Organelle targeting: Third level of drug targeting

Drug Design, Development and Therapy

Volumn 7, Issue , 2013, Pages 585-599

  Sakhrani, Niraj M ^a   Padh, Harish ^a  

^a BV Patel Pharmaceutical Education and Research Development ^*  (India)

Author keywords

Cancer chemotherapy; Cell penetrating peptides; Intracellular drug delivery; Therapeutic index

Indexed keywords

6 [3 (1 ADAMANTYL) 4 HYDROXYPHENYL] 2 NAPHTHOIC ACID; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ANTISENSE OLIGONUCLEOTIDE; BETULIC ACID; BORTEZOMIB; CELL PENETRATING PEPTIDE; DEQUALINIUM; ETOPOSIDE; GLUCOSYLCERAMIDASE; IMMUNOLIPOSOME; LIPOPLEX; LONIDAMINE; MAMMALIAN TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN; NANOCARRIER; NANOPARTICLE; PACLITAXEL; PHOSPHATIDYLETHANOLAMINE; PHOSPHINE DERIVATIVE; POLYETHYLENEIMINE; SHORT HAIRPIN RNA; SMALL INTERFERING RNA; TRIPHENYLPHOSPHONIUM; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; APOPTOSIS; CELL NUCLEUS; CELL ORGANELLE; CELL PROLIFERATION; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG DESIGN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG RESEARCH; DRUG SELECTIVITY; DRUG TARGETING; ENDOCYTOSIS; ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM; GAUCHER DISEASE; GOLGI COMPLEX; HUMAN; LYSOSOME; MELANOMA; MITOCHONDRION; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR LOCALIZATION SIGNAL; NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX; REVIEW; TUMOR CELL; DRUG EFFECTS; NEOPLASMS;

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; CELL NUCLEUS; CELL-PENETRATING PEPTIDES; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS; ENDOCYTOSIS; ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM; GOLGI APPARATUS; HUMANS; LYSOSOMES; MITOCHONDRIA; NEOPLASMS; ORGANELLES;

EID: 84880445847     PISSN: 11778881     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/DDDT.S45614     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin. 2011;61(2):69-90.
2. Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, Parkin DM. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int J Cancer. 2010;127(12):2893-2917.
3. Drabu S, Khatri S, Babu S, Verma D. Nanotechnology: An introduction to future drug delivery system. J Chem Pharm Res. 2010;2(1): 171-179.
4. Chakraborty C, Sarkar B, Hsu CH, Wen ZH, Lin CS, Shieh PC. Future prospects of nanoparticles on brain targeted drug delivery. J Neurooncol. 2009;93(2):285-286.
5. Ulbrich W, Lamprecht A. Targeted drug-delivery approaches by nanoparticulate carriers in the therapy of infammatory diseases. J R Soc Interface. 2010;7(Suppl 1):S55-S66.
6. Wikberg M, Ulmius J, Ragnarsson G. Review article: Targeted drug delivery in treatment of intestinal diseases. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1997;11(Suppl 3):109-115.
7. Muller PY, Milton MN. The determination and interpretation of the therapeutic index in drug development. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2012;11(10):751-761.
8. Danhier F, Feron O, Préat V. To exploit the tumor microenvironment: passive and active tumor targeting of nanocarriers for anti-cancer drug delivery. J Control Release. 2010;148(2):135-146.
9. Sapra P, Tyagi P, Allen TM. Ligand-targeted liposomes for cancer treatment. Curr Drug Deliv. 2005;2(4):369-381.
10. Wang X, Yang L, Chen Z, Shin DM. Application of nanotechnology in cancer therapy and imaging. CA Cancer J Clin. 2008;58(2):97-110.
11. D'Souza G, Weissig V. An introduction to subcellular nanomedicine: current trends and future developments. In: Weissig W, D'Souza GGM, editors. Organelle-Specifc Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2010:1-13.
