Distinct regions of the cerebellum show gray matter decreases in autism, ADHD, and developmental dyslexia

Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience

Volumn 8, Issue MAY, 2014, Pages

  Stoodley, Catherine J ^a  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; Autism spectrum disorder; Cerebellum; Developmental dyslexia; Meta analysis

Indexed keywords

AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; AUTISM; BASAL GANGLION; BRAIN REGION; CEREBELLUM; CEREBELLUM VERMIS; COMORBIDITY; CUNEUS; DEFAULT MODE NETWORK; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; DYSLEXIA; GRAY MATTER; HUMAN; META ANALYSIS; MIDDLE FRONTAL GYRUS; NERVE CELL NETWORK; VOXEL BASED MORPHOMETRY;

EID: 84901254285     PISSN: 16625137     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00092     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Abell, F., Krams, M., Ashburner, J., Passingham, R., Friston, K., Frackowiak, R., et al. (1999). The neuroanatomy of autism: a voxel-based whole brain analysis of structural scans. Neuroreport 10, 1647-1651. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199906030-00005
2. Abrahams, B. S., and Geschwind, D. H. (2010). Connecting genes to brain in the autism spectrum disorders. Arch. Neurol. 67, 395-399. doi: 10.1001/archneu-rol.2010.47
3. Ahrendts, J., Rusch, N., Wilke, M., Philipsen, A., Eickhoff, S. B., Glauche, V., et al. (2010). Visual cortex abnormalities in adults with ADHD: a structural MRI study. World J. Biol. Psychiatry 12, 260-270. doi: 10.3109/15622975.2010.518624
4. Allen, G., McColl, R., Barnard, H., Ringe, W., Fleckenstein, J., and Cullum, C. (2005). Magnetic resonance imaging of cerebellar-prefrontal and cerebellar parietal functional connectivity. Neuroimage 28, 39-48. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.06.013
5. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edn., Text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. doi: 10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349
6. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edn. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, Inc.
7. Apps, R., and Garwicz, M. (2005). Anatomical and physiological foundations of cerebellar information processing. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6, 297-311. doi: 10.1038/nrn1646
8. Ashtari, M., Kumra, S., Bhaskar, S. L., Clarke, T., Thaden, E., Cervellione, K. L., et al. (2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary diffusion tensor imaging study. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 448-455. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.047
9. Bailey, A., Luthert, P., Dean, A., Harding, B., Janota, I., Montgomery, M., et al. (1998). A clinicopathological study of autism. Brain 121(Pt 5), 889-905. doi: 10.1093/brain/121.5.889
10. Bauman, M., and Kemper, T. (1985). Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism. Neurology 35, 866-874. doi: 10.1212/WNL.35.6.866
11. Bechtel, N., Kobel, M., Penner, I. K., Klarhofer, M., Scheffler, K., Opwis, K., et al. (2009). Decreased fractional anisotropy in the middle cerebellar peduncle in children with epilepsy and/or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary study. Epilepsy Behav. 15, 294-298. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.04.005
12. Becker, E. B., and Stoodley, C. J. (2013). Autism spectrum disorder and the cerebellum. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 113, 1-34. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-418700-9.00001-0
13. Berquin, P. C., Giedd, J. N., Jacobsen, L. K., Hamburger, S. D., Krain, A. L., Rapoport, J. L., et al. (1998). Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperac-tivity disorder-A morphometric MRI study. Neurology 50, 1087-1093. doi: 10.1212/WNL.50.4.1087
14. Biederman, J. (2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a selective overview. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 1215-1220. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.020
15. Bledsoe, J., Semrud-Clikeman, M., and Pliszka, S. R. (2009). A magnetic resonance imaging study of the cerebellar vermis in chronically treated and treatment-naive children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder combined type. Biol. Psychiatry 65, 620-624. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.11.030
16. Bledsoe, J. C., Semrud-Clikeman, M., and Pliszka, S. R. (2011). Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological correlates of the cerebellum in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-combined type. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 50, 593-601. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2011.02.014
17. Boddaert, N., Chabane, N., Gervais, H., Good, C. D., Bourgeois, M., Plumet, M. H., et al. (2004). Superior temporal sulcus anatomical abnormalities in childhood autism: a voxel-based morphometry MRI study. Neuroimage 23, 364-369. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.016
18. Bolduc, M. E., Du Plessis, A. J., Evans, A., Guizard, N., Zhang, X., Robertson, R. L., et al. (2011). Cerebellar malformations alter regional cerebral development. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 53, 1128-1134. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04090.x
19. Bolduc, M. E., du Plessis, A. J., Sullivan, N., Guizard, N., Zhang, X., Robertson, R. L., et al. (2012). Regional cerebellar volumes predict functional outcome in children with cerebellar malformations. Cerebellum 11, 531-542. doi: 10.1007/s12311-011-0312-z
