Acquired inducible antimicrobial resistance in Gram-positive bacteria

Future Microbiology

Volumn 7, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 959-978

  Chancey, Scott T ^a,b   Zähner, Dorothea ^a,b   Stephens, David S ^a,b  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b ATLANTA VA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

antimicrobial resistance; Gram positive bacteria; inducible resistance; mobile genetic elements; ribosomal stalling; transposon

Indexed keywords

BACITRACIN; LINCOSAMIDE; MACROLIDE; MESSENGER RNA; METHYLTRANSFERASE; MIKAMYCIN B; OXACILLIN; ROSARAMICIN; TELITHROMYCIN; TETRACYCLINE; TILMICOSIN; TRANSFER RNA; VANCOMYCIN;

AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BACTERIOPHAGE; BACTERIUM ISOLATION; DRUG INACTIVATION; DRUG RESISTANCE; ENTEROCOCCUS; GENE EXPRESSION; GENOME; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; GRAM POSITIVE INFECTION; HUMAN; MACROPHAGE; NONHUMAN; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; PLASMID; POINT MUTATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN PROCESSING; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; RIBOSOME; STAPHYLOCOCCUS; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; TRANSPOSON;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, BACTERIAL; GENE TRANSFER, HORIZONTAL; GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA; HUMANS; INTERSPERSED REPETITIVE SEQUENCES;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); POSIBACTERIA;

EID: 84865578687     PISSN: 17460913     EISSN: 17460921     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/fmb.12.63     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Wozniak RAF, Waldor MK. Integrative and conjugative elements: Mosaic mobile genetic elements enabling dynamic lateral gene flow. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 8(8), 552-563 (2010
2. Guglielmini J, Quintais L, Garcillán-Barcia MP, De La Cruz F, Rocha EPC. The repertoire of ICE in prokaryotes underscores the unity, diversity, and ubiquity of conjugation. PLoS Genet. 7(8), e1002222 (2011
3. Roberts AP, Mullany P. Tn916-like genetic elements: A diverse group of modular mobile elements conferring antibiotic resistance. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 35(5), 856-871 (2011
4. Lebreton F, Depardieu F, Bourdon N et al. d-Ala-d-Ser VanN-type transferable vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 55(10), 4606-4612 (2011
5. Rana SW, Kumar A, Walia SK, Berven K, Cumper K. Isolation of Tn1546-like elements in vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium isolated from wood frogs: An emerging risk for zoonotic bacterial infections to humans. J. Appl. Microbiol. 110(1), 35-43 (2011
6. Courvalin P. Vancomycin resistance in Gram-positive cocci. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42(Suppl. 1), S25-S34 (2006
7. Sletvold H, Johnsen PJ, Wikmark OG, Simonsen GS, Sundsfjord A, Nielsen KM. Tn1546 is part of a larger plasmid-encoded genetic unit horizontally disseminated among clonal Enterococcus faecium lineages. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 65(9), 1894-1906 (2010
8. Hegstad K, Mikalsen T, Coque TM, Werner G, Sundsfjord A. Mobile genetic elements and their contribution to the emergence of antimicrobial resistant Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 16(6), 541-554 (2010
9. International Working Group on the Classification of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Elements Classification of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec): GUIDELINES for Reporting Novel SCCmec Elements. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53(12), 4961-4967 (2009
10. Lindsay J, Holden M. Understanding the rise of the superbug: Investigation of the evolution and genomic variation of Staphylococcus aureus. Funct. Integr. Genomics 6, 186-201 (2006
11. Smillie C, Garcillan-Barcia MP, Francia MV, Rocha EP, De La Cruz F. Mobility of plasmids. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 74(3), 434-452 (2010
12. Norman A, Hansen LH, Sorensen SJ. Conjugative plasmids: Vessels of the communal gene pool. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364(1527), 2275-2289 (2009
13. Colomer-Lluch M, Jofre J, Muniesa M. Antibiotic resistance genes in the bacteriophage DNA fraction of environmental samples. PLoS One 6(3), e17549 (2011