12. Kang B, Mackey MA, El-Sayed MA. Nuclear targeting of gold nanoparticles in cancer cells induces DNA damage, causing cytokinesis arrest and apoptosis. J Am Chem Soc. 2010;132(5):1517-1519.
13. de la Fuente JM, Berry CC. Tat peptide as an efficient molecule to translocate gold nanoparticles into the cell nucleus. Bioconjug Chem. 2005;16(5):1176-1180.
14. Flierl A, Jackson C, Cottrell B, Murdock D, Seibel P, Wallace DC. Targeted delivery of DNA to the mitochondrial compartment via import sequence-conjugated peptide nucleic acid. Mol Ther. 2003;7(4): 550-557.
15. Lai S, Hida K, Man ST, et al. Privileged delivery of polymer nano-particles to the perinuclear region of live cells via a non-clathrin, non-degradative pathway. Biomaterials. 2007;28(18):2876-2884.
16. Rajendran L, Knölker HJ, Simons K. Subcellular targeting strategies for drug design and delivery. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2010;9(1):29-42.
17. Cheng SM, Boddapati S V, D'Souza G, Weissig V. DQAsomes as mitochondria-targeted nanocarriers for anti-cancer drugs. Nanotechnology for Cancer Therapy. Boca Raton, FL:CRC/Taylor and Francis; 2006: 787-802.
18. Bareford L, Swaan PW. Endocytic mechanisms for targeted drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2007;59(8):748-758.
19. Neekhra N, Padh H. An insight into molecular mechanism of endocytosis. Indian J Biochem Biophys. 2004;41(2-3):69-80.
20. García-García E, Rosales C. Signal transduction during Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis. J Leukoc Biol. 2002;72(6):1092-1108.
21. Aderem A, Underhill DM. Mechanisms of phagocytosis in macrophages. Annu Rev Immunol. 1999;17:593-623.
22. Dominska M, Dykxhoorn DM. Breaking down the barriers: siRNA delivery and endosome escape. J Cell Sci. 2010;123(Pt 8):1183-1189.
23. Greish K. Enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect for anticancer nanomedicine drug targeting. Methods Mol Biol. 2010;624:25-37.
24. Maeda H, Fang J, Inutsuka T, Kitamoto Y. Vascular permeability enhancement in solid tumor: various factors, mechanisms involved and its implications. Int Immunopharmacol. 2003;3(3):319-328.
25. Wu HC, Chang DK. Peptide-mediated liposomal drug delivery system targeting tumor blood vessels in anticancer therapy. J Oncol. 2010; 2010:723798.
26. Jagadale R, Sakhrani N, Padh H. Drug delivery and drug targeting using therapeutic nanoparticles. Nanotechnology: Present Status and Future Prospects in Developing Countries. New Delhi:Daya Publishing House; 2011:110-132.
27. Vasir J, Reddy M, Labhasetwar V. Nanosystems in drug targeting: opportunities and challenges. Curr Nanosci. 2005;1(1):47-64.
28. Wilson A, Zhou W, Champion HC, et al. Targeted delivery of oligode-oxynucleotides to mouse lung endothelial cells in vitro and in vivo. Mol Ther. 2005;12(3):510-518.
29. Mamot C, Drummond DC, Greiser U, et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeted immunoliposomes mediate specific and efficient drug delivery to EGFR- and EGFRvIII-overexpressing tumor cells. Cancer Res. 2003;63(12):3154-3161.
30. Parker N, Turk MJ, Westrick E, Lewis JD, Low PS, Leamon CP. Folate receptor expression in carcinomas and normal tissues determined by a quantitative radioligand binding assay. Anal Biochem. 2005;338(2): 284-293.
31. Biragyn A, Ruffni PA, Coscia M, et al. Chemokine receptor-mediated delivery directs self-tumor antigen efficiently into the class II processing pathway in vitro and induces protective immunity in vivo. Blood. 2004;104(7):1961-1969.
