Antibiotics in Canadian poultry productions and anticipated alternatives

Frontiers in Microbiology

Volumn 5, Issue JUN, 2014, Pages

  Diarra, Moussa S ^a   Malouin, François ^b  

^a SUMMERLAND RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Alternatives to antibiotics; Broilers; C di GMP; Cranberry; Growth promoters; Non therapeutic antibiotics; Poultry production

Indexed keywords

AMPROLIUM; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ARSANILIC ACID; BACITRACIN; BACITRACIN ZINC; BAMBERMYCIN; CARBOXYLIC ACID; CEPHALOSPORIN; CHLORTETRACYCLINE; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLOPIDOL; CRANBERRY EXTRACT; CYCLIC GMP; DECOQUINATE; DICLAZURIL; ESSENTIAL OIL; FOOD ADDITIVE; GROWTH PROMOTOR; HALOFUGINONE; LASALOCID; MADURAMICIN AMMONIUM; OXYTETRACYCLINE; PREBIOTIC AGENT; PROBIOTIC AGENT; PROCAINE PENICILLIN; ROXARSONE; SALINOMYCIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN; VIRGINIAMYCIN;

ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE; ANIMAL FOOD; ANIMAL HEALTH; ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTICIPATION; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BACTERIAL GENE; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; BROILER; CANADA; CRANBERRY; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; ENTEROCOCCUS; FOOD SAFETY; FOOD SECURITY; HUMAN; IMMUNOSTIMULATION; INFECTIOUS BURSAL DISEASE VIRUS; INTESTINE FLORA; MEAT INDUSTRY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; POULTRY; PRODUCTIVITY; REVIEW;

EID: 84904914067     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1664302X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00282     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Aarestrup, F. M. (2000). Occurrence, selection and spread of resistance to antimicrobial agents used for growth promotion for food animals in Denmark. APMIS 108, 5-48. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2000.tb05380.x
2. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. (2013). Poultry and Egg Market Information: Canada's Chicken Industry. Ottawa, ON. Available online at: http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry/index_eng.htm (Accessed October 7, 2013).
3. Agunos, A., Léger, D., and Carson, C. (2012). Review of antimicrobial therapy of selected bacterial diseases in broiler chickens in Canada. Can. Vet. J. 53, 1289-1300.
4. Angulo, F. J., Johnson, K. R., Tauxe, R. V., and Cohen, M. L. (2000). Origins and consequences of antimicrobial-resistant nontyphoidal Salmonella: implications for the use of fluoroquinolones in food animals. Microb. Drug Resist. 6, 77-83. doi: 10.1089/mdr.2000.6.77
5. Anonymous. (2007). Antimicrobial resistance: implication for food system. Institute of food technologists expert panel. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Safe. 5, 71-137.
6. Apostolidis, E., Kwon, Y.-I., and Shetty, K. (2008). Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by oregano, cranberry and sodium lactate combination in broth and cooked ground beef systems and likely mode of action through proline metabolism. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 128, 317-324. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.09.012
7. Asai, T., Kojima, A., Harada, K., Ishihara, K., Takahashi, T., and Tamura, Y. (2005). Correlation between the usage volume of veterinary therapeutic antimicrobials and resistance in Escherichia coli isolated from the feces of food-producing animals in Japan. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 58, 369-372.
8. Asif, M., Jenkins, K. A., Hilton, L. S., Kimpton, W. G., Bean, A. G. D., and Lowenthal, J. W. (2004). Cytokines as adjuvants for avian vaccines. Immunol. Cell. Biol. 82, 638-643. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1711.2004.01295.x
9. Aslam, M., Diarra, M. S., and Masson, L. (2012). Characterization of antimicrobial resistance and virulence genotypes of Enterococcus faecalis recovered from a pork processing plant. J. Food Protect. 75, 1486-1491. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-11-524
10. Baurhoo, B., Ferket, P. R., and Zhao, X. (2009). Effects of diets containing different concentrations of mannanoligosaccharide or antibiotics on growth performance, intestinal development, cecal and litter microbial populations, and carcass parameters of broilers. Poult. Sci. 88, 2262-2272. doi: 10.3382/ps.2008-00562
11. Bergeron, C. R., Prussing, C., Boerlin, P., Daignault, D., Dutil, L., Reid-Smith, R. J., et al. (2012). Chicken as reservoir for extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli in humans, Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18, 415-421. doi: 10.3201/eid1803.111099
12. Block, G. S., Harrison, J., Delaquis, P., Oomah, B. D., and Diarra, M. S. (2012). "Antimicrobial activity of a cranberry pomace extract against Listeria spp.," in 62nd Annual Conference of the Canadian Society of Microbiologists (Vancouver, BC).