14. Di Luca MC, D'ercole S, Petrelli D, Prenna M, Ripa S, Vitali LA. Lysogenic transfer of mef(A) and tet(O) genes carried by fm46.1 among group A streptococci. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(10), 4464-4466 (2010
15. Monecke S, Coombs G, Shore AC et al. A field guide to pandemic, epidemic and sporadic clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One 6(4), e17936 (2011
16. Auchtung JM, Lee CA, Monson RE, Lehman AP, Grossman AD. Regulation of a Bacillus subtilis mobile genetic element by intercellular signaling and the global DNA damage response. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102(35), 12554-12559 (2005
17. Prudhomme M, Attaiech L, Sanchez G, Martin B, Claverys J-P. Antibiotic stress induces genetic transformability in the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae. Science 313(5783), 89-92 (2006
18. Roberts MC. Update on macrolide- lincosamide-streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone resistance genes. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 282(2), 147-159 (2008
19. Canu A, Leclercq R. Macrolides and lincosamides. In: ANTIMICROBIAL Drug Resistance: Mechansims of Drug Resistance. Mayers DL (Ed.). Humana Press, NJ, USA, 211-221 (2009
20. Mazzariol A, Koncan R, Vitali LA, Cornaglia G. Activities of 16-membered ring macrolides and telithromycin against different genotypes of erythromycin-susceptible and erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 59(6), 1171-1176 (2007
21. Schwaiger K, Bauer J. Detection of the erythromycin rRNA methylase gene erm(A) in Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(8), 2994-2995 (2008
22. Mayford M, Weisblum B. ermC leader peptide: Amino acid sequence critical for induction by translational attenuation. J. Mol. Biol. 206(1), 69-79 (1989
23. Horinouchi S, Weisblum B. Posttranscriptional modification of mRNA conformation: mechanism that regulates erythromycin-induced resistance. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 77(12), 7079-7083 (1980
24. Ramu H, Mankin A, Vazquez-Laslop N. Programmed drug-dependent ribosome stalling. Mol. Microbiol. 71(4), 811-824 (2009
25. Kramer G, Boehringer D, Ban N, Bukau B. The ribosome as a platform for co-translational processing, folding and targeting of newly synthesized proteins. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 16(6), 589-597 (2009
26. Vazquez-Laslop N, Thum C, Mankin AS. Molecular mechanism of drug-dependent ribosome stalling. Mol. Cell 30(2), 190-202 (2008
27. Bailey M, Chettiath T, Mankin AS. Induction of erm(C) expression by noninducing antibiotics. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(3), 866-874 (2008
28. Tenson T, Lovmar M, Ehrenberg M. The mechanism of action of macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramin B reveals the nascent peptide exit path in the ribosome. J. Mol. Biol. 330(5), 1005-1014 (2003
29. Dunkle JA, Xiong L, Mankin AS, Cate JHD. Structures of the Escherichia coli ribosome with antibiotics bound near the peptidyl transferase center explain spectra of drug action. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA doi:10.1073/pnas. 1007988107 (2010) (Epub ahead of print
30. Millán L, Goñi P, Cerdá P, Rubio M, Gómez-Lus R. Novel 10-bp deletion in the translational attenuator of a constitutively expressed erm(A) gene from Staphylococcus epidermidis. Int. Microbiol. 10(2), 147-150 (2007
31. Gatermann SG, Koschinski T, Friedrich S. Distribution and expression of macrolide resistance genes in coagulase-negative staphylococci. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 13(8), 777-781 (2007
32. Ramu H, Vazquez-Laslop N, Klepacki D et al. Nascent peptide in the ribosome exit tunnel affects functional properties of the A-site of the peptidyl transferase center. Mol. Cell 41(3), 321-330 (2011
33. Min Y-H, Kwon A-R, Yoon E-J, Shim M-J, Choi E-C. Translational attenuation and mRNA stabilization as mechanisms of erm(B) induction by erythromycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(5), 1782-1789 (2008
34. Kwon AR, Min YH, Yoon EJ, Kim JA, Shim MJ, Choi EC. ErmK leader peptide: Amino acid sequence critical for induction by erythromycin. Arch. Pharma. Res. 29(12), 1154-1157 (2006
35. Lampson BC, Von David W, Parisi JT. Novel mechanism for plasmid-mediated erythromycin resistance by pNE24 from Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 30(5), 653-658 (1986
