158. Moran L.M., Booze R.M., Webb K.M., Mactutus C.F. Neurobehavioral alterations in HIV-1 transgenic rats: Evidence for dopaminergic dysfunction. Experimental Neurology 2013, 239:139-147. 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.10.008.
159. Morch H., Pedersen B.K. Beta-endorphin and the immune system-Possible role in autoimmune diseases. Autoimmunity 1995, 21(3):161-171.
160. Moriya A., Iwasaki Y., Ohguchi S., Kayashima E., Mitsumune T., Taniguchi H., et al. Alcohol consumption appears to protect against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2011, 33(3):378-388. 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2010.04520.x.
161. Mulla A., Buckingham J.C. Regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis by cytokines. Baillière's Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1999, 13(4):503-521.
162. Nath A., Haughey N.J., Jones M., Anderson C., Bell J.E., Geiger J.D. Synergistic neurotoxicity by human immunodeficiency virus proteins Tat and gp120: Protection by memantine. Annals of Neurology 2000, 47(2):186-194.
163. Nath A., Hauser K.F., Wojna V., Booze R.M., Maragos W., Prendergast M., et al. Molecular basis for interactions of HIV and drugs of abuse. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2002, 31(Suppl. 2):S62-S69.
164. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Alcohol facts and statistics from. http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics.
165. National Institute on Drug Abuse Drugs, brains, and behavior: The science of addiction Retrieved from. http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/science-addiction.
166. National Institute on Drug Abuse DrugFacts: Marijuana Retrieved from. http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana.
167. National Survey of Drug Use and Health National survey on drug use and health: Trends in prevalence of various drugs for ages 12 or older, ages 12 to 17, ages 18 to 25, and ages 26 or older; 2010-2012 (in percent) from. http://www.drugabuse.gov/national-survey-drug-use-health.
168. Nazari R., Joshi S. CCR5 as target for HIV-1 gene therapy. Current Gene Therapy 2008, 8(4):264-272.
169. Nazari R., Ma X.Z., Joshi S. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus-1 entry using vectors expressing a multimeric hammerhead ribozyme targeting the CCR5 mRNA. The Journal of General Virology 2008, 89(Pt. 9):2252-2261. 10.1099/vir.0.2008/001222-0.
170. Niaura R., Shadel W.G., Morrow K., Tashima K., Flanigan T., Abrams D.B. Human immunodeficiency virus infection, AIDS, and smoking cessation: The time is now. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2000, 31(3):808-812. 10.1086/314048.
171. Ocasio F.M., Jiang Y., House S.D., Chang S.L. Chronic morphine accelerates the progression of lipopolysaccharide-induced sepsis to septic shock. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2004, 149(1-2):90-100. 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2003.12.016.
172. O'Keefe J.H., Bybee K.A., Lavie C.J. Alcohol and cardiovascular health: The razor-sharp double-edged sword. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2007, 50(11):1009-1014. 10.1016/j.jacc.2007.04.089.
173. Ottaviani E., Franchini A., Genedani S. ACTH and its role in immune-neuroendocrine functions. A comparative study. Current Pharmaceutical Design 1999, 5(9):673-681.
174. Owman C., Fuxe K., Janson A.M., Kahrstrom J. Studies of protective actions of nicotine on neuronal and vascular functions in the brain of rats: Comparison between sympathetic noradrenergic and mesostriatal dopaminergic fiber systems, and the effect of a dopamine agonist. Progress in Brain Research 1989, 79:267-276.
175. Pacheco R., Riquelme E., Kalergis A.M. Emerging evidence for the role of neurotransmitters in the modulation of T cell responses to cognate ligands. Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry 2010, 10(1):65-83.
176. Patrick C.H. Alcohol, culture and society 1952, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
177. Pence B.W., Thielman N.M., Whetten K., Ostermann J., Kumar V., Mugavero M.J. Coping strategies and patterns of alcohol and drug use among HIV-infected patients in the United States Southeast. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 2008, 22(11):869-877. 10.1089/apc.2008.0022.