13. Blumberg, J. B., Camesano, T. A., Cassidy, A., Kris-Etherton, P., Howell, A., Manach, C., et al. (2013). Cranberries and their bioactive constituents in human health. Adv. Nutr. 4, 618-632. doi: 10.3945/an.113.004473
14. Bonnet, C., Diarrassouba, F., Brousseau, R., Masson, L., and Diarra, M. S. (2009). Pathotype and antibiotic resistance gene distribution of Escheria coli isolates from broiler chickens raised on antimicrobial supplemented diets. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75, 6955-6962. doi: 10.1128/AEM.00375-09
15. Bordeleau, E., Fortier, L.-C., Malouin, F., and Burrus, V. (2011). c-di-GMP turn-over in Clostridium difficile is controlled by a plethora of diguanylate cyclases and phosphodiesterases. PLoS Genetics 7:e1002039. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002039
16. Brisbin, J. T., Gong, J., Lusty, C. A., Sabour, P., Sanei, B., Han, Y., et al. (2008). Influence of in-feed virginiamycin on the systemic and mucosal antibody response of chickens. Poult. Sci. 87, 1995-1999. doi: 10.3382/ps.2008-00159
17. Brooks, J. P., McLaughlin, M. R., Scheffler, B., and Miles, D. M. (2010). Microbial and antibiotic resistant constituents associated with biological aerosols and poultry litter within a commercial poultry house. Sci. Total Environ. 408, 4770-4777. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.06.038
18. Brouillette, E., Hyodo, M., Hayakawa, Y., Karaolis, D. K. R., and Malouin, F. (2005). c-di-GMP (3',5'-cyclic diguanylic acid) reduces the virulence of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm-forming strains in a mouse model of mastitis infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49, 3109-3113. doi: 10.1128/AAC.49.8.3109-3113.2005
19. Brye, K. R., Slaton, N. A., Norman, R. J., and Savin, M. C. (2004). Shortterm effects of poultry litter form and rate on soil bulk density and water content. Commun. Soil. Sci. Plant Anal. 35, 2311-2325. doi: 10.1081/CSS-200030655
20. Bumstead, N., Reece, R. L., and Cook, J. K. A. (1993). Genetic differences in susceptibility of chicken lines to infection with infectious bursal disease virus. Poult. Sci. 72, 403-410. doi: 10.3382/ps.0720403
21. Burger, O., Weiss, E., Sharon, N., Tabak, M., Neeman, I., and Ofek, I. (2002). Inhibition of Helicobacter pylori adhesion to human gastric mucus by a high-molecular-weight constituent of cranberry juice. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 42, 279-284. doi: 10.1080/10408390209351916
22. Burrus, V., and Waldor, M. K. (2004). Shaping bacterial genomes with integrative and conjugative elements. Res. Microbiol. 155, 376-386. doi: 10.1016/j.resmic.2004.01.012
23. Butaye, P., Devriese, L. A., and Haesebrouck, F. (2003). Antimicrobial growth promoters used in animal feed: effects of less well known antibiotics on gram-positive bacteria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16, 175-188. doi: 10.1128/CMR.16.2.175-188.2003
24. Call, D. R., Matthews, L., Subbiah, M., and Liu, J. (2013). Do antibiotic residues in soils play a role in amplification and transmission of antibiotic resistant bacteria in cattle populations? Front. Microbiol. 4:193. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00193
25. Callaway, T. R., Edrington, T. S., Anderson, R. C., Byrd, J. A., and Nisbet, D. J. (2008). Gastrointestinal microbial ecology and the safety of our food supply as related to Salmonella. J. Anim. Sci. 86(Suppl. 14), E163-E172. doi: 10.2527/jas.2007-0457
26. Canadian Medical Association or its licensors. (2009). The perils of poultry. CMAJ 181, 21-24. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.091009
27. Carattoli, A. (2013). Plasmids and the spread of resistance. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 303, 298-304. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.02.001
28. Castanon, J. I. R. (2007). Review: history of the use of antibiotic as growth promoters in european poultry feeds. Poult. Sci. 86, 2466-2471. doi: 10.3382/ps.2007-00249
29. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (CDC). (2013). Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States. National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. Atlanta, GA. Available online at: www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/threat-report-2013 (Accessed November 18, 2013).