32. Li H, Qian ZM. Transferrin/transferrin receptor-mediated drug delivery. Med Res Rev. 2002;22(3):225-250.
33. Gautam A, Chaudhary K, Kumar R, Sharma A, Kapoor P, Tyagi A, Open source drug discovery consortium, Raghava GPS. In silico approaches for designing highly effective cell penetrating peptides. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2013;11:74.
34. Lindgren M, Hällbrink M, Prochiantz A, Langel U. Cell-penetrating peptides. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2000;21(3):99-103.
35. Li Y, Rosal RV, Brandt-Rauf P W, Fine RL. Correlation between hydrophobic properties and effciency of carrier-mediated membrane transduction and apoptosis of a p53 C-terminal peptide. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2002;298(3):439-449.
36. Roeder GE, Parish JL, Stern PL, Gaston K. Herpes simplex virus VP22-human papillomavirus E2 fusion proteins produced in mammalian or bacterial cells enter mammalian cells and induce apoptotic cell death. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 2004;40(Pt 2):157-165.
37. Joliot A, Pernelle C, Deagostini-Bazin H, Prochiantz A. Antennapedia homeobox peptide regulates neural morphogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991;88(5):1864-1868.
38. Futaki S, Suzuki T, Ohashi W, et al. Arginine-rich peptides. An abundant source of membrane-permeable peptides having potential as carriers for intracellular protein delivery. J Biol Chem. 2001;276(8):5836-5840.
39. Kersemans V, Cornelissen B. Targeting the tumour: cell penetrating peptides for molecular imaging and radiotherapy. Pharmaceuticals. 2010;3(3):600-620.
40. Vivès E, Schmidt J, Pèlegrin A. Cell-penetrating and cell-targeting peptides in drug delivery. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2008;1786(2): 126-138.
41. Juliano RL. Intracellular delivery of oligonucleotide conjugates and dendrimer complexes. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2006;1082:18-26.
42. Schwarze SR, Ho A, Vocero-Akbani A, Dowdy SF. In vivo protein transduction: delivery of a biologically active protein into the mouse. Science. 1999;285(5433):1569-1572.
43. Muratovska A, Eccles MR. Conjugate for efficient delivery of short interfering RNA (siRNA) into mammalian cells. FEBS Lett. 2004;558(1-3):63-68.
44. Bian J, Popovic ZB, Benejam C, Kiedrowski M, Rodriguez LL, Penn MS. Effect of cell-based intercellular delivery of transcription factor GATA4 on ischemic cardiomyopathy. Circ Res. 2007;100(11):1626-1633.
45. Maniti O, Blanchard E, Trugnan G, Lamazière A, Ayala-Sanmartin J. Metabolic energy-independent mechanism of internalization for the cell penetrating peptide penetratin. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2012;44: 869-875.
46. Fittipaldi A, Ferrari A, Zoppé M, et al. Cell membrane lipid rafts mediate caveolar endocytosis of HIV-1 Tat fusion proteins. J Biol Chem. 2003; 278(36):34141-34149.
47. Kaplan IM, Wadia JS, Dowdy SF. Cationic TAT peptide transduction domain enters cells by macropinocytosis. J Control Release. 2005; 102(1):247-253.
48. Tünnemann G, Martin RM, Haupt S, Patsch C, Edenhofer F, Cardoso MC. Cargo-dependent mode of uptake and bioavailability of TAT-containing proteins and peptides in living cells. FASEB J. 2006; 20(11):1775-1784.
49. Madani F, Lindberg S, Langel Ü, Futaki S, Gräslund A. Mechanisms of Cellular Uptake of Cell-Penetrating Peptides. Journal of Biophysics. 2011:1-10.
50. Duchardt F, Fotin-Mleczek M, Schwarz H, Fischer R, Brock R. A comprehensive model for the cellular uptake of cationic cell-penetrating peptides. Traffc. 2007;8(7):848-866.