178. Perry P.J., Argo T.R., Barnett M.J., Liesveld J.L., Liskow B., Hernan J.M., et al. The association of alcohol-induced blackouts and grayouts to blood alcohol concentrations. Journal of Forensic Sciences 2006, 51(4):896-899. 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00161.x.
179. Pettinati H.M., O'Brien C.P., Rabinowitz A.R., Wortman S.P., Oslin D.W., Kampman K.M., et al. The status of naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence: Specific effects on heavy drinking. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2006, 26(6):610-625. 10.1097/01.jcp.0000245566.52401.20.
180. Phillips K., Luk A., Soor G.S., Abraham J.R., Leong S., Butany J. Cocaine cardiotoxicity: A review of the pathophysiology, pathology, and treatment options. American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs 2009, 9(3):177-196. 10.2165/00129784-200909030-00005.
181. Picciotto M.R., Caldarone B.J., King S.L., Zachariou V. Nicotinic receptors in the brain. Links between molecular biology and behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000, 22(5):451-465.
182. Picciotto M.R., Zoli M. Nicotinic receptors in aging and dementia. Journal of Neurobiology 2002, 53(4):641-655. 10.1002/neu.10102.
183. Pivneva T.A. Microglia in normal condition and pathology. Fiziologicheskiǐ Zhurnal 2008, 54(5):81-89.
184. Portegies P. Review of antiretroviral therapy in the prevention of HIV-related AIDS dementia complex (ADC). Drugs 1995, 49(Suppl. 1):25-31. discussion 38-40.
185. Pulliam L., Herndier B.G., Tang N.M., McGrath M.S. Human immunodeficiency virus-infected macrophages produce soluble factors that cause histological and neurochemical alterations in cultured human brains. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 1991, 87(2):503-512.
186. Purohit V., Rapaka R., Shurtleff D. Drugs of abuse, dopamine, and HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders/HIV-associated dementia. Molecular Neurobiology 2011, 44(1):102-110. 10.1007/s12035-011-8195-z.
187. Qiu Y., Peng Y., Wang J. Immunoregulatory role of neurotransmitters. Advances in Neuroimmunology 1996, 6(3):223-231.
188. Rafalowska J. HIV-1-infection in the CNS. A pathogenesis of some neurological syndromes in the light of recent investigations. Folia Neuropathologica 1998, 36(4):211-216.
189. Rao J.S., Kim H.W., Kellom M., Greenstein D., Chen M., Kraft A.D., et al. Increased neuroinflammatory and arachidonic acid cascade markers, and reduced synaptic proteins, in brain of HIV-1 transgenic rats. Journal of Neuroinflammation 2011, 8:101. 10.1186/1742-2094-8-101.
190. Ray P.E., Liu X.H., Robinson L.R., Reid W., Xu L., Owens J.W., et al. A novel HIV-1 transgenic rat model of childhood HIV-1-associated nephropathy. Kidney International 2003, 63(6):2242-2253. 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00028.x.
191. Reid W., Abdelwahab S., Sadowska M., Huso D., Neal A., Ahearn A., et al. HIV-1 transgenic rats develop T cell abnormalities. Virology 2004, 321(1):111-119. 10.1016/j.virol.2003.12.010.
192. Reid W., Sadowska M., Denaro F., Rao S., Foulke J., Hayes N., et al. An HIV-1 transgenic rat that develops HIV-related pathology and immunologic dysfunction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2001, 98(16):9271-9276. 10.1073/pnas.161290298.
193. Reith M.E., Li M.Y., Yan Q.S. Extracellular dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats during intracerebral dialysis following systemic administration of cocaine and other uptake blockers. Psychopharmacology 1997, 134(3):309-317.
194. Ren H., Du C., Yuan Z., Park K., Volkow N.D., Pan Y. Cocaine-induced cortical microischemia in the rodent brain: Clinical implications. Molecular Psychiatry 2012, 17(10):1017-1025. 10.1038/mp.2011.160.
195. Rezvani A.H., Levin E.D. Nicotine-alcohol interactions and cognitive function in rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 2002, 72(4):865-872.