30. Chancey, S. T., Zähner, D., and Stephens, D. S. (2012). Acquired inducible antimicrobial resistance in Gram-positive bacteria. Future Microbiol. 7, 959-978. doi: 10.2217/fmb.12.63
31. Chen, I., Christie, P. J., and Dubnau, D. (2005). The ins and outs of DNA transfer in bacteria. Science 310, 1456-1460. doi: 10.1126/science.1114021
32. Coleman, B. L., Louie, M., Salvadori, M. I., McEwen, S. A., Neumann, N., Sibley, K., et al. (2013). Contamination of Canadian private drinking water sources with antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli. Water Res. 47, 3026-3036. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.03.008
33. Conly, J. (2002). Antimicrobial resistance in Canada. Can. Med. Ass. J. 167, 885-891.
34. da Costa, P. M., Oliveira, M., Bica, A., Vaz-Pires, P., and Bernardo, F. (2007). Antimicrobial resistance in Enterococcus spp. and Escherichia coli isolated from poultry feed and feed ingredients. Vet. Microbiol. 120, 122-131. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.10.005
35. Dahiya, J. P., Wilkie, D. C., van Kessel, A. G., and Drew, M. D. (2006). Potential strategies for controlling necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens in post-antibiotic era. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 129, 60-88. doi: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2005.12.003
36. Delaquis, P., Diarra, M. S., Rempel, H., and Saeed, D. (2010). "Antimicrobial effects of cranberry extract, vanillin and vanillic acid against Clostridium perfringens," in 97th Annual Meeting of International Association for Food Protection, abstract P1-32. August 1-4th (Anaheim, CA).
37. Desin, T. S., Koster, W., and Potter, A. A. (2013). Salmonella vaccines in poultry: past, present and future. Expert Rev. Vaccines. 12, 87-96. doi: 10.1586/erv.12.138
38. Diarra, M. S., Block, G., Rempel, H., Oomah, B. D., Harrison, J., McCallum, J., et al. (2013). In vitro and in vivo antibacterial activities of cranberry press cake extracts alone or in combination with beta-lactams against Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Compl. Alter. Med. 13:90. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-13-90
39. Diarra, M. S., Delaquis, P., Rempel, H., Bach, S., Harlton, C., Aslam, M., et al. (2014). Antibiotic resistance and diversity of Salmonella enterica serovars associated with broiler chickens. J. Food Prot. 77, 40-99. doi: 10.4315/0362-028.JFP-13-251
40. Diarra, M. S., Petitclerc, D., and Lacasse, P. (2002). Effect of lactoferrin in combination with penicillin on the morphology and the physiology of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine mastitis. J. Dairy Sci. 85, 1141-1149. doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(02)74176-3
41. Diarra, M. S., Rempel, H., Champagne, J., Masson, L., Pritchard, J., and Topp, E. (2010). Distribution of antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes in Enterococcus spp: characterization of isolates from broiler chickens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76, 8033-8043. doi: 10.1128/AEM.01545-10
42. Diarra, M. S., Silversides, F. G., Diarrassouba, F., Pritchard, J., Masson, L., Brousseau, R., et al. (2007). Impact of feed supplementation with antimicrobial agents on growth performance of broiler chickens, Clostridium perfringens and Enterococcus number, antibiotic resistant phenotype, and distribution of antimicrobial resistance determinants in E. coli. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, 6566-6576. doi: 10.1128/AEM.01086-07
43. Diarrassouba, F., Diarra, M. S., Bach, S., Delaquis, P., Pritchard, J., Topp, E., et al. (2007). Antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in commensal Esherichia coli and Salmonella isolated from commercial broiler chicken farms. J. Food Prot. 70, 1316-1327.
44. Dibner, J. J., and Richards, J. D. (2005). Antibiotic growth promoters in agriculture: history and mode of action. Poult. Sci. 84, 634-643. doi: 10.1093/ps/84.4.634
45. Donham, K. J., Cumro, D., Reynolds, S. J., and Merchant, J. A. (2000). Dose response relationships between occupational aerosol exposures and cross-shift declines of lung function in poultry workers: recommendations for exposure limits. Occup. Environ. Med. 42, 260-269. doi: 10.1097/00043764-200003000-00006
46. Drew, M. D., Syed, N. A., Goldade, B. G., Laarveld, B., and van Kessel, A. G. (2004). Effects of dietary protein source and level on intestinal populations of Clostridium perfringens in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 83, 414-420. doi: 10.1093/ps/83.3.414
47. Dumonceaux, T. J., Hill, J. E., Hemmingsen, S. M., and van Kesse, A. G. (2006). Characterization of intestinal microbiota and response to dietary virginiamycin supplementation in the broiler chicken. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72, 2815-2823. doi: 10.1128/AEM.72.4.2815-2823.2006
48. Dutil, L., Irwin, R., Finley, R., King Ng, L., Avery, B., Boerlin, P., et al. (2010). Ceftiofur resistance in Salmonella enterica Serovar Heidelberg from chicken meat and humans, Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 16, 48-54. doi: 10.3201/eid1601.090729
49. Ebensen, T., Shulze, K., Riese, P., Morr, M., and Guzman, C. A. (2007). The bacterial second messenger c-di-GMP exhibits promising activity as a mucosal adjuvant. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 18, 952-958. doi: 10.1128/CVI.00119-07
50. Eck, P. (1990). The American Cranberry. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
51. Fatima, M., Rempel, H., Kuang, X. T., Allen, K. J., Cheng, K. M., Malouin, F., et al. (2013). Effect of 3', 5'-Cyclic Diguanylic acid in a Broiler Clostridium perfringens Infection Model. Poult. Sci. 92, 2644-2650. doi: 10.3382/ps.2013-03143
52. Fatima, M., Ster, C., Rempel, H., Talbot, B. G., Allen, K. J., Malouin, F., et al. (2011). Effect of Co-administration of 3', 5'-Cyclic diguanylic acid with infectious bursal disease virus vaccine on serum antibody levels in broilers. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 10, 3263-3268.