51. Mo RH, Zaro JL, Shen W-C. Comparison of cationic and amphipathic cell penetrating peptides for siRNA delivery and effcacy. Mol Pharm. 2012;9:299-309.
52. Saar K, Lindgren M, Hansen M, et al. Cell-penetrating peptides: a comparative membrane toxicity study. Anal Biochem. 2005; 345(1):55-65.
53. El-Andaloussi S, Järver P, Johansson HJ, Langel U. Cargo-dependent cytotoxicity and delivery efficacy of cell-penetrating peptides: a comparative study. Biochem J. 2007;407(2):285-292.
54. Pollard H, Remy JS, Loussouarn G, Demolombe S, Behr J P, Escande D. Polyethylenimine but not cationic lipids promotes transgene delivery to the nucleus in mammalian cells. J Biol Chem. 1998;273(13): 7507-7511.
55. Lander ES, Linton LM, Birren B, et al. Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature. 2001;409(6822):860-921.
56. Venter JC, Adams MD, Myers E W, et al. The sequence of the human genome. Science. 2001;291(5507):1304-1351.
57. Waterston RH, Lindblad-Toh K, Birney E, et al. Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome. Nature. 2002;420(6915): 520-562.
58. Peters M F, Nucifora FC Jr, Kushi J, et al. Nuclear targeting of mutant Huntingtin increases toxicity. Mol Cell Neurosci. 1999;14(2): 121-128.
59. Yasuhara N, Takeda E, Inoue H, Kotera I, Yoneda Y. Importin alpha/ beta-mediated nuclear protein import is regulated in a cell cycle-dependent manner. Exp Cell Res. 2004;297(1):285-293.
60. Macara IG. Transport into and out of the nucleus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2001;65(4):570-594.
61. Chan CK, Jans DA. Using nuclear targeting signals to enhance non-viral gene transfer. Immunol Cell Biol. 2002;80(2):119-130.
62. Strunze S, Trotman LC, Boucke K, Greber UF. Nuclear targeting of adenovirus type 2 requires CRM1-mediated nuclear export. Mol Biol Cell. 2005;16(6):2999-3009.
63. Nabi IR, Le PU. Caveolae/raft-dependent endocytosis. J Cell Biol. 2003;161(4):673-677.
64. Li S, Huang L. Nonviral gene therapy: promises and challenges. Gene ther. 2000;7(1):31-34.
65. Nabel GJ, Nabel EG, Yang ZY, et al. Direct gene transfer with DNA-liposome complexes in melanoma: expression, biologic activity, and lack of toxicity in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90(23): 11307-11311.
66. Robbins J, Dilworth SM, Laskey RA, Dingwall C. Two interdependent basic domains in nucleoplasmin nuclear targeting sequence: identifcation of a class of bipartite nuclear targeting sequence. Cell. 1991;64(3):615-623.
67. Torchilin V P, Levchenko TS, Rammohan R, Volodina N, Papahadjopoulos-Sternberg B, D'Souza GG. Cell transfection in vitro and in vivo with nontoxic TAT peptide-liposome-DNA complexes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100(4):1972-1977.
68. Kim J, Dang CV. Cancer's Molecular Sweet Tooth and the Warburg Effect. Cancer Research. 2006;66:8927-8930.
69. Warburg O. On the origin of cancer cells. Science. 1956;123(3191): 309-314.
70. Costantini P, Jacotot E, Decaudin D, Kroemer G. Mitochondrion as a novel target of anticancer chemotherapy. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92(13):1042-1053.
71. Duchen MR. Roles of mitochondria in health and disease. Diabetes. 2004;53(Suppl 1):S96-S102.
72. Czarna M, Jarmuszkiewicz W. [Role of mitochondria in reactive oxygen species generation and removal; relevance to signaling and programmed cell death.] Postepy Biochem. 2006;52(2):145-156. Polish [with English abstract].
