Noncoding RNAs in cancer and cancer stem cells

Chinese Journal of Cancer

Volumn 32, Issue 11, 2013, Pages 582-593

  Huang, Tianzhi ^a,b,c   Alvarez, Angel ^a,b,c   Hu, Bo ^a,b,c   Cheng, Shi Yuan ^a,b,c  

^a The Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology   (United States)

^b Northwestern Brain Tumor Institute   (United States)

^c NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cancer cell; Cancer stem cell; lncRNA; miRNA; ncRNA

Indexed keywords

ANTAGOMIR; CELL PROTEIN; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEAR RIBONUCLEOPROTEIN; HOX ANTISENSE INTERGENIC RNA; LONG UNTRANSLATED RNA; METASTASIS ASSOCIATED LUNG ADENOCARCINOMA TRANSCRIPT 1; MICRORNA; MICRORNA 145; MICRORNA 200; MICRORNA 21; MICRORNA 22; MICRORNA 34A; MICRORNA LET 7; PIWI INTERACTING RNA; POLYCOMB REPRESSIVE COMPLEX 2; PROSTATE SPECIFIC TRANSCRIPT 1; PROTEIN ACTIVATOR OF THE INTERFERON INDUCED PROTEIN KINASE; PROTEIN KINASE; PROTEIN LIN28; PROTEIN P53; RNA BINDING PROTEIN; RNA INDUCED SILENCING COMPLEX; SMALL NON POLYADENYLATED CONSERVED RNA; SMALL NUCLEOLAR RNA; SMALL UNTRANSLATED RNA; TAR RNA BINDING PROTEIN; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR NFAT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNTRANSLATED RNA;

ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; BIOGENESIS; CANCER CELL; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER STEM CELL; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHROMATIN ASSEMBLY AND DISASSEMBLY; EPIGENETICS; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; GENE; GENE ACTIVATION; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE FUNCTION; GENE REPRESSION; GENE TARGETING; HUMAN; INTRON; MEG3 GENE; NEOPLASM; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN RNA BINDING; REVIEW; RNA SEQUENCE; SEQUENCE ANALYSIS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; TUMOR GROWTH;

GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, NEOPLASTIC; HUMANS; MICRORNAS; NEOPLASMS; NEOPLASTIC STEM CELLS; RNA, LONG NONCODING; RNA, UNTRANSLATED;

EID: 84887324286     PISSN: 1000467X     EISSN: 1944446X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5732/cjc.013.10170     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Alexander RP, Fang G, Rozowsky J, et al. Annotating non-coding regions of the genome. Nat Rev Genet, 2010,11:559-571.
2. Mercer TR, Dinger ME, Mattick JS. Long non-coding RNAs: insights into functions. Nat Rev Genet, 2009,10:155-159.
3. He L, Hannon GJ. MicroRNAs: small RNAs with a big role in gene regulation. Nat Rev Genet, 2004,5:522-531.
4. Mendell JT. MicroRNAs: critical regulators of development, cellular physiology and malignancy. Cell Cycle, 2005,4:1179-1184.
5. Croce CM. Causes and consequences of microRNA dysregulation in cancer. Nat Rev Genet, 2009,10:704-714.
6. Esquela-Kerscher A, Slack FJ. Oncomirs-microRNAs with a role in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer, 2006,6:259-269.
7. Hammond SM. MicroRNAs as tumor suppressors. Nat Genet, 2007,39:582-583.
8. Brosnan CA, Voinnet O. The long and the short of noncoding RNAs. Curr Opin Cell Biol, 2009,21:416-425.
9. Mattick JS. Non-coding RNAs: the architects of eukaryotic complexity. EMBO Rep, 2001,2:986-991.
10. Gibb EA, Brown CJ, Lam WL. The functional role of long noncoding RNA in human carcinomas. Mol Cancer, 2011,10:38.
11. Taft RJ, Glazov EA, Cloonan N, et al. Tiny RNAs associated with transcription start sites in animals. Nat Genet, 2009,41:572-578.
12. Chen LL, Carmichael GG. Long noncoding RNAs in mammalian cells: what, where, and why? Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA, 2010,1:2-21.
13. Dinger ME, Pang KC, Mercer TR, et al. Differentiating protein coding and noncoding RNA: challenges and ambiguities. PLoS Computat Biol, 2008,4:e1000176.