36. Ojo KK, Striplin MJ, Ulep CC et al. Staphylococcus efflux msr(A) gene characterized in Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Enterococcus, and Pseudomonas isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50(3), 1089-1091 (2006
37. Le Bouter A, Leclercq R, Cattoir V. Molecular basis of resistance to macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramins in Staphylococcus saprophyticus clinical isolates. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 37(2), 118-123 (2011
38. Davis KA, Crawford SA, Fiebelkorn KR, Jorgensen JH. Induction of telithromycin resistance by erythromycin in isolates of macrolide-resistant Staphylococcus spp. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49(7), 3059-3061 (2005
39. Chancey ST, Zhou X, Zähner D, Stephens DS. Induction of efflux-mediated macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 55(7), 3413-3422 (2011
40. Zähner D, Zhou X, Chancey ST, Pohl J, Shafer WM, Stephens DS. Human antimicrobial peptide LL-37 induces MefE/Mel-mediated macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(8), 3516-3519 (2010
41. Cai Y, Kong F, Gilbert GL. Three new macrolide efflux (mef) gene variants in Streptococcus agalactiae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45(8), 2754-2755 (2007
42. Vitali L, Di Luca M, Iebba V et al. Variability and Inducibility of the mef(A)-msr(D) Region in Erythromycin-Resistant Streptococcus pyogenes. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Milan, Italy (2011
43. Reynolds E, Cove JH. Enhanced resistance to erythromycin is conferred by the enterococcal msrC determinant in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55(2), 260-264 (2005
44. Lodato PB, Rogers EJ, Lovett PS. A variation of the translation attenuation model can explain the inducible regulation of the pBC16 tetracycline resistance gene in Bacillus subtilis. J. Bacteriol. 188(13), 4749-4758 (2006
45. Ammor MS, Gueimonde M, Danielsen M et al. Two different tetracycline resistance mechanisms, plasmid-carried tet(L) and chromosomally located transposon-associated tet(M), coexist in Lactobacillus sakei Rits 9. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74(5), 1394-1401 (2008
46. Mcintosh ED, Reinert RR. Global prevailing and emerging pediatric pneumococcal serotypes. Expert Rev. Vaccines 10(1), 109-129 (2011
47. Jordan S, Hutchings MI, Mascher T. Cell envelope stress response in Gram-positive bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 32(1), 107-146 (2008
48. Gao R, Stock AM. Biological insights from structures of two-component proteins. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 63, 133-154 (2009
49. Koteva K, Hong H-J, Wang XD et al. A vancomycin photoprobe identifies the histidine kinase VanSsc as a vancomycin receptor. Nat. Chem. Biol. 6(5), 327-329 (2010
50. Werner G, Strommenger B, Witte W. Acquired vancomycin resistance in clinically relevant pathogens. Future Microbiol. 3(5), 547-562 (2008
51. Evers S, Courvalin P. Regulation of VanB-type vancomycin resistance gene expression by the VanS(B)-VanR (B) two-component regulatory system in Enterococcus faecalis V583. J. Bacteriol. 178(5), 1302-1309 (1996
52. Baptista M, Depardieu F, Courvalin P, Arthur M. Specificity of induction of glycopeptide resistance genes in Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40(10), 2291-2295 (1996
53. Boyd DA, Willey BM, Fawcett D, Gillani N, Mulvey MR. Molecular characterization of Enterococcus faecalis N06-0364 with low-level vancomycin resistance harboring a novel d-Ala-d-Ser gene cluster, vanL. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(7), 2667-2672 (2008
54. Xu X, Lin D, Yan G et al. vanM, a new glycopeptide resistance gene cluster found in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(11), 4643-4647 (2010
55. Depardieu F, Kolbert M, Pruul H, Bell J, Courvalin P. VanD-type vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48(10), 3892-3904 (2004
56. Abadia Patino L, Courvalin P, Perichon B. vanE gene cluster of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis BM4405. J. Bacteriol. 184(23), 6457-6464 (2002
57. Fisher SL, Jiang W, Wanner BL, Walsh CT. Cross-talk between the histidine protein kinase VanS and the response regulator PhoB. Characterization and identification of a VanS domain that inhibits activation of PhoB. J. Biol. Chem. 270(39), 23143-23149 (1995