20. Bonilha, L., Cendes, F., Rorden, C., Eckert, M., Dalgalarrondo, P., Li, L. M., et al. (2008). Gray and white matter imbalance-typical structural abnormality underlying classic autism? Brain Dev. 30, 396-401. doi: 10.1016/j.braindev.2007.11.006
21. Bradley, L., and Bryant, P. (1983). Categorising sounds and learning to read-a causal connection. Nature 301, 419-421. doi: 10.1038/301419a0
22. Brambati, S. M., Termine, C., Ruffino, M., Stella, G., Fazio, F., Cappa, S. F., et al. (2004). Regional reductions of gray matter volume in familial dyslexia. Neurology 63, 742-745. doi: 10.1212/01.WNL.0000134673.95020.EE
23. Brieber, S., Neufang, S., Bruning, N., Kamp-Becker, I., Remschmidt, H., Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., et al. (2007). Structural brain abnormalities in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 48, 1251-1258. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01799.x
24. Brown, W., Eliez, S., Menon, V., Rumsey, J., White, C., and Reiss, A. (2001). Preliminary evidence of widespread morphological variations in the brain in dyslexia. Neurology 56, 781-783. doi: 10.1212/WNL.56.6.781
25. Buckner, R. L., Krienen, F. M., Castellanos, A., Diaz, J. C., and Yeo, B. T. (2011). The organization of the human cerebellum estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity. J. Neurophysiol. 106, 2322-2345. doi: 10.1152/jn.00339.2011
26. Bush, G. (2010). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and attention networks. Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 278-300. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.120
27. Carmona, S., Vilarroya, O., Bielsa, A., Tremols, V., Soliva, J. C., Rovira, M., et al. (2005). Global and regional gray matter reductions in ADHD: a voxel-based morphometric study. Neurosci. Lett. 389, 88-93. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.07.020
28. Carrion-Castillo, A., Franke, B., and Fisher, S. E. (2013). Molecular genetics of dyslexia: an overview. Dyslexia 19, 214-240. doi: 10.1002/dys.1464
29. Castellanos, F., Lee, P., Sharp, W., Jeffries, N., Greenstein, D., Clasen, L., et al. (2002). Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 288, 1740-1748. doi: 10.1001/jama.288.14.1740
30. Castellanos, F. X., Giedd, J. N., Berquin, P. C., Walter, J. M., Sharp, W., Tran, T., et al. (2001). Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58, 289-295. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.58.3.289
31. Castellanos, F. X., Giedd, J. N., Marsh, W. L., Hamburger, S. D., Vaituzis, A. C., Dickstein, D. P., et al. (1996). Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 53, 607-616. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830070053009
32. Catani, M., Jones, D., Daly, E., Embiricos, N., Deeley, Q., Pugliese, L., et al. (2008). Altered cerebellar feedback projections in Asperger syndrome. Neuroimage 41, 1184-1191. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.041
33. Cauda, F., Geda, E., Sacco, K., D'Agata, F., Duca, S., Geminiani, G., et al. (2011). Grey matter abnormality in autism spectrum disorder: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 82, 1304-1313. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2010.239111
34. Christakou, A., Murphy, C. M., Chantiluke, K., Cubillo, A. I., Smith, A. B., Giampietro, V., et al. (2013). Disorder-specific functional abnormalities during sustained attention in youth with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and with autism. Mol. Psychiatry 18, 236-244. doi: 10.1038/mp.2011.185
35. Collins, D., Zijdenbos, A., Kollokian, V., Sled, J., Kabani, N., Holmes, C., et al. (1998). Design and construction of a realistic digital brain phantom. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 17, 463-468. doi: 10.1109/42.712135
36. Corbetta, M., and Shulman, G. L. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3, 201-215. doi: 10.1038/nrn755
37. Courchesne, E., Campbell, K., and Solso, S. (2011). Brain growth across the life span in autism: age-specific changes in anatomical pathology. Brain Res. 1380, 138-145. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.09.101
38. Courchesne, E., Saitoh, O., Townsend, J. P., Yeung-Courchesne, R., Press, G. A., Lincoln, A. J., et al. (1994). Cerebellar hypoplasia and hyperplasia in infantile autism. Lancet 343, 63-64. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)90923-7
39. Courchesne, E., Yeung-Courchesne, R., Press, G., Hesselink, J., and Jernigan, T. (1988). Hypoplasia of cerebellar vermal lobules VI and VII in autism. New Engl. J. Med. 318, 1349-1354. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198805263182102
40. Craig, M. C., Zaman, S. H., Daly, E. M., Cutter, W. J., Robertson, D. M., Hallahan, B., et al. (2007). Women with autistic-spectrum disorder: magnetic resonance imaging study of brain anatomy. Br. J. Psychiatry 191, 224-228. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.106.034603
41. Czerniak, S. M., Sikoglu, E. M., King, J. A., Kennedy, D. N., Mick, E., Frazier, J., et al. (2013). Areas of the brain modulated by a single-dose methylphenidate treatment in youth with ADHD during task-based fMRI: a systematic review. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 21, 151-162. doi: 10.1097/HRP.0b013e318293749e