53. Foo, L. Y., Lu, Y., Howell, A. B., and Vorsa, N. (2000). A-Type proanthocyanidin trimers from cranberry that inhibit adherence of uropathogenic P-fimbriated Escherichia coli. J. Nat. Prod. 63, 1225-1228. doi: 10.1021/np000128u
54. Forgetta, V., Rempel, H., Malouin, F., Vaillancourt, R. Jr., Topp, E., Dewar, K., et al. (2012). Pathogenic and multidrug-resistant Escherichia fergusonii from broiler chicken. Poult. Sci. 91, 512-525. doi: 10.3382/ps.2011-01738
55. Fung, S., Rempel, H., Forgetta, V., Dewar, E. T. K., and Diarra, M. S. (2013). "Ceca microbiome of mature broiler chickens fed with or without salinomycin," in the Gut Microbiome: the Effector/Regulatory Immune Network Conference (B3). Keystone Symposia onMolecular and Cellular Biology (Taos).
56. Furtula, V., Farrell, E. G., Diarrassouba, F., Rempel, H., Pritchard, J., and Diarra, M. S. (2010). Veterinary pharmaceuticals and antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli isolates in poultry litter from commercial farms and controlled feeding trials. Poult. Sci. 89, 180-188. doi: 10.3382/ps.2009-00198
57. Garcia-Alvarez, L., Holden, M. T., Lindsay, H., Webb, C. R., Brown, D. F., Curran, M. D., et al. (2011). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with a novel mecA homologue in human and bovine populations in the UK and Denmark: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 11, 595-603. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70126-8
58. Gattuso, M., Malouin, F., Rempel, H., and Diarra, M. S. (2008). "Transcriptomic analysis of Escherichia coli exposed to cranberry extracts," in Joint Meeting of 48th Annual Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC) and 46th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, abstr. C1-1944 (Washington, DC).
59. Gong, J., Yu, H., Liu, T., Gill, J. J., Chambers, J. R., Wheatcroft, R., et al. (2008). Effects of zinc bacitracin, bird age and access to range on bacterial microbiota in the ileum and caeca of broiler chickens. J. Appl. Microbiol. 104, 1372-1382. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03699.x
60. González-Lamothe, R., Mitchell, G., Gattuso, M., Diarra, M. S., Malouin, F., and Bouarab, K. (2009). Plant antimicrobial agents and their effects on plant and human pathogens. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 10, 3400-3419. doi: 10.3390/ijms10083400
61. Government of Canada. (2002). Uses of Antimicrobials in Food Animals in Canada: Impact on Resistance and Human Health. Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate, Report of the Advisory Committee on Animal Uses of Antimicrobials and Impact on Resistance and Human Health. Guelph, ON. Available online at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/pubs/vet/amr-ram_final_report-rapport_06-27_cp-pc-eng.php
62. Government of Canada. (2013a). Compendium of Medicating Ingredient Brochures (MIB): Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Available online at: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/feeds/medicating-ingredients/mib/drug-clearances/eng/1370549548052/1370549550660
63. Government of Canada. (2013b). Canadian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (CIPARS) 2009 Annual Report, Public Health Agency of Canada. Guelph, ON. Available online at: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/cipars-picra/2009/summary-sommaire-eng.php
64. Graham, J. P., Boland, J. J., and Silbergeld, E. (2007). Growth promoting antibiotics in food animal production: an economic analysis. Public Health Rep. 122, 79-87.