73. Murphy MP, Smith RA. Drug delivery to mitochondria: the key to mitochondrial medicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2000;41(2):235-250.
74. Taylor RW, Wardell TM, Smith PM, et al. An antigenomic strategy for treating heteroplasmic mtDNA disorders. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2001; 49(1-2):121-125.
75. Weissig V, Cheng SM, D'Souza GG. Mitochondrial pharmaceutics. Mitochondrion. 2004;3(4):229-244.
76. Kidd JF, Pilkington MF, Schell MJ, et al. Paclitaxel affects cytosolic calcium signals by opening the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. J Biol Chem. 2002;277(8):6504-6510.
77. Robertson JD, Gogvadze V, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S. Distinct pathways for stimulation of cytochrome c release by etoposide. J Biol Chem. 2000;275(42):32438-32443.
78. André N, Braguer D, Brasseur G, et al. Paclitaxel induces release of cytochrome c from mitochondria isolated from human neuroblastoma cells. Cancer Res. 2000;60(19):5349-5353.
79. Smith RA, Porteous CM, Coulter C V, Murphy MP. Selective targeting of an antioxidant to mitochondria. Eur J Biochem. 1999;263(3): 709-716.
80. Abe Y, Shodai T, Muto T, et al. Structural basis of presequence recognition by the mitochondrial protein import receptor Tom20. Cell. 2000;100(5):551-560.
81. Stojanovski D, Johnston AJ, Streimann I, Hoogenraad NJ, Ryan MT. Import of nuclear-encoded proteins into mitochondria. Exp Physiol. 2003;88(1):57-64.
82. Tanaka M, Borgeld HJ, Zhang J, et al. Gene therapy for mitochondrial disease by delivering restriction endonuclease SmaI into mitochondria. J Biomed Sci. 2002;9(6 Pt 1):534-541.
83. Weiss MJ, Wong JR, Ha CS, et al. Dequalinium, a topical antimicrobial agent, displays anticarcinoma activity based on selective mitochondrial accumulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84(15): 5444-5448.
84. Weissig V, Lasch J, Erdos G, Meyer H W, Rowe TC, Hughes J. DQAsomes: a novel potential drug and gene delivery system made from Dequalinium. Pharm Res. 1998;15(2):334-337.
85. Weissig V, D'Souza GG, Torchilin VP. DQAsome/DNA complexes release DNA upon contact with isolated mouse liver mitochondria. J Control Release. 2001;75(3):401-408.
86. D'Souza GG, Boddapati S V, Weissig V. Mitochondrial leader sequence-plasmid DNA conjugates delivered into mammalian cells by DQAsomes co-localize with mitochondria. Mitochondrion. 2005;5(5):352-358.
87. D'Souza GG, Cheng SM, Boddapati S V, Horobin RW, Weissig V. Nanocarrier-assisted sub-cellular targeting to the site of mitochondria improves the pro-apoptotic activity of paclitaxel. J Drug Target. 2008;16(7):578-585.
88. De Duve C, Pressman BC, Gianetto R, Wattiaux R, Appelmans F. Tissue fractionation studies. 6. Intracellular distribution patterns of enzymes in rat-liver tissue. Biochem. J. 1955;60(4):604-617.
89. Lübke T, Lobel P, Sleat DE. Proteomics of the lysosome. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1793(4):625-635.
90. Bagshaw RD, Mahuran DJ, Callahan JW. A proteomic analysis of lysosomal integral membrane proteins reveals the diverse composition of the organelle. Mol Cell Proteomics. 2005;4(2): 133-143.
91. Parkinson-Lawrence EJ, Shandala T, Prodoehl M, Plew R, Borlace GN, Brooks DA. Lysosomal storage disease: revealing lyso-somal function and physiology. Physiology (Bethesda). 2010;25(2): 102-115.