14. Lipovich L, Johnson R, Lin CY. MacroRNA underdogs in a microRNA world: evolutionary, regulatory, and biomedical significance of mammalian long non-protein-coding RNA. Biochim Biophys Acta, 2010,1799:597-615.
15. Ponting CP, Oliver PL, Reik W. Evolution and functions of long noncoding RNAs. Cell, 2009,136:629-641.
16. Shi X, Sun M, Liu H, et al. Long non-coding RNAs: a new frontier in the study of human diseases. Cancer Lett, 2013,339:159-166.
17. Spizzo R, Almeida MI, Colombatti A, et al. Long non-coding RNAs and cancer: a new frontier of translational research? Oncogene, 2012,31:4577-4587.
18. Magee JA, Piskounova E, Morrison SJ. Cancer stem cells: impact, heterogeneity, and uncertainty. Cancer Cell, 2012,21:283-296.
19. Kim YK, Kim VN. Processing of intronic microRNAs. EMBO J, 2007,26:775-783.
20. Rodriguez A, Griffiths-Jones S, Ashurst JL, et al. Identification of mammalian microRNA host genes and transcription units. Genome Res, 2004,14:1902-1910.
21. Ruby JG, Jan CH, Bartel DP. Intronic microRNA precursors that bypass drosha processing. Nature, 2007,448:83-86.
22. Lee Y, Kim M, Han J, et al. MicroRNA genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase II. EMBO J, 2004,23:4051-4060.
23. Yi R, Qin Y, Macara IG, et al. Exportin-5 mediates the nuclear export of pre-microRNAs and short hairpin RNAs. Genes Dev, 2003,17:3011-3016.
24. Bhayani MK, Calin GA, Lai SY. Functional relevance of miRNA sequences in human disease. Mutat Res, 2012,731:14-19.
25. Okamura K, Liu N, Lai EC. Distinct mechanisms for microRNA strand selection by drosophila argonautes. Mol Cell, 2009,36:431-444.
26. Chendrimada TP, Gregory RI, Kumaraswamy E, et al. TRBP recruits the Dicer complex to Ago2 for microRNA processing and gene silencing. Nature, 2005,436:740-744.
27. Haase AD, Jaskiewicz L, Zhang H, et al. TRBP, a regulator of cellular PKR and HIV-1 virus expression, interacts with Dicer and functions in RNA silencing. EMBO Rep, 2005,6:961-967.
28. Farazi TA, Spitzer JI, Morozov P, et al. miRNAs in human cancer. J Pathol, 2011,223:102-115.
29. Berezikov E, Chung WJ, Willis J, et al. Mammalian mirtron genes. Mol Cell, 2007,28:328-336.
30. Okamura K, Hagen JW, Duan H, et al. The mirtron pathway generates microRNA-class regulatory RNAs in drosophila. Cell, 2007,130:89-100.
31. Kim VN. MicroRNA biogenesis: coordinated cropping and dicing. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, 2005,6:376-385.
32. Garzon R, Calin GA, Croce CM. MicroRNAs in cancer. Ann Rev Med, 2009,60:167-179.
33. Esteller M. Non-coding RNAs in human disease. Nat Rev Genet, 2011,12:861-874.
34. Guttman M, Donaghey J, Carey BW, et al. LincRNAs act in the circuitry controlling pluripotency and differentiation. Nature, 2011,477:295-300.
35. Rinn JL, Chang HY. Genome regulation by long noncoding RNAs. Annl Rev Biochem, 2012,81:145-166.
36. Gutschner T, Diederichs S. The hallmarks of cancer: a long noncoding RNA point of view. RNA Biol, 2012,9:703-719.
37. Wang J, Liu X, Wu H, et al. CREB up-regulates long non-coding RNA, HULC expression through interaction with microRNA-372 in liver cancer. Nucleic Acids Res, 2010,38:5366-5383.
38. Clemson CM, Hutchinson JN, Sara SA, et al. An architectural role for a nuclear noncoding RNA: NEAT1 RNA is essential for the structure of paraspeckles. Mol Cell, 2009,33:717-726.
39. Willingham AT, Orth AP, Batalov S, et al. A strategy for probing the function of noncoding RNAs finds a repressor of NFAT. Science, 2005,309:1570-1573.