42. Diedrichsen, J. (2006). A spatially unbiased atlas template of the human cerebellum. Neuroimage 33, 127-138. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.056
43. Diedrichsen, J., Balsters, J. H., Flavell, J., Cussans, E., and Ramnani, N. (2009). A probabilistic MR atlas of the human cerebellum. Neuroimage 46, 39-46. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.045
44. Di Martino, A., Zuo, X. N., Kelly, C., Grzadzinski, R., Mennes, M., Schvarcz, A., et al. (2013). Shared and distinct intrinsic functional network central-ity in autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 74, 623-632. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.02.011
45. Duerden, E. G., Mak-Fan, K. M., Taylor, M. J., and Roberts, S. W. (2012). Regional differences in grey and white matter in children and adults with autism spectrum disorders: an activation likelihood estimate (ALE) meta-analysis. Autism Res. 5, 49-66. doi: 10.1002/aur.235
46. Durston, S. (2010). Imaging genetics in ADHD. Neuroimage 52, 832-838. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.071
47. Durston, S., Davidson, M. C., Mulder, M. J., Spicer, J. A., Galvan, A., Tottenham, N., et al. (2007). Neural and behavioral correlates of expectancy violations in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 48, 881-889. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01754.x
48. Durston, S., Hulshoff Pol, H. E., Schnack, H. G., Buitelaar, J. K., Steenhuis, M. P., Minderaa, R. B., et al. (2004). Magnetic resonance imaging of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and their unaffected siblings. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 43, 332-340. doi: 10.1097/00004583-200403000-00016
49. Durston, S., van Belle, J., and de Zeeuw, P. (2011). Differentiating frontostriatal and fronto-cerebellar circuits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 69, 1178-1184. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.037
50. Ecker, C., Rocha-Rego, V., Johnston, P., Mourao-Miranda, J., Marquand, A., Daly, E. M., et al. (2010). Investigating the predictive value of whole-brain structural MR scans in autism: a pattern classification approach. Neuroimage 49, 44-56. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.08.024
51. Ecker, C., Suckling, J., Deoni, S. C., Lombardo, M. V., Bullmore, E. T., Baron-Cohen, S., et al. (2012). Brain anatomy and its relationship to behavior in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a multicenter magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69, 195-209. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychia-try.2011.1251
52. Eckert, M. (2004). Neuroanatomical markers for dyslexia: a review of dyslexia structural imaging studies. Neuroscientist 10, 362-371. doi: 10.1177/1073858404263596
53. Eckert, M. A., Leonard, C. M., Wilke, M., Eckert, M., Richards, T., Richards, A., et al. (2005). Anatomical signatures of dyslexia in children: unique information from manual and voxel based morphometry brain measures. Cortex 41, 304-315. doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70268-5
54. Eickhoff, S. B., Bzdok, D., Laird, A. R., Kurth, F., and Fox, P. T. (2012). Activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis revisited. Neuroimage 59, 2349-2361. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.017
55. Eickhoff, S. B., Laird, A. R., Grefkes, C., Wang, L. E., Zilles, K., and Fox, P. T. (2009). Coordinate-based activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of neuroimag-ing data: a random-effects approach based on empirical estimates of spatial uncertainty. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30, 2907-2926. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20718
56. Fair, D. A., Nigg, J. T., Iyer, S., Bathula, D., Mills, K. L., Dosenbach, N. U., et al. (2013). Distinct neural signatures detected for ADHD subtypes after controlling for micro-movements in resting state functional connectivity MRI data. Front. Syst. Neurosci. 6:80. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2012.00080
57. Faraone, S. V., Perlis, R. H., Doyle, A. E., Smoller, J. W., Goralnick, J. J., Holmgren, M. A., et al. (2005). Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 1313-1323. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.024
58. Franceschini, S., Gori, S., Ruffino, M., Pedrolli, K., and Facoetti, A. (2012). A causal link between visual spatial attention and reading acquisition. Curr. Biol. 22, 814-819. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.013
59. Ghajar, J., and Ivry, R. B. (2009). The predictive brain state: asynchrony in disorders of attention? Neuroscientist 15, 232-242. doi: 10.1177/1073858408326429
60. Goldfarb, L., and Shaul, S. (2013). Abnormal attentional internetwork link in dyslexic readers. Neuropsychology 27, 725-729. doi: 10.1037/a0034422
61. Habas, C., Kamdar, N., Nguyen, D., Prater, K., Beckmann, C. F., Menon, V., et al. (2009). Distinct cerebellar contributions to intrinsic connectivity networks. J. Neurosci. 29, 8586-8594. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1868-09.2009
62. Hoeft, F., Meyler, A., Hernandez, A., Juel, C., Taylor-Hill, H., Martindale, J. L., et al. (2007). Functional and morphometric brain dissociation between dyslexia and reading ability. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 4234-4239. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0609399104