58. Hutchings MI, Hong H-J, Buttner MJ. The vancomycin resistance VanRS two-component signal transduction system of Streptomyces coelicolor. Mol. Microbiol. 59(3), 923-935 (2006
59. Lee WG, Huh JY, Cho SR, Lim YA. Reduction in glycopeptide resistance in vancomycin-resistant enterococci as a result of vanA cluster rearrangements. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48(4), 1379-1381 (2004
60. Sung K, Khan SA, Nawaz MS. Genetic diversity of Tn1546-like elements in clinical isolates of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 31(6), 549-554 (2008
61. Gagnon S, Lévesque S, Lefebvre B, Bourgault A-M, Labbé A-C, Roger M. vanA-containing Enterococcus faecium susceptible to vancomycin and teicoplanin because of major nucleotide deletions in Tn1546. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. doi:10.1093/jac/ dkr379 (2011) (Epub ahead of print
62. San Millan A, Depardieu F, Godreuil S, Courvalin P. VanB-Type Enterococcus faecium clinical isolate successively inducibly resistant to, dependent on, and constitutively resistant to vancomycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53(5), 1974-1982 (2009
63. Ribeiro T, Santos S, Marques MIM, Gilmore M, De Fátima Silva Lopes M. Identification of a new gene, vanV, in vanB operons of Enterococcus faecalis. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 37(6), 554-557 (2011
64. Moubareck C, Meziane-Cherif D, Courvalin P, Perichon B. VanA-type Staphylococcus aureus strain VRSA-7 is partially dependent on vancomycin for growth. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53(9), 3657-3663 (2009
65. Fraimow H, Knob C, Herrero IA, Patel R. Putative VanRS-like two-component regulatory system associated with the inducible glycopeptide resistance cluster of Paenibacillus popilliae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49(7), 2625-2633 (2005
66. Poyart C, Pierre C, Quesne G, Pron B, Berche P, Trieu-Cuot P. Emergence of vancomycin resistance in the genus Streptococcus: Characterization of a vanB transferable determinant in Streptococcus bovis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41(1), 24-29 (1997
67. Domingo MC, Huletsky A, Giroux R et al. High prevalence of glycopeptide resistance genes vanB, vanD, and vanG not associated with enterococci in human fecal flora. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49(11), 4784-4786 (2005
68. Werner G, Freitas AR, Coque TM et al. Host range of enterococcal vanA plasmids among Gram-positive intestinal bacteria. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 66(2), 273-282 (2011
69. Noble WC, Virani Z, Cree RG. Co-transfer of vancomycin and other resistance genes from Enterococcus faecalis NCTC 12201 to Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 72(2), 195-198 (1992
70. Chang S, Sievert DM, Hageman JC et al. Infection with vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus containing the vanA resistance gene. N. Engl. J. Med. 348(14), 1342-1347 (2003
71. CDC. Staphylococcus aureus resistant to vancomycin - United States, 2002. Morbid. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 51, 565-567 (2002
72. Weigel LM, Clewell DB, Gill SR et al. Genetic analysis of a high-level vancomycin-resistant isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Science 302(5650), 1569-1571 (2003
73. Foucault M-L, Depardieu F, Courvalin P, Grillot-Courvalin C. Inducible expression eliminates the fitness cost of vancomycin resistance in enterococci. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107(39), 16964-16969 (2010
74. Bisicchia P, Bui NK, Aldridge C, Vollmer W, Devine KM. Acquisition of VanB-type vancomycin resistance by Bacillus subtilis: The impact on gene expression, cell wall composition and morphology. Mol. Microbiol. 81(1), 157-178 (2011
75. Moritz EM, Hergenrother PJ. Toxin-antitoxin systems are ubiquitous and plasmid-encoded in vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104(1), 311-316 (2007
76. Johnsen PJ, Simonsen GS, Olsvik Ø, Midtvedt T, Sundsfjord A. Stability, persistence, and evolution of plasmid-encoded VanA glycopeptide resistance in Enterococci in the absence of antibiotic selection in vitro and in gnotobiotic mice. Microbial Drug Resis. 8(3), 161-170 (2002
77. Hill CM, Krause KM, Lewis SR et al. Specificity of induction of the vanA and vanB operons in vancomycin-resistant enterococci by telavancin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(7), 2814-2818 (2010