40. Feng J, Bi C, Clark BS, et al. The Evf-2 noncoding RNA is transcribed from the Dlx-5/6 ultraconserved region and functions as a Dlx-2 transcriptional coactivator. Genes Dev, 2006,20:1470-1484.
41. Carpenter S, Aiello D, Atianand MK, et al. A long noncoding RNA mediates both activation and repression of immune response genes. Science, 2013,341:789-792.
42. Medzhitov R, Horng T. Transcriptional control of the inflammatory response. Nature Rev Immunol, 2009,9:692-703.
43. Wapinski O, Chang HY. Long noncoding RNAs and human disease. Trends Cell Biol, 2011,21:354-361.
44. Zhao J, Sun BK, Erwin JA, et al. Polycomb proteins targeted by a short repeat RNA to the mouse X chromosome. Science, 2008,322:750-756.
45. Lee JT. Gracefully ageing at 50, X-chromosome inactivation becomes a paradigm for RNA and chromatin control. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, 2011,12:815-826.
46. Engreitz JM, Pandya-Jones A, McDonel P, et al. The XIST lncRNA exploits three-dimensional genome architecture to spread across the X chromosome. Science, 2013,341:1237973.
47. Dalerba P, Cho RW, Clarke MF. Cancer stem cells: models and concepts. Annu Rev Med, 2007,58:267-284.
48. Clarke MF, Fuller M. Stem cells and cancer: two faces of eve. Cell, 2006,124:1111-1115.
49. Gupta PB, Onder TT, Jiang G, et al. Identification of selective inhibitors of cancer stem cells by high-throughput screening. Cell, 2009,138:645-659.
50. Huntly BJ, Gilliland DG. Leukaemia stem cells and the evolution of cancer-stem-cell research. Nat Rev Cancer, 2005,5:311-321.
51. Al-Hajj M, Wicha MS, Benito-He RNAndez A, et al. Prospective identification of tumorigenic breast cancer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2003,100:3983-3988.
52. Vescovi AL, Galli R, Reynolds BA. Brain tumour stem cells. Nat Rev Cancer, 2006,6:425-436.
53. Ricci-Vitiani L, Lombardi DG, Pilozzi E, et al. Identification and expansion of human colon-cancer-initiating cells. Nature, 2007,445:111-115.
54. Valent P, Bonnet D, De Maria R, et al. Cancer stem cell definitions and terminology: the devil is in the details. Nat Rev Cancer, 2012,12:767-775.
55. Tothova Z, Gilliland DG. A radical bailout strategy for cancer stem cells. Cell Stem Cell, 2009,4:196-197.
56. Zielske SP, Spalding AC, Wicha MS, et al. Ablation of breast cancer stem cells with radiation. Transl Oncol, 2011,4:227-233.
57. Eyler CE, Rich JN. Survival of the fittest: cancer stem cells in therapeutic resistance and angiogenesis. J Clin Oncol, 2008,26:2839-2845.
58. Nguyen LV, Vanner R, Dirks P, et al. Cancer stem cells: an evolving concept. Nat Rev Cancer, 2012,12:133-143.
59. Rich JN. Cancer stem cells in radiation resistance. Cancer Res, 2007,67:8980-8984.
60. Wicha MS, Liu S, Dontu G. Cancer stem cells: an old idea-a paradigm shift. Cancer Res, 2006,66:1883-1890; discussion 1895-1886.
61. Calin GA, Dumitru CD, Shimizu M, et al. Frequent deletions and down-regulation of microRNA genes miR15 and miR16 at 13q14 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2002,99:15524-15529.
62. Li M, Li J, Ding X, et al. MicroRNA and cancer. AAPS J, 2010,12:309-317.
63. Lu J, Getz G, Miska EA, et al. MicroRNA expression profiles classify human cancers. Nature, 2005,435:834-838.
64. Chan JA, Krichevsky AM, Kosik KS. MicroRNA-21 is an antiapoptotic factor in human glioblastoma cells. Cancer Res, 2005,65:6029-6033.
65. Schetter AJ, Leung SY, Sohn JJ, et al. MicroRNA expression profiles associated with prognosis and therapeutic outcome in colon adenocarcinoma. JAMA, 2008,299:425-436.