63. Hoekzema, E., Carmona, S., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., Barba, E., Bielsa, A., Tremols, V., et al. (2011). Training-induced neuroanatomical plasticity in ADHD: a tensor-based morphometric study. Hum. Brain Mapp. 32, 1741-1749. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21143
64. Hoekzema, E., Carmona, S., Tremols, V., Gispert, J. D., Guitart, M., Fauquet, J., et al. (2010). Enhanced neural activity in frontal and cerebellar circuits after cognitive training in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Hum. Brain Mapp. 31, 1942-1950. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20988
65. Hyde, K. L., Samson, F., Evans, A. C., and Mottron, L. (2010). Neuroanatomical differences in brain areas implicated in perceptual and other core features of autism revealed by cortical thickness analysis and voxel-based morphometry. Hum. Brain Mapp. 31, 556-566. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20887
66. Hynd, G. W., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Lorys, A. R., Novey, E. S., and Eliopulos, D. (1990). Brain morphology in developmental dyslexia and attention deficit disorder/hyperactivity. Arch. Neurol. 47, 919-926. doi: 10.1001/arch-neur.1990.00530080107018
67. Ito, M. (2008). Control of mental activities by internal models in the cerebellum. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 304-313. doi: 10.1038/nrn2332
68. Ivanov, I., Murrough, J. W., Bansal, R., Hao, X., and Peterson, B. S. (2014). Cerebellar morphology and the effects of stimulant medications in youths with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 39, 718-726. doi: 10.1038/npp.2013.257
69. Jednorog, K., Gawron, N., Marchewka, A., Heim, S., and Grabowska, A. (2013). Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia are characterized by distinct patterns of grey matter volume. Brain Struct. Funct. doi: 10.1007/s00429-013-0595-6. [Epub ahead of print].
70. Kasparek, T., Theiner, P., and Filova, A. (2013). Neurobiology of ADHD from childhood to adulthood: findings of imaging methods. J. Atten. Disord. doi: 10.1177/1087054713505322. [Epub ahead of print].
71. Kaufmann, W. E., Cooper, K. L., Mostofsky, S. H., Capone, G. T., Kates, W. R., Newschaffer, C. J., et al. (2003). Specificity of cerebellar vermian abnormalities in autism: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Child Neurol. 18, 463-470. doi: 10.1177/08830738030180070501
72. Ke, X., Hong, S., Tang, T., Zou, B., Li, H., Hang, Y., et al. (2008). Voxel-based mor-phometry study on brain structure in children with high-functioning autism. Neuroreport 19, 921-925. doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e328300edf3
73. Kemper, T. L., and Bauman, M. L. (1993). The contribution of neuropathologic studies to the understanding of autism. Neurol. Clin. 11, 175-187.
74. Kibby, M. Y., Fancher, J. B., Markanen, R., and Hynd, G. W. (2008). A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging analysis of the cerebellar deficit hypothesis of dyslexia. J. Child Neurol. 23, 368-380. doi: 10.1177/0883073807309235
75. Kibby, M. Y., Kroese, J. M., Krebbs, H., Hill, C. E., and Hynd, G. W. (2009a). The pars triangularis in dyslexia and ADHD: a comprehensive approach. Brain Lang. 111, 46-54. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2009.03.001
76. Kibby, M. Y., Pavawalla, S. P., Fancher, J. B., Naillon, A. J., and Hynd, G. W. (2009b). The relationship between cerebral hemisphere volume and receptive language functioning in dyslexia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J. Child Neurol. 24, 438-448. doi: 10.1177/0883073808324772
77. Kobel, M., Bechtel, N., Specht, K., Klarhofer, M., Weber, P., Scheffler, K., et al. (2010). Structural and functional imaging approaches in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: does the temporal lobe play a key role? Psychiatry Res. 183, 230-236. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.03.010
78. Kobel, M., Bechtel, N., Weber, P., Specht, K., Klarhofer, M., Scheffler, K., et al. (2009). Effects of methylphenidate on working memory functioning in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. 13, 516-523. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2008.10.008
79. Krafnick, A. J., Flowers, D. L., Napoliello, E. M., and Eden, G. F. (2011). Gray matter volume changes following reading intervention in dyslexic children. Neuroimage 57, 733-741. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.062
80. Krienen, F. M., and Buckner, R. L. (2009). Segregated fronto-cerebellar circuits revealed by intrinsic functional connectivity. Cereb. Cortex 19, 2485-2497. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhp135
81. Kronbichler, M., Wimmer, H., Staffen, W., Hutzler, F., Mair, A., and Ladurner, G. (2008). Developmental dyslexia: gray matter abnormalities in the occipitotem-poral cortex. Hum. Brain Mapp. 29, 613-625. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20425
82. Kujala, J., Pammer, K., Cornelissen, P., Roebroeck, A., Formisano, E., and Salmelin, R. (2007). Phase coupling in a cerebro-cerebellar network at 8-13 Hz during reading. Cereb. Cortex 17, 1476-1485. doi: 10.1093/cercor/ bhl059
83. Kwon, H., Ow, A. W., Pedatella, K. E., Lotspeich, L. J., and Reiss, A. L. (2004). Voxel-based morphometry elucidates structural neuroanatomy of high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 46, 760-764. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2004.tb00996.x