92. Cottrell GS, Padilla BE, Amadesi S, et al. Endosomal endothelin-converting enzyme-1: a regulator of beta-arrestin-dependent ERK signaling. J Biol Chem. 2009;284(33):22411-22425.
93. Ni X, Canuel M, Morales CR. The sorting and traffcking of lysosomal proteins. Histol Histopathol. 2006;21(8):899-913.
94. Sly WS, Vogler C. Brain-directed gene therapy for lysosomal storage disease: going well beyond the blood-brain barrier. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99(9):5760-5762.
95. Behnke J, Eskelinen EL, Saftig P, Schröder B. Two dileucine motifs mediate late endosomal/lysosomal targeting of transmembrane protein 192 (TMEM192) and a C-terminal cysteine residue is responsible for disulfde bond formation in TMEM192 homodimers. Biochem J. 2011;434(2):219-231.
96. Grubb JH, Vogler C, Sly WS. New strategies for enzyme replacement therapy for lysosomal storage diseases. Rejuvenation Res. 2010;13(2-3):229-236.
97. Oliveira S, van Rooy I, Kranenburg O, Storm G, Schiffelers RM. Fusogenic peptides enhance endosomal escape improving siRNA-induced silencing of oncogenes. Int J Pharm. 2007;331(2):211-214.
98. Ballestrero A, Garuti A, Cirmena G, et al. Patient-tailored treatments with anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies in advanced colorectal cancer: KRAS and beyond. Curr Cancer Drug Targets. 2012;12(4): 316-328.
99. Chen J, Huang XF, Katsifs A. Activation of signal pathways and the resistance to anti-EGFR treatment in colorectal cancer. J Cell Biochem. 2010;111(5):1082-1086.
100. Neu M, Fischer D, Kissel T. Recent advances in rational gene transfer vector design based on poly(ethylene imine) and its derivatives. J Gene Med. 2005;7(8):992-1009.
101. Khalil IA, Kogure K, Akita H, Harashima H. Uptake pathways and subsequent intracellular traffcking in nonviral gene delivery. Pharmacol Rev. 2006;58(1):32-45.
102. Boussif O, Lezoualc'h F, Zanta MA, et al. A versatile vector for gene and oligonucleotide transfer into cells in culture and in vivo: polyeth-ylenimine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92(16):7297-7301.
103. Varkouhi AK, Scholte M, Storm G, Haisma HJ. Endosomal escape pathways for delivery of biologicals. J Control Release. 2011;151(3): 220-228.
104. Mazzarello P, Bentivoglio M. The centenarian Golgi apparatus. Nature. 1998;392(6676):543-544.
105. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Vesicular Traffc in the Secretory and Endocytic Pathways Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th ed. New York, NY: Garland; 2002:1065-1126.
106. Aridor M, Hannan LA. Traffc jam: a compendium of human diseases that affect intracellular transport processes. Traffc. 2000;1(11): 836-851.
107. Wlodkowic D, Skommer J, McGuinness D, Hillier C, Darzynkiewicz Z. ER-Golgi network-a future target for anti-cancer therapy. Leuk Res. 2009;33(11):1440-1447.
108. Migita T, Inoue S. Implications of the Golgi apparatus in prostate cancer. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2012;44(11):1872-1876.
109. Glinsky V V, Glinsky G V, Rittenhouse-Olson K, et al. The role of Thomsen-Friedenreich antigen in adhesion of human breast and prostate cancer cells to the endothelium. Cancer Res. 2001;61(12): 4851-4857.
110. Boelens J, Lust S, Offner F, Bracke ME, Vanhoecke BW. Review. The endoplasmic reticulum: a target for new anticancer drugs. In Vivo. 2007;21(2):215-226.
111. Paschen W, Frandsen A. Endoplasmic reticulum dysfunction-a common denominator for cell injury in acute and degenerative diseases of the brain? J Neurochem. 2001;79(4):719-725.