65. Guban, J., Korver, D. R., Allison, G. E., and Tannock, G. W. (2006). Relationship of dietary antimicrobial drug administration with broiler performance, decreased population levels of Lactobacillus salivarius, and reduced bile salt deconjugation in the ileum of broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 85, 2186-2194. doi: 10.1093/ps/85.12.2186
66. Hall, R. M. (2012). Integrons and gene cassettes: hotspots of diversity in bacterial genomes. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1267, 71-78. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06588.x
67. Hamilton, R. D., Hulsebus, H. J., Akbar, S., and Gray, J. T. (2012). Increased resistance to multiple antimicrobials and altered resistance gene expression in CMY-2-positive Salmonella enterica following a simulated patient treatment with ceftriaxone. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 78, 8062-8066. doi: 10.1128/AEM.02077-12
68. Hammerum, A. M. (2012). Enterococci of animal origin and their significance for public health. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 18, 619-625. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03829.x
69. Harmidy, K., Tufenkji, N., and Gruenheid, S. (2011). Perturbation of host cell cytoskeleton by cranberry proanthocyanidins and their effect on enteric infections. PLoS ONE 6:e27267. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027267
70. Harrison, J. E., Oomah, B. D., Diarra, M. S., and Ibarra-Alvarado, C. (2013). Bioactivities of pilot-scale extracted cranberry juice and pomace. J. Food Process Preserv. 37, 356-365. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-4549.2011.00655.x
71. Heredia, N. L., and Labbé, R. G. (2001). "Clostridium perfringens," in Guide to Foodborne Pathogens, eds G. L. Ronald and G. Santos (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc.), 133-141.
72. Hidalgo, G., Chan, M., and Tufenkji, N. (2011). Inhibition of Escherichia coli CFT073 fliC expression and motility by cranberry materials. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 77, 6852-6857. doi: 10.1128/AEM.05561-11
73. Hood, M. I., and Skaar, E. P. (2012). Nutritional immunity: transition metals at the pathogen-host Interface. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 10, 525-537. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro2836
74. Howell, A. B., and Foxman, B. (2002). Cranberry juice and adhesion of antibiotic-resistant uropathogens. JAMA 287, 3082-3083. doi: 10.1001/jama.287.23.3077
75. Hu, K., Narita, D.-L., Hyodo, M., Hayakawa, Y., Nakane, A., and Karaolis, D. K. R. (2009). c-di-GMP as a vaccine adjuvant enhances protection against systemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection. Vaccine 27, 4867-4873. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.04.053
76. Huff, W. E., Huff, G. R., Rath, N. C., Balog, J. M., and Donoghue, A. M. (2005). Alternatives to antibiotics: utilization of bacteriophage to treat colibacillosis and prevent foodborne pathogens. Poult. Sci. 84, 655-659. doi: 10.1093/ps/84.4.655
77. Huff, W. E., Huff, G. R., Rath, N. C., and Donoghue, A. M. (2013). Method of administration affects the ability of bacteriophage to prevent colibacillosis in 1-day-old broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 92, 930-934. doi: 10.3382/ps.2012-02916
78. Jaki, B. U., Franzblau, S. G., Chadwick, L. R., Lankin, D. C., Zhang, F., Wang, Y., et al. (2008). Purity-activity relationships of natural products: the case of anti-TB active ursolic acid. J. Nat. Prod. 71, 1742-1748. doi: 10.1021/np800329j
79. Joerger, R. D. (2003). Alternatives to antibiotics: bacteriocins, antimicrobial peptides and bacteriophages. Poult. Sci. 82, 640-647. doi: 10.1093/ps/82.4.640
80. Johnson, T. J., Logue, C. M., Johnson, J. R., Kuskowski, M. A., Sherwood, J. S., Barnes, H. J., et al. (2012). Associations between multidrug resistance, plasmid content, and virulence potential among extraintestinal pathogenic and commensal Escherichia coli from humans and poultry. Foodborn Path. Dis. 9, 37-46. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2011.0961
81. Karaolis, D. K. R., Means, T. K., Yang, D., Takahashi, M., Yoshimura, T., Muraille, E. B. G., et al. (2007). Bacterial c-di-GMP is an immunostimulatory molecule. J. Immunol. 178, 2171-2181. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.4.2171
82. Knarreborg, A., Simon, M. A., Engberg, R. M., Jensen, B. B., and Tannock, G. W. (2002). Effects of dietary fat source and subtherapeutic levels of antibiotic on the bacterial community in the ileum of broiler chickens of various ages. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68, 5918-5924. doi: 10.1128/AEM.68.12.5918-5924.2002
83. Kogut, M. H., Genovese, K. J., He, H., Swaggerty, C. L., and Jiang, Y. (2013). Modulation of chicken intestinal immune gene expression by small cationic peptides as feed additives during the first week posthatch. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 20, 1440-1448. doi: 10.1128/CVI.00322-13
84. Lacobucci, V., Surprenant, D., and Gaumond, R. (2006). The Canadian Chicken Industry. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Animal Industry Division, Poultry Section. Ottawa, ON. Available online at: http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry/ (Accessed April 8, 2013).