66. Si ML, Zhu S, Wu H, et al. miR-21-mediated tumor growth. Oncogene, 2007,26:2799-2803.
67. Ren Y, Zhou X, Mei M, et al. MicroRNA-21 inhibitor sensitizes human glioblastoma cells U251 (PTEN-mutant) and LN229 (PTENwild type) to taxol. BMC Cancer, 2010,10:27.
68. Zhou X, Ren Y, Moore L, et al. Downregulation of miR-21 inhibits EGFR pathway and suppresses the growth of human glioblastoma cells independent of pten status. Lab Invest, 2010,90:144-155.
69. Ciafre SA, Galardi S, Mangiola A, et al. Extensive modulation of a set of microRNAs in primary glioblastoma. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 2005,334:1351-1358.
70. Kong YW, Ferland-McCollough D, Jackson TJ, et al. MicroRNAs in cancer management. Lancet Oncol, 2012,13:e249-e258.
71. Chang TC, Wentzel EA, Kent OA, et al. Transactivation of miR-34a by p53 broadly influences gene expression and promotes apoptosis. Mol Cell, 2007,26:745-752.
72. Corney DC, Flesken-Nikitin A, Godwin AK, et al. MicroRNA-34b and microRNA-34c are targets of p53 and cooperate in control of cell proliferation and adhesion-independent growth. Cancer Res, 2007,67:8433-8438.
73. Watahiki A, Wang Y, Morris J, et al. MicroRNAs associated with metastatic prostate cancer. PloS One, 2011,6:e24950.
74. Liu C, Kelnar K, Liu B, et al. The microRNA miR-34a inhibits prostate cancer stem cells and metastasis by directly repressing CD44. Nat Med, 2011,17:211-215.
75. Ahn YH, Gibbons DL, Chakravarti D, et al. Zeb1 drives prometastatic actin cytoskeletal remodeling by downregulating miR-34a expression. J Clin Invest, 2012,122:3170-3183.
76. Shimono Y, Zabala M, Cho RW, et al. Downregulation of miRNA-200c links breast cancer stem cells with normal stem cells. Cell, 2009,138:592-603.
77. Adammek M, Greve B, Kassens N, et al. MicroRNA miR-145 inhibits proliferation, invasiveness, and stem cell phenotype of an in vitro endometriosis model by targeting multiple cytoskeletal elements and pluripotency factors. Fertil Steril, 2013,99:1346-1355.
78. Jain AK, Allton K, Iacovino M, et al. p53 regulates cell cycle and microRNAs to promote differentiation of human embryonic stem cells. PLoS Biol, 2012,10:e1001268.
79. Jia Y, Liu H, Zhuang Q, et al. Tumorigenicity of cancer stem-like cells derived from hepatocarcinoma is regulated by microRNA-145. Oncol Rep, 2012,27:1865-1872.
80. Sureban SM, May R, Qu D, et al. DCLK1 regulates pluripotency and angiogenic factors via microRNA-dependent mechanisms in pancreatic cancer. PloS One, 2013,8:e73940.
81. Xu N, Papagiannakopoulos T, Pan G, et al. MicroRNA-145 regulates OCT4, SOX2, and KLF4 and represses pluripotency in human embryonic stem cells. Cell, 2009,137:647-658.
82. Yu J, Vodyanik MA, Smuga-Otto K, et al. Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells. Science, 2007,318:1917-1920.
83. Judson RL, Babiarz JE, Venere M, et al. Embryonic stem cellspecific microRNAs promote induced pluripotency. Nat Biotechnol, 2009,27:459-461.
84. Nakagawa M, Koyanagi M, Tanabe K, et al. Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells without myc from mouse and human fibroblasts. Nat Biotechnol, 2008,26:101-106.
85. Chang TC, Zeitels LR, Hwang HW, et al. Lin-28b transactivation is necessary for myc-mediated let-7 repression and proliferation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2009,106:3384-3389.
86. Rybak A, Fuchs H, Smirnova L, et al. A feedback loop comprising lin-28 and let-7 controls pre-let-7 maturation during neural stemcell commitment. Nat Cell Biol, 2008,10:987-993.
87. Boyerinas B, Park SM, Shomron N, et al. Identification of let-7-regulated oncofetal genes. Cancer Res, 2008,68:2587-2591.