112. Rutishauser J, Spiess M. Endoplasmic reticulum storage diseases. Swiss Med Wkly. 2002;132(17-18):211-222.
113. Medeiros-Neto G, Kim PS, Yo o SE, et al. Congenital hypothyroid goiter with defcient thyroglobulin. Identifcation of an endoplasmic reticulum storage disease with induction of molecular chaperones. J Clin Invest. 1996;98(12):2838-2844.
114. Pópulo H, Lopes JM, Soares P. The mTOR signalling pathway in human cancer. Int J Mol Sci. 2012;13(12):1886-1918.
115. Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell. 2011;144(5):646-674.
116. Drenan RM, Liu X, Bertram PG, Zheng XF. FKBP12-rapamycin-associated protein or mammalian target of rapamycin (FRAP/mTOR) localization in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. J Biol Chem. 2004;279(1):772-778.
117. Liu X, Zheng XF. Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi localization sequences for mammalian target of rapamycin. Mol Biol Cell. 2007;18(3):1073-1082.
118. McCracken AA, Brodsky JL. Evolving questions and paradigm shifts in endoplasmic-reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD). Bio Essays. 2003;25:868-877.
119. Ye Y. Diverse functions with a common regulator: ubiquitin takes command of an AAA ATPase. J Struct Biol. 2006;156:29-40.
120. Wang Q, Mora-Jensen H, Weniger MA, et al. ERAD inhibitors integrate ER stress with an epigenetic mechanism to activate BH3-only protein NOXA in cancer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106(7): 2200-2205.
121. Skubitz KM. Phase II trial of pegylated-liposomal doxorubicin (Doxil) in mesothelioma. Cancer Invest. 2002;20(5-6):693-699.
122. Fader AN, Rose PG. Abraxane for the treatment of gynecologic cancer patients with severe hypersensitivity reactions to paclitaxel. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2009;19(7):1281-1283.
123. Suzuki R, Takizawa T, Kuwata Y, et al. Effective anti-tumor activity of oxaliplatin encapsulated in transferrin-PEG-liposome. Int J Pharm. 2008;346(1-2):143-150.
124. Wang YC, Liu XQ, Sun TM, Xiong MH, Wang J. Functionalized micelles from block copolymer of polyphosphoester and poly(epsilon-caprolactone) for receptor-mediated drug delivery. J Control Release. 2008;128(1):32-40.
125. Solomon M, D'Souza GGM. Approaches to achieving sub-cellular targeting of bioactives using pharmaceutical nanocarriers. In: Prolop A, editor. Intracellular Delivery: Fundamental Biomedical Technologies. New York, NY: Springer; 2011:57-72.
126. Kruth HS, Jones NL, Huang W, et al. Macropinocytosis is the endocytic pathway that mediates macrophage foam cell formation with native low density lipoprotein. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(3):2352-2360.
127. Meier O, Boucke K, Hammer S V, et al. Adenovirus triggers macropinocytosis and endosomal leakage together with its clathrin-mediated uptake. J Cell Biol. 2002;158(6):1119-1131.
128. Ungewickell EJ, Hinrichsen L. Endocytosis: clathrin-mediated membrane budding. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2007;19(4):417-425.
129. Johnston APR, Such GK, Ng SL, Caruso F. Challenges facing colloidal delivery systems: from synthesis to the clinic. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci. 2011;16(3):171-181.
130. McMahon HT, Boucrot E. Molecular mechanism and physiological functions of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2011;12(8):517-533.
131. Pelkmans L, Helenius A. Endocytosis via caveolae. Traffc. 2002;3(5): 311-320.
132. Damm EM, Pelkmans L, Kartenbeck J, Mezzacasa A, Kurzchalia T, Helenius A. Clathrin- and caveolin-1-independent endocytosis: entry of simian virus 40 into cells devoid of caveolae. J Cell Biol. 2005;168(3):477-488.