196. Rezvani A.H., Levin E.D. Nicotine-alcohol interactions and attentional performance on an operant visual signal detection task in female rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 2003, 76(1):75-83.
197. Riljak V., Langmeier M. Nicotine an efficient tool of the neurobiological research today, the tool of treatment tomorrow?. Prague Medical Report 2005, 106(4):329-348.
198. Ritz M.C., Lamb R.J., Goldberg S.R., Kuhar M.J. Cocaine receptors on dopamine transporters are related to self-administration of cocaine. Science 1987, 237(4819):1219-1223.
199. Robson P.J. Therapeutic potential of cannabinoid medicines. Drug Testing and Analysis 2014, 6(1-2):24-30. 10.1002/dta.1529.
200. Rogers T.J., Peterson P.K. Opioid G protein-coupled receptors: Signals at the crossroads of inflammation. Trends in Immunology 2003, 24(3):116-121.
201. Royal W., Wang H., Jones O., Tran H., Bryant J.L. A vitamin A deficient diet enhances proinflammatory cytokine, Mu opioid receptor, and HIV-1 expression in the HIV-1 transgenic rat. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2007, 185(1-2):29-36. 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.01.001.
202. Royal W., Zhang L., Guo M., Jones O., Davis H., Bryant J.L. Immune activation, viral gene product expression and neurotoxicity in the HIV-1 transgenic rat. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2012, 247(1-2):16-24. 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.03.015.
203. Sacktor N. The epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurological disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Neurovirology 2002, 8(Suppl. 2):115-121. 10.1080/13550280290101094.
204. Sacktor N., Tarwater P.M., Skolasky R.L., McArthur J.C., Selnes O.A., Becker J., et al. CSF antiretroviral drug penetrance and the treatment of HIV-associated psychomotor slowing. Neurology 2001, 57(3):542-544.
205. Samet J.H., Phillips S.J., Horton N.J., Traphagen E.T., Freedberg K.A. Detecting alcohol problems in HIV-infected patients: Use of the CAGE questionnaire. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 2004, 20(2):151-155. 10.1089/088922204773004860.
206. Schwarz S., Wetterling T. Alcohol and stroke. Is moderate alcohol consumption protective?. Nervenarzt 2002, 73(8):719-728.
207. Seitz H.K., Becker P. Alcohol metabolism and cancer risk. Alcohol Research & Health 2007, 30(1):38-41. 44-37.
208. Sekine Y., Ouchi Y., Takei N., Yoshikawa E., Nakamura K., Futatsubashi M., et al. Brain serotonin transporter density and aggression in abstinent methamphetamine abusers. Archives of General Psychiatry 2006, 63(1):90-100. 10.1001/archpsyc.63.1.90.
209. Sevigny J.J., Albert S.M., McDermott M.P., McArthur J.C., Sacktor N., Conant K., et al. Evaluation of HIV RNA and markers of immune activation as predictors of HIV-associated dementia. Neurology 2004, 63(11):2084-2090.
210. Sevigny J.J., Albert S.M., McDermott M.P., Schifitto G., McArthur J.C., Sacktor N., et al. An evaluation of neurocognitive status and markers of immune activation as predictors of time to death in advanced HIV infection. Archives of Neurology 2007, 64(1):97-102. 10.1001/archneur.64.1.97.
211. Sharifzadeh M., Tavasoli M., Naghdi N., Ghanbari A., Amini M., Roghani A. Post-training intrahippocampal infusion of nicotine prevents spatial memory retention deficits induced by the cyclo-oxygenase-2-specific inhibitor celecoxib in rats. Journal of Neurochemistry 2005, 95(4):1078-1090.
212. Sheng W.S., Hu S., Min X., Cabral G.A., Lokensgard J.R., Peterson P.K. Synthetic cannabinoid WIN55,212-2 inhibits generation of inflammatory mediators by IL-1beta-stimulated human astrocytes. Glia 2005, 49(2):211-219. 10.1002/glia.20108.