88. Peter ME. Let-7 and miR-200 microRNAs: guardians against pluripotency and cancer progression. Cell Cycle, 2009,8:843-852.
89. Iliopoulos D, Hirsch HA, Struhl K. An epigenetic switch involving NF-kappaB, Lin28, Let-7 MicroRNA, and IL6 links inflammation to cell transformation. Cell, 2009,139:693-706.
90. Lee ST, Chu K, Oh HJ, et al. Let-7 microRNA inhibits the proliferation of human glioblastoma cells. J Neurooncol, 2011,102:19-24.
91. Melton C, Judson RL, Blelloch R. Opposing microRNA families regulate self-renewal in mouse embryonic stem cells. Nature, 2010,463:621-626.
92. Yang X, Lin X, Zhong X, et al. Double-negative feedback loop between reprogramming factor lin28 and microRNA let-7 regulates aldehyde dehydrogenase 1-positive cancer stem cells. Cancer Res, 2010,70:9463-9472.
93. Song SJ, Poliseno L, Song MS, et al. MicroRNA-antagonism regulates breast cancer stemness and metastasis via TET-family dependent chromatin remodeling. Cell, 2013,154:311-324.
94. Yu XF, Zou J, Bao ZJ, et al. miR-93 suppresses proliferation and colony formation of human colon cancer stem cells. World J Gastroenterol, 2011,17:4711-4717.
95. Zhang H, Li W, Nan F, et al. MicroRNA expression profile of colon cancer stem-like cells in HT29 adenocarcinoma cell line. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 2011,404:273-278.
96. Schraivogel D, Weinmann L, Beier D, et al. Camta1 is a novel tumour suppressor regulated by miR-9/9* in glioblastoma stem cells. EMBO J, 2011,30:4309-4322.
97. Shi L, Zhang J, Pan T, et al. miR-125b is critical for the suppression of human U251 glioma stem cell proliferation. Brain Res, 2010, 1312:120-126.
98. Ji J, Wang XW. Identification of cancer stem cell-related microRNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma. Methods Mol Biol, 2012,826:163-175.
99. Meng F, Glaser SS, Francis H, et al. Functional analysis of microRNAs in human hepatocellular cancer stem cells. J Cell Mol Med, 2012,16:160-173.
100. Jung DE, Wen J, Oh T, et al. Differentially expressed microRNAs in pancreatic cancer stem cells. Pancreas, 2011,40:1180-1187.
101. Ji Q, Hao X, Zhang M, et al. MicroRNA miR-34 inhibits human pancreatic cancer tumor-initiating cells. PloS One, 2009,4:e6816.
102. Huarte M, Rinn JL. Large non-coding RNAs: missing links in cancer? Hum Mol Genet, 2010,19:R152-R161.
103. Cheetham SW, Gruhl F, Mattick JS, et al. Long noncoding RNAs and the genetics of cancer. Br J Cancer, 2013,108:2419-2425.
104. Rinn JL, Kertesz M, Wang JK, et al. Functional demarcation of active and silent chromatin domains in human HOX loci by noncoding RNAs. Cell, 2007,129:1311-1323.
105. Gupta RA, Shah N, Wang KC, et al. Long non-coding RNA hotair reprograms chromatin state to promote cancer metastasis. Nature, 2010,464:1071-1076.
106. Ji P, Diederichs S, Wang W, et al. MALAT-1, a novel noncoding RNA, and thymosin beta4 predict metastasis and survival in earlystage non-small cell lung cancer. Oncogene, 2003,22:8031-8041.
107. Rajaram V, Knezevich S, Bove KE, et al. DNA sequence of the translocation breakpoints in undifferentiated embryonal sarcoma arising in mesenchymal hamartoma of the liver harboring the t(11;19)(q11;q13.4) translocation. Genes Chromosomes Cancer, 2007,46:508-513.
108. Tano K, Mizuno R, Okada T, et al. Malat-1 enhances cell motility of lung adenocarcinoma cells by influencing the expression of motility-related genes. FEBS Lett, 2010,584:4575-4580.
109. Yang L, Lin C, Jin C, et al. LncRNA-dependent mechanisms of androgen-receptor-regulated gene activation programs. Nature, 2013,500:598-602.
110. Popadiuk CM, Xiong J, Wells MG, et al. Antisense suppression of pygopus2 results in growth arrest of epithelial ovarian cancer. Clin Cancer Res, 2006,12:2216-2223.