84. Lancaster, J. L., Tordesillas-Gutierrez, D., Martinez, M., Salinas, F., Evans, A., Zilles, K., et al. (2007). Bias between MNI and Talairach coordinates analyzed using the ICBM-152 brain template. Hum. Brain Mapp. 28, 1194-1205. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20345
85. Leonard, C. M., Kuldau, J. M., Maron, L., Ricciuti, N., Mahoney, B., Bengtson, M., et al. (2008). Identical neural risk factors predict cognitive deficit in dyslexia and schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 22, 147-158. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.22.2.147
86. Levinson, H. N. (1990). The diagnostic value of cerebellar-vestibular tests in detecting learning disabilities, dyslexia, and attention deficit disorder. Percept. Mot. Skills 71, 67-82. doi: 10.2466/pms.1990.71.1.67
87. Li, W., Mai, X., and Liu, C. (2014). The default mode network and social understanding of others: what do brain connectivity studies tell us. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:74. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00074
88. Lim, L., Marquand, A., Cubillo, A. A., Smith, A. B., Chantiluke, K., Simmons, A., et al. (2013). Disorder-specific predictive classification of adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) relative to autism using structural magnetic resonance imaging. PLoS ONE 8:e63660. doi: 10.1371/jour-nal.pone.0063660
89. Limperopoulos, C., Bassan, H., Sullivan, N. R., Soul, J. S., Robertson, R. L. Jr., Moore, M., et al. (2008). Positive screening for autism in ex-preterm infants: prevalence and risk factors. Pediatrics 121, 758-765. doi: 10.1542/peds. 2007-2158
90. Linkersdorfer, J., Lonnemann, J., Lindberg, S., Hasselhorn, M., and Fiebach, C. J. (2012). Grey matter alterations co-localize with functional abnormalities in developmental dyslexia: an ALE meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 7:e43122. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043122
91. Mackie, S., Shaw, P., Lenroot, R., Pierson, R., Greenstein, D. K., Nugent, T. F., et al. (2007). Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 164, 647-655. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.164.4.647
92. Makris, N., Liang, L., Biederman, J., Valera, E. M., Brown, A. B., Petty, C., et al. (2013). Toward defining the neural substrates of ADHD: a controlled structural MRI study in medication-naive adults. J. Atten. Disord. doi: 10.1177/1087054713506041. [Epub ahead of print].
93. McAlonan, G. M., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Chua, S. E., Murphy, D. G., Suckling, J., et al. (2007). Mapping brain structure in attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a voxel-based MRI study of regional grey and white matter volume. Psychiatry Res. 154, 171-180. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2006.09.006
94. McAlonan, G. M., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Suckling, J., Lam, G. Y., Tai, K. S., et al. (2005). Mapping the brain in autism: a voxel-based MRI study of volumetric differences and intercorrelations in autism. Brain 128, 268-276. doi: 10.1093/brain/awh332
95. McAlonan, G. M., Suckling, J., Wong, N., Cheung, V., Lienenkaemper, N., Cheung, C., et al. (2008). Distinct patterns of grey matter abnormality in high-functioning autism and Asperger's syndrome. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 49, 1287-1295. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01933.x
96. Minshew, N. J., and Keller, T. A. (2010). The nature of brain dysfunction in autism: functional brain imaging studies. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 23, 124-130. doi: 10.1097/WCO.0b013e32833782d4
97. Montes, L. G., Ricardo-Garcell, J., De la Torre, L. B., Alcantara, H. P., Garcia, R. B., Acosta, D. A., et al. (2011). Cerebellar gray matter density in females with ADHD combined type: a cross-sectional voxel-based morphometry study. J. Atten. Disord. 15, 368-381. doi: 10.1177/1087054710366421
98. Mostofsky, S. H., Reiss, A. L., Lockhart, P., and Denckla, M. B. (1998). Evaluation of cerebellar size in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Child Neurol. 13, 434-439. doi: 10.1177/088307389801300904
99. Nickl-Jockschat, T., Habel, U., Michel, T. M., Manning, J., Laird, A. R., Fox, P. T., et al. (2012). Brain structure anomalies in autism spectrum disorder-a meta-analysis of VBM studies using anatomic likelihood estimation. Hum. Brain Mapp. 33, 1470-1489. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21299
100. Nicolson, R., Fawcett, A., and Dean, P. (2001). Developmental dyslexia: the cere-bellar deficit hypothesis. Trends Neuro sci. 24, 508-511. doi: 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01896-8
101. Nicolson, R. I., and Fawcett, A. J. (2007). Procedural learning difficulties: reuniting the developmental disorders? Trends Neuro sci. 30, 135-141. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2007.02.003
102. Nicolson, R. I., and Fawcett, A. J. (2011). Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum. Cortex 47, 117-127. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016
103. Overmeyer, S., Bullmore, E. T., Suckling, J., Simmons, A., Williams, S. C., Santosh, P. J., et al. (2001). Distributed grey and white matter deficits in hyperkinetic disorder: MRI evidence for anatomical abnormality in an attentional network. Psychol. Med. 31, 1425-1435. doi: 10.1017/S0033291701004706