78. Xie J, Pierce JG, James RC, Okano A, Boger DL. A redesigned vancomycin engineered for Dual d-Ala-d-Ala and d-Ala-d-Lac binding exhibits potent antimicrobial activity against vancomycin-resistant bacteria. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133(35), 13946-13949 (2011
79. Marrero A, Mallorquí-Fernández G, Guevara T, García-Castellanos R, Gomis-Rüth FX. Unbound and acylated structures of the mecR1 extracellular antibiotic-sensor domain provide insights into the signal-transduction system that triggers methicillin resistance. J. Mol. Biol. 361(3), 506-521 (2006
80. Thumanu K, Cha J, Fisher JF, Perrins R, Mobashery S, Wharton C. Discrete steps in sensing of b-lactam antibiotics by the BlaR1 protein of the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacterium. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103(28), 10630-10635 (2006
81. Fuda CC, Fisher JF, Mobashery S. b-lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: The adaptive resistance of a plastic genome. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 62(22), 2617-2633 (2005
82. Mckinney TK, Sharma VK, Craig WA, Archer GL. Transcription of the gene mediating methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus (mecA) is corepressed but not coinduced by cognate mecA and b-lactamase regulators. J. Bacteriol. 183(23), 6862-6868 (2001
83. Oliveira DC, De Lencastre H. Methicillin-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus is not affected by the overexpression in trans of the mecA gene repressor: A surprising observation. PLoS One 6(8), e23287 (2011
84. Berger-Bächi B, Senn MM, Ender M et al. Resistance to b-lactam antibiotics. In: STAPHYLOCOCCI in Human Disease. Crossley KB, Archer G, Jeffersin K, Fowler V (Eds). Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK, 170-192 (2010
85. Malhotra-Kumar S, Haccuria K, Michiels M et al. Current trends in rapid diagnostics for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(5), 1577-1587 (2008
86. Malachowa N, Deleo FR. Mobile genetic elements of Staphylococcus aureus. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 67(18), 3057-3071 (2010
87. Tsubakishita S, Kuwahara-Arai K, Baba T, Hiramatsu K. Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec-like element in Macrococcus caseolyticus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(4), 1469-1475 (2010
88. Shore AC, Deasy EC, Slickers P et al. Detection of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec type XI encoding highly divergent mecA, mecI, mecR1, blaZ and ccr genes in human clinical clonal complex 130 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 55(8), 3765-3773 (2011
89. Song MD, Wachi M, Doi M, Ishino F, Matsuhashi M. Evolution of an inducible penicillin-target protein in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by gene fusion. FEBS Lett. 221(1), 167-171 (1987
90. Rosato AE, Kreiswirth BN, Craig WA, Eisner W, Climo MW, Archer GL. mecA-blaZ corepressors in clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47(4), 1460-1463 (2003
91. Katayama Y, Zhang HZ, Hong D, Chambers HF. Jumping the barrier to b-lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 185(18), 5465-5472 (2003
92. Ender M, Mccallum N, Adhikari R, Berger-Bachi B. Fitness cost of SCCmec and methicillin resistance levels in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48(6), 2295-2297 (2004
93. Lee SM, Ender M, Adhikari R, Smith JM, Berger-Bachi B, Cook GM. Fitness cost of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by way of continuous culture. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51(4), 1497-1499 (2007
94. Milheirico C, Portelinha A, Krippahl L, De Lencastre H, Oliveira DC. Evidence for a purifying selection acting on the b-lactamase locus in epidemic clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Microbiol. 11, 76 (2011
95. Goldstein F, Perutka J, Cuirolo A et al. Identification and phenotypic characterization of a b-lactam-dependent, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51(7), 2514-2522 (2007
96. Garza-González E, López D, Pezina C et al. Diversity of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec structures in coagulase-negative staphylococci and relationship to drug resistance. J. Med. Microbiol. 59(Pt 3), 323-329 (2010