111. Zhou Y, Zhong Y, Wang Y, et al. Activation of p53 by MEG3 noncoding RNA. J Biol Chem, 2007,282:24731-24742.
112. Zhang X, Gejman R, Mahta A, et al. Maternally expressed gene 3, an imprinted noncoding RNA gene, is associated with meningioma pathogenesis and progression. Cancer Res, 2010,70:2350-2358.
113. Benetatos L, Hatzimichael E, Dasoula A, et al. CpG methylation analysis of the MEG3 and SNRPN imprinted genes in acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes. Leuk Res, 2010,34:148-153.
114. Braconi C, Kogure T, Valeri N, et al. MicroRNA-29 can regulate expression of the long non-coding RNA gene MEG3 in hepatocellular cancer. Oncogene, 2011,30:4750-4756.
115. Huarte M, Guttman M, Feldser D, et al. A large intergenic noncoding RNA induced by p53 mediates global gene repression in the p53 response. Cell, 2010,142:409-419.
116. Ishizu H, Siomi H, Siomi MC. Biology of PIWI-interacting RNAs: new insights into biogenesis and function inside and outside of germlines. Genes Dev, 2012,26:2361-2373.
117. Cheng J, Guo JM, Xiao BX, et al. piRNA, the new non-coding RNA, is aberrantly expressed in human cancer cells. Clin Chim Acta, 2011,412:1621-1625.
118. Cheng J, Deng H, Xiao B, et al. piR-823, a novel non-coding small RNA, demonstrates in vitro and in vivo tumor suppressive activity in human gastric cancer cells. Cancer Lett, 2012,315:12-17.
119. Janic A, Mendizabal L, Llamazares S, et al. Ectopic expression of germline genes drives malignant brain tumor growth in drosophila. Science, 2010,330:1824-1827.
120. Livyatan I, Harikumar A, Nissim-Rafinia M, et al. Non-polyadenylated transcription in embryonic stem cells reveals novel noncoding RNA related to pluripotency and differentiation. Nucleic Acids Res, 2013,41:6300-6315.
121. Kiss T. Small nucleolar RNAs: an abundant group of noncoding RNAs with diverse cellular functions. Cell, 2002,109:145-148.
122. Bortolin ML, Kiss T. Human U19 intron-encoded snoRNA is processed from a long primary transcript that possesses little potential for protein coding. RNA, 1998,4:445-454.
123. Weinstein LB, Steitz JA. Guided tours: from precursor snoRNA to functional snoRNP. Curr Opin Cell Biol, 1999,11:378-384.
124. Liao J, Yu L, Mei Y, et al. Small nucleolar RNA signatures as biomarkers for non-small-cell lung cancer. Mol Cancer, 2010,9:198.
125. Dong XY, Guo P, Boyd J, et al. Implication of snoRNA U50 in human breast cancer. J Genet Genomics, 2009,36:447-454.
126. Dong XY, Rodriguez C, Guo P, et al. SnoRNA U50 is a candidate tumor-suppressor gene at 6q14.3 with a mutation associated with clinically significant prostate cancer. Hum Mol Genet, 2008,17:1031-1042.
127. Mannoor K, Liao J, Jiang F. Small nucleolar RNAs in cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta, 2012,1826:121-128.
128. Kasinski AL, Slack FJ. Epigenetics and genetics. MicroRNAs en route to the clinic: progress in validating and targeting microRNAs for cancer therapy. Nat Rev Cancer, 2011,11:849-864.
129. Elmen J, Lindow M, Schutz S, et al. LNA-mediated microRNA silencing in non-human primates. Nature, 2008,452:896-899.
130. Esau CC. Inhibition of microRNA with antisense oligonucleotides. Methods, 2008,44:55-60.
131. Krutzfeldt J, Rajewsky N, Braich R, et al. Silencing of microRNAs in vivo with "antagomirs". Nature, 2005,438:685-689.
132. Cohen SM. Use of microRNA sponges to explore tissue-specific microRNA functions in vivo. Nat Methods, 2009,6:873-874.
133. Ji Q, Hao X, Meng Y, et al. Restoration of tumor suppressor miR-34 inhibits human p53-mutant gastric cancer tumorspheres. BMC Cancer, 2008,8:266.