85. Laurent, F., Chardon, H., Haenni, M., Bes, M., Reverdy, M. E., Madec, J. Y., et al. (2012). MRSA harboring mecA variant gene mecC, France. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18, 1465-1467. doi: 10.3201/eid1809.111920
86. Laxminarayan, R. A., Duse, C., Wattal, A. K. M., Zaidi, H. F. L., Wertheim, N., Sumpradit, E., et al. (2013). Antibiotic resistance-the need for global solutions. Lancet Infect. Dis. 13, 1057-1098. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70318-9
87. Lee, D. N., Lyu, S. R., Wang, R. C., Weng, C. F., and Chen, B. J. (2011). Exhibit differential functions of various antibiotic growth promoters in broiler growth, immune response and gastrointestinal physiology. Inter. J. Poult. Sci. 10, 216-220. doi: 10.3923/ijps.2011.216.220
88. Leeson, S., and Summers, J. D. (1981). Performance and carcass grade characteristics of turkeys fed the growth promoter, avoparcin. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 61, 977-981. doi: 10.4141/cjas81-120
89. Leusink, G., Rempel, H., Skura, B., Berkyto, M., White, W., Yang, Y., et al. (2010). Growth performance, meat quality and gut microflora of broiler chickens fed with cranberry extract. Poult. Sci. 89, 1514-1523. doi: 10.3382/ps.2009-00364
90. Ley, R. E., Hamady, M., Lozupone, C., Turnbaugh, P. J., Ramey, R. R., Bircher, J. S., et al. (2008). Evolution of mammals and their gut microbes. Science 320, 1647-1651. doi: 10.1126/science.1155725
91. Lin, B., Johnson, B. J., Rubin, R. A., Malanoski, A. P., and Ligler, F. S. (2011). Iron chelation by cranberry juice and its impact on Escherichia coli growth. Biofactors 37, 121-130. doi: 10.1002/biof.110
92. Lupo, A., Coyne, S., and Berendonk, T. U. (2012). Origin and evolution of antibiotic resistance: the common mechanisms of emergence and spread in water bodies. Front. Microbiol. 3:18. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00018
93. Manges, A. R., Smith, S. P., Lau, B. J., Nuval, C. J., Eisenberg, J. N. S., Dietrich, P. S., et al. (2007). Retail meat consumption and the acquisition of antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli causing urinary tract infections: a case-control study. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 4, 419-431. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2007.0026
94. Marshall, B. M., and Levy, S. B. (2011). Food animals and antimicrobials: impacts on human health. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 24, 718-733. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00002-11
95. Mathew, A. G., Cissell, R., and Liamthong, S. (2007). Antibiotic Resistance in bacteria associated with food animals: a united states perspective of livestock production. Foodborne Patho. Dis. 4, 115-133. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2006.0066
96. Merchant, L. E., Rempel, H., Forge, T., Kannangara, T., Bittman, S., Delaquis, P., et al. (2012). Characterization of antibiotic resistant and potentially pathogenic Escherichia coli from soil fertilized with litter of broiler chickens fed antimicrobial-supplemented diets. Can. J. Microbiol. 50, 1084-1098. doi: 10.1139/w2012-082
97. Muniesa, M., Colomer-Lluch, M., and Jofre, J. (2013). Potential impact of environmental bacteriophages in spreading antibiotic resistance genes. Future Microbiol. 8, 739-751. doi: 10.2217/fmb.13.32
98. Muthaiyan, A., Silverman, J. A., Jayaswal, R. K., and Wilkinson, B. J. (2008). Transcriptional profiling reveals that daptomycin induces the Staphylococcus aureus cell wall stress stimulon and genes responsive to membrane depolarization. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52, 980-990. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01121-07
99. National Research Council. (1999). "Food-animal production practices and drugs use," in The Use of Drugs in Food Animals: Benefits and Risks. Committee on Drug Use in Food Animals (Washington, DC: National Academy Press), 27-68.
100. Nordstrom, L., Liu, C. M., and Price, L. B. (2013). Foodborne urinary tract infections: a new paradigm for antimicrobial-resistant foodborne illness. Front. Microbiol. 4:29. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00029
101. O'Brien, T. F. (2002). "Emergence, spread, and environmental effect of antimicrobial resistance: how use of an antimicrobial anywhere can increase resistance to any antimicrobial anywhere Else," in The Need to Improve Antimicrobial Use in Agriculture: Ecological and Human Health Consequences, eds M. D. Barza and L. G. Sherwood (Chicago, IL: The Chicago University Press), S78-S84.