104. Pernet, C. R., Poline, J. B., Demonet, J. F., and Rousselet, G. A. (2009). Brain classification reveals the right cerebellum as the best biomarker of dyslexia. BMC Neurosci. 10:67. doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-10-67
105. Rae, C., Harasty, J. A., Dzendrowskyj, T. E., Talcott, J. B., Simpson, J. M., Blamire, A. M., et al. (2002). Cerebellar morphology in developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia 40, 1285-1292. doi: 10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00216-0
106. Ramnani, N. (2006). The primate cortico-cerebellar system: anatomy and function. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7, 511-522. doi: 10.1038/nrn1953
107. Reiersen, A. M., Constantino, J. N., Volk, H. E., and Todd, R. D. (2007). Autistic traits in a population-based ADHD twin sample. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 48, 464-472. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01720.x
108. Richlan, F. (2012). Developmental dyslexia: dysfunction of a left hemisphere reading network. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6:120. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00120
109. Richlan, F., Kronbichler, M., and Wimmer, H. (2009). Functional abnormalities in the dyslexic brain: a quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30, 3299-3308. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20752
110. Ritvo, E. R., Freeman, B. J., Scheibel, A. B., Duong, T., Robinson, H., Guthrie, D., et al. (1986). Lower Purkinje cell counts in the cerebella of four autistic subjects: initial findings of the UCLA-NSAC Autopsy Research Report. Am. J. Psychiatry 143, 862-866.
111. Riva, D., Annuziata, S., Contarino, V., Erbetta, A., Aquino, D., and Bulgheroni, S. (2013). Gray matter reduction in the vermis and CRUS-II is associated with social and interaction deficits in low-functioning children with autistic spectrum disorders: a VBM-DARTEL study. Cerebellum 12, 676-685. doi: 10.1007/s12311-013-0469-8
112. Riva, D., Bulgheroni, S., Aquino, D., Di Salle, F., Savoiardo, M., and Erbetta, A. (2011). Basal forebrain involvement in low-functioning autistic children: a voxel-based morphometry study. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 32, 1430-1435. doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A2527
113. Riva, D., and Giorgi, C. (2000). The cerebellum contributes to higher functions during development: evidence from a series of children surgically treated for posterior fossa tumours. Brain 123, 1051-1061. doi: 10.1093/brain/123.5.1051
114. Rojas, D. C., Peterson, E., Winterrowd, E., Reite, M. L., Rogers, S. J., and Tregellas, J. R. (2006). Regional gray matter volumetric changes in autism associated with social and repetitive behavior symptoms. BMC Psychiatry 6:56. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-6-56
115. Rommelse, N. N., Franke, B., Geurts, H. M., Hartman, C. A., and Buitelaar, J. K. (2010). Shared heritability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 19, 281-295. doi: 10.1007/s00787-010-0092-x
116. Rommelse, N. N. J., Geurts, H. M., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., and Hartman, C. A. (2011). A review on cognitive and brain endophenotypes that may be common in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and facilitate the search for pleiotropic genes. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35, 1363-1396. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.02.015
117. Rout, U. K., Mungan, N. K., and Dhossche, D. M. (2012). Presence of GAD65 autoantibodies in the serum of children with autism or ADHD. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 21, 141-147. doi: 10.1007/s00787-012-0245-1
118. Salmond, C. H., Ashburner, J., Connelly, A., Friston, K. J., Gadian, D. G., and Vargha-Khadem, F. (2005). The role of the medial temporal lobe in autistic spectrum disorders. Eur. J. Neurosci. 22, 764-772. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04217.x
119. Salmond, C. H., Vargha-Khadem, F., Gadian, D. G., de Haan, M., and Baldeweg, T. (2007). Heterogeneity in the patterns of neural abnormality in autistic spectrum disorders: evidence from ERP and MRI. Cortex 43, 686-699. doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70498-2
120. Sasayama, D., Hayashida, A., Yamasue, H., Harada, Y., Kaneko, T., Kasai, K., et al. (2010). Neuroanatomical correlates of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder accounting for comorbid oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 64, 394-402. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2010.02102.x
121. Schmitz, N., Rubia, K., Daly, E., Smith, A., Williams, S., and Murphy, D. G. (2006). Neural correlates of executive function in autistic spectrum disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 59, 7-16. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.007
122. Schweren, L. J., de Zeeuw, P., and Durston, S. (2013). MR imaging of the effects of methylphenidate on brain structure and function in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 23, 1151-1164. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.10.014
123. Seidman, L. J., Biederman, J., Liang, L., Valera, E. M., Monuteaux, M. C., Brown, A., et al. (2011). Gray matter alterations in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by voxel based morphometry. Biol. Psychiatry 69, 857-866. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.053