134. Tinzl M, Marberger M, Horvath S, et al. DD3PCA3 RNA analysis in urine-a new perspective for detecting prostate cancer. Eur Urol, 2004,46:182-186.
135. Prensner JR, Chinnaiyan AM. The emergence of lncRNAs in cancer biology. Cancer Discov, 2011,1:391-407.
136. Yang Z, Zhou L, Wu LM, et al. Overexpression of long noncoding RNA hotair predicts tumor recurrence in hepatocellular carcinoma patients following liver transplantation. Ann Surg Oncol, 2011,18:1243-1250.
137. Hung T, Chang HY. Long noncoding RNA in genome regulation: prospects and mechanisms. RNA Biol, 2010,7:582-585.
138. Tsai MC, Spitale RC, Chang HY. Long intergenic noncoding RNAs: new links in cancer progression. Cancer Res, 2011,71:3-7.
139. Castle JC, Armour CD, Lower M, et al. Digital genome-wide ncRNA expression, including snoRNAs, across 11 human tissues using polya-neutral amplification. PloS One, 2010,5:e11779.
140. Lustig O, Ariel I, Ilan J, et al. Expression of the imprinted gene H19 in the human fetus. Mol Reprod Dev, 1994,38:239-246.
141. Poirier F, Chan CT, Timmons PM, et al. The murine H19 gene is activated during embryonic stem cell differentiation in vitro and at the time of implantation in the developing embryo. Development, 1991,113:1105-1114.
142. Amit D, Hochberg A. Development of targeted therapy for bladder cancer mediated by a double promoter plasmid expressing diphtheria toxin under the control of H19 and IGF2-P4 regulatory sequences. J Transl Med, 2010,8:134.
143. Scaiewicz V, Sorin V, Fellig Y, et al. Use of H19 gene regulatory sequences in DNA-based therapy for pancreatic cancer. J Oncol, 2010,2010:178174.
144. Di Giacomo M, Comazzetto S, Saini H, et al. Multiple epigenetic mechanisms and the piRNA pathway enforce LINE1 silencing during adult spermatogenesis. Mol Cell, 2013,50:601-608.
145. Watanabe T, Tomizawa S, Mitsuya K, et al. Role for piRNAs and noncoding RNA in de novo DNA methylation of the imprinted mouse RASGRF1 locus. Science, 2011,332:848-852.
146. Seila AC, Calabrese JM, Levine SS, et al. Divergent transcription from active promoters. Science, 2008,322:1849-1851.
147. Preker P, Nielsen J, Kammler S, et al. RNA exosome depletion reveals transcription upstream of active human promoters. Science, 2008,322:1851-1854.
148. Sana J, Hankeova S, Svoboda M, et al. Expression levels of transcribed ultraconserved regions UC.73 and UC.388 are altered in colorectal cancer. Oncology, 2012,82:114-118.
149. Wang KC, Chang HY. Molecular mechanisms of long noncoding RNAs. Mol Cell, 2011,43:904-914.
150. Kotake Y, Nakagawa T, Kitagawa K, et al. Long non-coding RNA ANRIL is required for the PRC2 recruitment to and silencing of p15(INK4B) tumor suppressor gene. Oncogene, 2011,30:1956-1962.
151. Prensner JR, Iyer MK, Balbin OA, et al. Transcriptome sequencing across a prostate cancer cohort identifies PCAT-1, an unannotated lincRNA implicated in disease progression. Nat Biotechnol, 2011,29:742-749.
152. Braconi C, Valeri N, Kogure T, et al. Expression and functional role of a transcribed noncoding RNA with an ultraconserved element in hepatocellular carcinoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2011,108:786-791.
153. Kino T, Hurt DE, Ichijo T, et al. Noncoding RNA GAS5 is a growth arrest-and starvation-associated repressor of the glucocorticoid receptor. Sci Signal, 2010,3:ra8.
154. Mourtada-Maarabouni M, Pickard MR, Hedge VL, et al. GAS5, a non-protein-coding RNA, controls apoptosis and is downregulated in breast cancer. Oncogene, 2009,28:195-208.
155. Poliseno L, Salmena L, Zhang J, et al. A coding-independent function of gene and pseudogene mRNAs regulates tumour biology. Nature, 2010,465:1033-1038.