102. O'Bryan, C. A., Crandall, P. G., and Ricke, S. C. (2008). Organic poultry pathogen control from farm to fork. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 5, 709-720. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2008.0091
103. Ogunniyi, A. D., Paton, J. C., Kirby, A. C., McCullers, J. A., Cook, J., Hyodo, M., et al. (2008). c-di-GMP is an effective immunomodulator and vaccine adjuvant against pneumococcal infection. Vaccine 26, 4676-4685. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.06.099
104. Patterson, J. A., and Burkholder, K. M. (2003). Application of prebiotics and probiotics in poultry production. Poult. Sci. 82, 627-631. doi: 10.1093/ps/82.4.627
105. Perry, J. A., and Wright, G. D. (2013). The antibiotic resistance mobilome: searching for the link between environment and clinic. Front. Microbiol. 4:138. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00138
106. Proudfoot, F. G., Hulan, H. W., and Jackson, E. D. (1988). The response of male broiler chicks to the consumption of chlortetracycline as a growth promoter. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68, 1285-1290. doi: 10.4141/cjas88-144
107. Proudfoot, F. G., Hulan, H. W., Jackson, E. D., and Salisbury, C. D. C. (1990). Effect of lincomycin as a growth promoter for broiler chicks. Br. Poult. Sci. 31, 181-187. doi: 10.1080/00071669008417244
108. Puupponen-Pimiä, R., Nohynek, L., Alakomi, H.-L., and Oksman-Caldentey, K.-M. (2005). Bioactive berry compounds - novel tools against human pathogens. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 67, 8-18. doi: 10.1007/s00253-004-1817-x
109. Puupponen-Pimiä, R., Nohynek, L., Meier, C., Kähkönen, M., Heinonen, M., Hopia, A., et al. (2001). Antimicrobial properties of phenolic compounds from berries. J. Appl. Microbiol. 90, 494-507. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01271.x
110. Rajput, I. R., Li, L. Y., Xin, X., Wu, B. B., Juan, Z. L., Cui, Z. W., et al. (2013). Effect of Saccharomyces boulardii and Bacillus subtilis B10 on intestinal ultrastructure modulation and mucosal immunity development mechanism in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 92, 956-965. doi: 10.3382/ps.2012-02845
111. Redondo, L. M., Chacana, P. A., Dominguez, J. E., and Fernandez Miyakawa, M. E. (2014). Perspectives in the use of tannins as alternative to antimicrobial growth promoter factors in poultry. Front. Microbiol. 5:118. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00118
112. Reed, J. (2002). Cranberry flavonoids, atherosclerosis and cardiovascular health. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 42, 301-316. doi: 10.1080/10408390209351919
113. Rosengren, L. B., Gow, S. P., and Weese, J. S. (2009). Antimicrobial Use and Resistance in Pigs and Chickens. A review of the science, policy, and control practices from farm to slaughter. National Collaborating Center for Infectious Diseases. Available online at: www.NCCID.CA (Accessed November 8, 2013).
114. Saleha, A. A., Myaing, T. T., Ganapathy, K. K., Zulkifli, I., Raha, R., and Arifah, K. (2009). Possible effect of antibiotic-supplemented feed and environment on the occurrence of multiple antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli in chickens. Inter. J. Poult. Sci. 8, 28-31. doi: 10.3923/ijps.2009.28.31
115. Salim, H. M., Kang, H. K., Akter, N., Kim, D. W., Kim, J. H., Kim, M. J., et al. (2013). Supplementation of direct-fed microbials as an alternative to antibiotic on growth performance, immune response, cecal microbial population, and ileal morphology of broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 92, 2084-2090. doi: 10.3382/ps.2012-02947
116. Samanta, A. K., Jayapal, N., Senani, S., Kolte, A. P., and Sridhar, M. (2013). Prebiotic inulin: Useful dietary adjuncts to manipulate the livestock gut microflora. Braz. J. Microbiol. 44, 1-14. doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822013005000023
117. Seal, B. S., Lillehoj, H. S., Donovan, D. M., and Gay, C. G. (2013). Alternatives to antibiotics: a symposium on the challenges and solutions for animal production. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 14, 78-87. doi: 10.1017/S1466252313000030
118. Sharon, N., and Ofek, I. (2002). Fighting infectious diseases with inhibitors of microbial adhesion to host tissues. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 42, 267-272. doi: 10.1080/10408390209351914
119. Shojadoost, B., Peighambari, S. M., and Nikpiran, H. (2013). Effects of virginiamycin against experimentally induced necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens vaccinated or not with an attenuated coccidial vaccine. Appl. Poult. Res. 22, 160-167. doi: 10.3382/japr.2012-00541
120. Singh, P., Karimi, A., Devendra, K., Waldroup, P. W., Cho, K. K., and Kwon, Y. M. (2013). Influence of penicillin on microbial diversity of the cecal microbiota in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 92, 272-276. doi: 10.3382/ps.2012-02603
121. Singh, V. K., Jayaswal, R. K., and Wilkinson, B. J. (2001). Cell wall-active antibiotic induced proteins of Staphylococcus aureus identified using a proteomic approach. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 199, 79-84. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10654.x
122. Slavic, D., Boerlin, P., Fabri, M., Klotins, K. C., Zoethout, J. K., Weir, P. E., et al. (2011). Antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium perfringens isolates of bovine, chicken, porcine, and turkey origin from Ontario. Can. J. Vet. Res. 75, 89-97.