124. Semrud-Clikeman, M., Hooper, S. R., Hynd, G. W., Hern, K., Presley, R., and Watson, T. (1996). Prediction of group membership in developmental dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and normal controls using brain mor-phometric analysis of magnetic resonance imaging. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 11, 521-528. doi: 10.1093/arclin/11.6.521
125. Silani, G., Frith, U., Demonet, J., Fazio, F., Perani, D., Price, C., et al. (2005). Brain abnormalities underlying altered activation in dyslexia: a voxel based morphometry study. Brain 128, 2453-2461. doi: 10.1093/brain/awh579
126. Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charman, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., and Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 47, 921-929. doi: 10.1097/CHI.0b013e318179964f
127. Simos, P., Breier, J., Fletcher, J., Foorman, B., Bergman, E., Fishbeck, K., et al. (2000). Brain activation profiles in dyslexic children during non-word reading: a magnetic source imaging study. Neurosci. Lett. 290, 61-65. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3940(00)01322-7
128. Siok, W. T., Niu, Z., Jin, Z., Perfetti, C. A., and Tan, L. H. (2008). A structural-functional basis for dyslexia in the cortex of Chinese readers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 5561-5566. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0801750105
129. Sivaswamy, L., Kumar, A., Rajan, D., Behen, M., Muzik, O., Chugani, D., et al. (2010). A diffusion tensor imaging study of the cerebellar pathways in children with autism spectrum disorder. J. Child Neurol. 25, 1223-1231. doi: 10.1177/0883073809358765
130. Sonuga-Barke, E., Bitsakou, P., and Thompson, M. (2010). Beyond the dual pathway model: evidence for the dissociation of timing, inhibitory, and delay-related impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 49, 345-355. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2009. 12.018
131. Steinbrink, C., Vogt, K., Kastrup, A., Muller, H. P., Juengling, F. D., Kassubek, J., et al. (2008). The contribution of white and gray matter differences to developmental dyslexia: insights from DTI and VBM at 3.0 T. Neuropsychologia 46, 3170-3178. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.015
132. Stoodley, C. J., MacMore, J., Makris, N., Sherman, J. C., and Schmahmann, J. D. (2012a). "Preliminary voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping in cerebel-lar stroke patients: Motor vs. cognitive outcomes," in Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting (New Orleans, LA).
133. Stoodley, C. J., and Schmahmann, J. D. (2009). Functional topography in the human cerebellum: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage 44, 489-501. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.08.039
134. Stoodley, C. J., and Schmahmann, J. D. (2010). Evidence for topographic organization in the cerebellum of motor control versus cognitive and affective processing. Cortex 46, 831-844. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2009.11.008
135. Stoodley, C. J., and Stein, J. F. (2011). The cerebellum and dyslexia. Cortex 47, 101-116. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2009.10.005
136. Stoodley, C. J., and Stein, J. F. (2013). Cerebellar function in developmental dyslexia. Cerebellum 12, 267-276. doi: 10.1007/s12311-012-0407-1
137. Stoodley, C. J., Valera, E. M., and Schmahmann, J. D. (2012b). Functional topography of the cerebellum for motor and cognitive tasks: an fMRI study. Neuroimage 59, 1560-1570. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.065
138. Strick, P. L., Dum, R. P., and Fiez, J. A. (2009). Cerebellum and nonmotor function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 32, 413-434. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.31.060407. 125606
139. Talairach, J., and Tournoux, P. (1988). Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain. 3-Dimensional Proportional System: An Approach to Cerebral Imaging. New York, NY: Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
140. Tan, G. C. Y., Doke, T. F., Ashburner, J., Wood, N. W., and Frackowiak, R. S. J. (2010). Normal variation in fronto-occipital circuitry and cerebellar structure with an autism-associated polymorphism of CNTNAP2. Neuroimage 53, 1030-1042. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.018
141. Tavano, A., Grasso, R., Gagliardi, C., Triulzi, F., Bresolin, N., Fabbro, F., et al. (2007). Disorders of cognitive and affective development in cerebellar malformations. Brain 130, 2646-2660. doi: 10.1093/brain/awm201
142. Tomasi, D., and Volkow, N. D. (2012). Abnormal functional connectivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 71, 443-450. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.11.003
143. Turkeltaub, P. E., Eden, G. F., Jones, K. M., and Zeffiro, T. A. (2002). Meta-analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of single-word reading: method and validation. Neuroimage 16, 765-780. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2002.1131
144. Turkeltaub, P. E., Eickhoff, S. B., Laird, A. R., Fox, M., Wiener, M., and Fox, P. (2012). Minimizing within-experiment and within-group effects in Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analyses. Hum. Brain Mapp. 33, 1-13. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21186