97. Garza-González E, Morfín-Otero R, Llaca-Díaz JM, Rodriguez-Noriega E. Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) in methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci. A review and the experience in a tertiary-care setting. Epidemiol. Infect. 138(5), 645-654 (2010
98. Miragaia M, Thomas JC, Couto I, Enright MC, De Lencastre H. Inferring a population structure for Staphylococcus epidermidis from multilocus sequence typing data. J. Bacteriol. 189(6), 2540-2552 (2007
99. Fessler AT, Kadlec K, Schwarz S. Novel apramycin resistance gene apmA in bovine and porcine methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST398 isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 55(1), 373-375 (2011
100. Zong Z, Lü X. Characterization of a new SCCmec element in Staphylococcus cohnii. PLoS One 5(11), e14016 (2010
101. Dubnau DA, Pollock MR. The genetics of Bacillus licheniformis penicillinase: A preliminary analysis from studies on mutation and inter-strain and intra-strain transformations. J. Gen. Microbiol. 41(1), 7-22 (1965
102. Sebaihia M, Wren BW, Mullany P et al. The multidrug-resistant human pathogen Clostridium difficile has a highly mobile, mosaic genome. Nat. Genet. 38(7), 779-786 (2006
103. Severin A, Tabei K, Tenover F, Chung M, Clarke N, Tomasz A. High level oxacillin and vancomycin resistance and altered cell wall composition in Staphylococcus aureus carrying the staphylococcal mecA and the enterococcal vanA gene complex. J. Biol. Chem. 279(5), 3398-3407 (2004
104. Fox PM, Lampen RJ, Stumpf KS, Archer GL, Climo MW. Successful therapy of experimental endocarditis caused by vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with a combination of vancomycin and b-lactam antibiotics. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50(9), 2951-2956 (2006
105. Hiramatsu K. Resistance to glycopeptides. In: Staphylococci in Human Disease. Crossley KB, Archer G, Jeffersin K, Fowler V. (Eds). Wiley, Oxford, UK, 193-209 (2010
106. Manson JM, Keis S, Smith JM, Cook GM. Acquired bacitracin resistance in Enterococcus faecalis is mediated by an ABC transporter and a novel regulatory protein, BcrR. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48(10), 3743-3748 (2004
107. Gebhard S, Gaballa A, Helmann JD, Cook GM. Direct stimulus perception and transcription activation by a membrane-bound DNA binding protein. Mol. Microbiol. 73(3), 482-491 (2009
108. Diarra MS, Rempel H, Champagne J, Masson L, Pritchard J, Topp E. Distribution of antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes in Enterococcus spp. and characterization of isolates from broiler chickens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 76(24), 8033-8043 (2010
109. Jorgensen JH, Mcelmeel ML, Fulcher LC, Mcgee L, Glennen A. Evaluation of disk approximation and single well broth tests for detection of inducible clindamycin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 49(9), 3332-3333 (2011
110. Jorgensen JH, Mcelmeel ML, Fulcher LC et al. Collaborative evaluation of an erythromycin-clindamycin combination well for detection of inducible clindamycin resistance in b-hemolytic streptococci by use of the CLSI broth microdilution method. J. Clin. Microbiol. 49(8), 2884-2886 (2011
111. Wieser A, Schneider L, Jung J, Schubert S. MALDI-TOF MS in microbiological diagnostics-identification of microorganisms and beyond. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 93(3), 965-974 (2011
112. Domelier A-S, Van Der Mee-Marquet N, Arnault L et al. Molecular characterization of erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus agalactiae strains. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 62(6), 1227-1233 (2008
113. López F, Culebras E, Betriú C, Rodríguez- Avial I, Gómez M, Picazo JJ. Antimicrobial susceptibility and macrolide resistance genes in Enterococcus faecium with reduced susceptibility to quinupristin-dalfopristin: level of quinupristin-dalfopristin resistance is not dependent on erm(B) attenuator region sequence. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 66(1), 73-77 (2010
114. Soge OO, Tivoli LD, Meschke JS, Roberts MC. A conjugative macrolide resistance gene, mef(A), in environmental Clostridium perfringens carrying multiple macrolide and/or tetracycline resistance genes. J. Appl. Microbiol. 106(1), 34-40 (2009
115. Yao S, Blaustein JB, Bechhofer DH. Erythromycin-induced ribosome stalling and RNase J1-mediated mRNA processing in Bacillus subtilis. Mol. Microbiol. 69(6), 1439-1449 (2008