213. Shi X., Sims M.D., Hanna M.M., Xie M., Gulick P.G., Zheng Y.H., et al. Neutropenia during HIV infection: Adverse consequences and remedies. International Reviews of Immunology 2014, 10.3109/08830185.2014.893301.
214. Shippenberg T.S., Zapata A., Chefer V.I. Dynorphin and the pathophysiology of drug addiction. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2007, 116(2):306-321. 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.06.011.
215. Silverberg M.J., Ray G.T., Saunders K., Rutter C.M., Campbell C.I., Merrill J.O., et al. Prescription long-term opioid use in HIV-infected patients. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2012, 28(1):39-46. 10.1097/AJP.0b013e3182201a0f.
216. Smith P.H., Mazure C.M., McKee S.A. Smoking and mental illness in the US population. Tobacco Control 2014, 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2013-051466.
217. Sopori M. Effects of cigarette smoke on the immune system. Nature Reviews. Immunology 2002, 2(5):372-377.
218. Staikos L., Malellari L., Chang S.L. Lipopolysaccharide-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain of rats in the morphine-tolerant state. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2008, 3(4):236-240. 10.1007/s11481-008-9111-9.
219. Sternberg E.M. Neural regulation of innate immunity: A coordinated nonspecific host response to pathogens. Nature Reviews. Immunology 2006, 6(4):318-328. 10.1038/nri1810.
220. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Injection drug abuse admissions to substance abuse treatment: 1992 and 2009 Retrieved from. http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k11/WEB_TEDS_012/WEB_TEDS_012.htm.
221. Suvisaari J., Mautemps N., Haukka J., Hovi T., Lonnqvist J. Childhood central nervous system viral infections and adult schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2003, 160(6):1183-1185.
222. Teaktong T., Graham A.J., Johnson M., Court J.A., Perry E.K. Selective changes in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes related to tobacco smoking: An immunohistochemical study. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology 2004, 30(3):243-254.
223. Tesoriero J.M., Gieryic S.M., Carrascal A., Lavigne H.E. Smoking among HIV positive New Yorkers: Prevalence, frequency, and opportunities for cessation. AIDS and Behavior 2010, 14(4):824-835. 10.1007/s10461-008-9449-2.
224. Toggas S.M., Masliah E., Rockenstein E.M., Rall G.F., Abraham C.R., Mucke L. Central nervous system damage produced by expression of the HIV-1 coat protein gp120 in transgenic mice. Nature 1994, 367(6459):188-193. 10.1038/367188a0.
225. Tomaszewska D., Przekop F. The immune-neuro-endocrine interactions. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 1997, 48(2):139-158.
226. Torensma R., Figdor C.G. The Achilles' heel of HIV. Medical Hypotheses 2002, 58(5):386-387.
227. Trigo J.M., Martin-Garcia E., Berrendero F., Robledo P., Maldonado R. The endogenous opioid system: A common substrate in drug addiction. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2010, 108(3):183-194. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.10.011.
228. Trkola A. HIV-host interactions: Vital to the virus and key to its inhibition. Current Opinion in Microbiology 2004, 7(5):555-559.
229. Turner B.J., Fleishman J.A., Wenger N., London A.S., Burnam M.A., Shapiro M.F., et al. Effects of drug abuse and mental disorders on use and type of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected persons. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2001, 16(9):625-633.
230. Unterwald E.M. Regulation of opioid receptors by cocaine. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2001, 937:74-92.
231. Urbina A., Jones K. Crystal methamphetamine, its analogues, and HIV infection: Medical and psychiatric aspects of a new epidemic. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2004, 38(6):890-894. 10.1086/381975.
232. Van Sickle M.D., Duncan M., Kingsley P.J., Mouihate A., Urbani P., Mackie K., et al. Identification and functional characterization of brainstem cannabinoid CB2 receptors. Science 2005, 310(5746):329-332. 10.1126/science.1115740.
233. Verani A., Gras G., Pancino G. Macrophages and HIV-1: Dangerous liaisons. Molecular Immunology 2005, 42(2):195-212.
234. Vergote D., Butler G.S., Ooms M., Cox J.H., Silva C., Hollenberg M.D., et al. Proteolytic processing of SDF-1alpha reveals a change in receptor specificity mediating HIV-associated neurodegeneration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006, 103(50):19182-19187. 10.1073/pnas.0604678103.