145. Valera, E., Faraone, S., Murray, K., and Seidman, L. (2007). Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 61, 1361-1369. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.011
146. Valera, E. M., Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Poldrack, R. A., and Seidman, L. J. (2005). Functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 439-447. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.034
147. Valera, E. M., Spencer, R. M., Zeffiro, T. A., Makris, N., Spencer, T. J., Faraone, S. V., et al. (2010). Neural substrates of impaired sensorimotor timing in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 68, 359-367. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.012
148. van Ewijk, H., Heslenfeld, D. J., Zwiers, M. P., Buitelaar, J. K., and Oosterlaan, J. (2013). Diffusion tensor imaging in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36, 1093-1106. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.01.003
149. van Wingen, G. A., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., Schmaal, L., Dom, G., Booij, J., et al. (2013). Reduced striatal brain volumes in non-medicated adult ADHD patients with comorbid cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol. Depend. 131, 198-203. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.05.007
150. Verly, M., Verhoeven, J., Zink, I., Mantini, D., Peeters, R., Deprez, S., et al. (2014). Altered functional connectivity of the language network in ASD: role of classical language areas and cerebellum. Neuroimage Clin. 4, 374-382. doi: 10.1016/j.nicl.2014.01.008
151. Vidyasagar, T. R., and Pammer, K. (2010). Dyslexia: a deficit in visuo-spatial attention, not in phonological processing. Trends Cogn. Sci. 14, 57-63. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2009.12.003
152. Vinckenbosch, E., Robichon, F., and Eliez, S. (2005). Gray matter alteration in dyslexia: converging evidence from volumetric and voxel-by-voxel MRI analyses. Neuropsychologia 43, 324-331. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.06.023
153. Vloet, T. D., Gilsbach, S., Neufang, S., Fink, G. R., Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., and Konrad, K. (2010). Neural mechanisms of interference control and time discrimination in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 49, 356-367. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.01.004
154. Vollm, B. A., Taylor, A. N., Richardson, P., Corcoran, R., Stirling, J., McKie, S., et al. (2006). Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task. Neuroimage 29, 90-98. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.022
155. Vossel, S., Geng, J. J., and Fink, G. R. (2014). Dorsal and ventral attention systems: distinct neural circuits but collaborative roles. Neuroscientist 20, 150-159. doi: 10.1177/1073858413494269
156. Waiter, G. D., Williams, J. H., Murray, A. D., Gilchrist, A., Perrett, D. I., and Whiten, A. (2004). A voxel-based investigation of brain structure in male adolescents with autistic spectrum disorder. Neuroimage 22, 619-625. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.02.029
157. Willcutt, E. G., Betjemann, R. S., McGrath, L. M., Chhabildas, N. A., Olson, R. K., DeFries, J. C., et al. (2010). Etiology and neuropsychology of comorbid-ity between RD and ADHD: the case for multiple-deficit models. Cortex 46, 1345-1361. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2010.06.009
158. Wilson, L. B., Tregellas, J. R., Hagerman, R. J., Rogers, S. J., and Rojas, D. C. (2009). A voxel-based morphometry comparison of regional gray matter between fragile X syndrome and autism. Psychiatry Res. 174, 138-145. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.04.013
159. Wolf, R. C., Plichta, M. M., Sambataro, F., Fallgatter, A. J., Jacob, C., Lesch, K. P., et al. (2009). Regional brain activation changes and abnormal functional connectivity of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex during working memory processing in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30, 2252-2266. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20665
160. Yang, P., Wang, P. N., Chuang, K. H., Jong, Y. J., Chao, T. C., and Wu, M. T. (2008). Absence of gender effect on children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as assessed by optimized voxel-based morphometry. Psychiatry Res. 164, 245-253. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.12.013
161. Yeo, B. T., Krienen, F. M., Sepulcre, J., Sabuncu, M. R., Lashkari, D., Hollinshead, M., et al. (2011). The organization of the human cerebral cortex estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity. J. Neurophysiol. 106, 1125-1165. doi: 10.1152/jn.00338.2011
162. Yu, K. K., Cheung, C., Chua, S. E., and McAlonan, G. M. (2011). Can Asperger syndrome be distinguished from autism? An anatomic likelihood meta-analysis of MRI studies. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 36, 412-421. doi: 10.1503/jpn. 100138
163. Yun, H. S., Park, M. S., Ji, E. S., Kim, T. W., Ko, I. G., Kim, H. B., et al. (2014). Treadmill exercise ameliorates symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder through reducing Purkinje cell loss and astrocytic reaction in spontaneous hypertensive rats. J. Exerc. Rehabil. 28, 22-30. doi: 10.12965/jer.140092
164. Zatorre, R. J., Fields, R. D., and Johansen-Berg, H. (2012). Plasticity in gray and white: neuroimaging changes in brain structure during learning. Nat. Neurosci. 15, 528-536. doi: 10.1038/nn.3045