123. Smadi, H., and Sargeant, J. M. (2013). Review of Canadian literature to estimate risks associated with Salmonella in broilers from retail to consumption in Canadian homes. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 53, 694-705. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2011.555017
124. Statistics Canada. (2013). Fruit and Vegetable Production. Available online at: http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/pick-choisir?lang=eng&p2=33&id=0010009
125. St. Amand, J. A., Otto, S. J. G., Cassis, R., and Annett Christianson, C. B. (2013). Antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar Heidelberg isolated from poultry in Alberta. Avian Pathol. 42, 379-386. doi: 10.1080/03079457.2013.811465
126. Stutz, M. W., Johnson, S. L., and Judith, F. R. (1983). Effects of diet and bacitracin on growth, feed efficiency, and populations of Clostridium perfringens in the intestine of broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 62, 1619-1625. doi: 10.3382/ps.0621619
127. Svetoch, E. A., and Stern, N. J. (2010). Bacteriocins to control Campylobacter spp. in poultry-A review. Poult. Sci. 89, 1763-1768. doi: 10.3382/ps.2010-00659
128. Szmolka, A., and Nagy, B. (2013). Multidrug resistant commensal Escherichia coli in animals and its impact for public health. Front. Microbiol. 4:258. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00258
129. Tamayo, R., Pratt, J. T., and Camilli, A. (2007). Roles of cyclic diguanylate in the regulation of bacterial pathogenesis. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 61, 131-148. doi: 10.1146/annurev.micro.61.080706.093426
130. The National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS). (2012). NARMS Strategic plan 2012-2016, Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.
131. Thibodaux, A., Quessy, S., Guévremont, E., Houde, A., Topp, E., Diarra, M. S., et al. (2008). Antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli and Enterococcus Spp. isolated from commercial broiler chickens receiving growth-promoting doses of bacitracin or virginiamycin. Can. J. Vet. Res. 72, 129-136.
132. Timbermont, L., Haesebrouck, F., Ducatelle, R., and van Immerseel, F. (2011). Necrotic enteritis in broilers: an updated review on the pathogenesis. Avian Path. 40, 341-347. doi: 10.1080/03079457.2011.590967
133. Torok, V. A., Allison, G. E., Percy, N. J., Ophel-Keller, K., and Hughes, R. J. (2011). Influence of antimicrobial feed additives on broiler commensal posthatch gut microbiota development and performance. Appl. Environm. Microbiol. 77, 3380-3390. doi: 10.1128/AEM.02300-10
134. Utaida, S., Dunman, P. M., Macapagal, D., Murphy, E., Projan, S. J., Singh, V. K., et al. (2003). Genome-wide transcriptional profiling of the response of Staphylococcus aureus to cell-wall-active antibiotics reveals a cell-wall-stress stimulon. Microbiol. 149, 2719-2732. doi: 10.1099/mic.0.26426-0
135. Vela, J., Hildebrandt, K., Metcalfe, A., Rempel, H., Bittman, S., Topp, E., et al. (2012). Characterization of Staphylococcus xylosus isolated from broiler chicken barn bioaerosol. Poult. Sci. 91, 3003-3012. doi: 10.3382/ps.2012-02302
136. Witte, W., Strommenger, B., Stanek, C., and Cuny, C., (2007). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST398 in humans and animals, Central Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2, 255-258. doi: 10.3201/eid1302.060924
137. Wu, V. C., Qiu, X., Bushway, A., and Harper, L. (2008). Antibacterial effects of American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) concentrate on foodborne pathogens. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 41, 1834-1841. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2008.01.001
138. Yost, C. K., Diarra, M. S., and Topp, E. (2011). "Animal and human as source of fecal indicator bacteria," in The Fecal Indicator Bacteria, eds M. Sadowsky and R. Whitman (Washington, DC: ASM Press), 67-91. doi: 10.1128/9781555816865.ch4
139. Zakeri, A., and Kashefi, P. (2011). The comparative effects of five growth promoters on broiler chickens humoral immunity and performance. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 10, 1097-1101. doi: 10.3923/javaa.2011.1097.1101
140. Zhang, C., Li, W., Liu, W., Zou, L., Yan, C., Lu, K., et al. (2013). T4-like phage Bp7, a potential antimicrobial agent for controlling drug resistant Escherichia coli in chickens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 79, 5559-5565. doi: 10.1128/AEM.01505-13
141. Zhao, L., KuoLee, R., Harris, G., Tram, K., Yan, H., and Chen, W. (2011). c-di-GMP protects against intranasal Acinetobacter baumannii infection in mice by chemokine induction and enhanced neutrophil recruitment. Inter. Immunopharmacol. 11, 1378-1383. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.03.024