235. Vigorito M., Casachahua J., Michaels C., Rivera A.M., Anastasides N., Chang S.L. Sign tracking of ethanol in rats: Effects of strain, environmental enrichment, and immune system activation 2011.
236. Vigorito M., Chang S.L. Role of HIV-1 infection in addictive behavior: A study of a HIV-1 transgenic rat model. American Journal of Infectious Diseases 2006, 2:98-106.
237. Vigorito M., LaShomb A.L., Chang S.L. Spatial learning and memory in HIV-1 transgenic rats. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2007, 2(4):319-328. 10.1007/s11481-007-9078-y.
238. Volkow N.D., Chang L., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., Ding Y.S., Sedler M., et al. Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: Association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2001, 158(12):2015-2021.
239. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J., Swanson J.M., Telang F. Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: Results of imaging studies and treatment implications. Archives of Neurology 2007, 64(11):1575-1579. 10.1001/archneur.64.11.1575.
240. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wolf A.P., Schlyer D., Shiue C.Y., Alpert R., et al. Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1990, 147(6):719-724.
241. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., Logan J., Hitzemann R., Ding Y.S., et al. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 1996, 20(9):1594-1598.
242. Wallace J.M., Rao A.V., Glassroth J., Hansen N.I., Rosen M.J., Arakaki C., et al. Respiratory illness in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. The pulmonary complications of HIV infection study group. The American Review of Respiratory Disease 1993, 148(6 Pt. 1):1523-1529. 10.1164/ajrccm/148.6_Pt_1.1523.
243. Wang G.J., Chang L., Volkow N.D., Telang F., Logan J., Ernst T., et al. Decreased brain dopaminergic transporters in HIV-associated dementia patients. Brain 2004, 127(Pt. 11):2452-2458. 10.1093/brain/awh269.
244. Wang Y.H., Sun J.F., Tao Y.M., Chi Z.Q., Liu J.G. The role of kappa-opioid receptor activation in mediating antinociception and addiction. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 2010, 31(9):1065-1070. 10.1038/aps.2010.138.
245. Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Logan J., Abumrad N.N., Hitzemann R.J., et al. Dopamine D2 receptor availability in opiate-dependent subjects before and after naloxone-precipitated withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997, 16(2):174-182. 10.1016/S0893-133X(96)00184-4.
246. Wee S., Koob G.F. The role of the dynorphin-kappa opioid system in the reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse. Psychopharmacology 2010, 210(2):121-135. 10.1007/s00213-010-1825-8.
247. Wesselingh S.L., Takahashi K., Glass J.D., McArthur J.C., Griffin J.W., Griffin D.E. Cellular localization of tumor necrosis factor mRNA in neurological tissue from HIV-infected patients by combined reverse transcriptase/polymerase chain reaction in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Journal of Neuroimmunology 1997, 74(1-2):1-8.
248. World Health Organization HIV/AIDS-Injecting drug use from. http://www.who.int/hiv/topics/idu/en/.
249. Wybran J. Enkephalins and endorphins as modifiers of the immune system: Present and future. Federation Proceedings 1985, 44(1 Pt. 1):92-94.
250. Yoshioka M., Itoyama Y. Pathogenesis of HIV-1-associated-neurologic diseases. Nippon Rinsho 1997, 55(4):897-903.
251. Yu-Lee L.Y. Molecular actions of prolactin in the immune system. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 1997, 215(1):35-52.
252. Yu-Lee L.Y. Prolactin modulation of immune and inflammatory responses. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 2002, 57:435-455.
253. Zhou Y., Spangler R., Schlussman S.D., Yuferov V.P., Sora I., Ho A., et al. Effects of acute "binge" cocaine on preprodynorphin, preproenkephalin, proopiomelanocortin, and corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor mRNA levels in the striatum and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis of mu-opioid receptor knockout mice. Synapse 2002, 45(4):220-229. 10.1002/syn.10101.