The role of long-chained marine N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in cardiovascular disease

Cardiology Research and Practice

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2012, Pages

  Aarsetoey, Hildegunn ^a   Grundt, Heidi ^a   Nygaard, Ottar ^b,c   Nilsen, Dennis W T ^a,b  

^a STAVANGER UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN   (Norway)

^c HAUKELAND UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; ICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; INSULIN GLARGINE; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PLACEBO;

AORTA ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLEEDING; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG STRUCTURE; HEART DEATH; HEART FAILURE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART PROTECTION; HEART VENTRICLE ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; MONOTHERAPY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84872148916     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20900597     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2012/303456     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Bang H. O., Dyerberg J., Draper H. H., Lipid metabolism and ischemic heart disease in Greenland Eskimos. Advanced Nutrition Research 1980 3 New York, NY, USA Plenum Press 1 32
2. Libby P., Coronary artery injury and the biology of atherosclerosis: inflammation, thrombosis, and stabilization. American Journal of Cardiology 2000 86 8 3J 9J 2-s2.0-0034687333
3. Rissanen T., Voutilainen S., Nyyssonen K., Lakka T. A., Salonen J. T., Fish oil-derived fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid, and the risk of acute coronary events: The Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Circulation 2000 102 22 2677 2679 2-s2.0-0034727716
4. Guallar E., Sanz-Gallardo M. I., van't Veer P., Bode P., Aro A., Gómez-Aracena J., Kark J. D., Riemersma R. A., Martín-Moreno J. M., Kok F. J., Mercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine 2002 347 22 1747 1754 2-s2.0-0037191724 10.1056/NEJMoa020157 (Pubitemid 35375613)
5. Salonen J. T., Seppänen K., Lakka T. A., Salonen R., Kaplan G. A., Mercury accumulation and accelerated progression of carotid atherosclerosis: a population-based prospective 4-year follow-up study in men in eastern Finland. Atherosclerosis 2000 148 2 265 273 2-s2.0-17444450518 10.1016/S0021-9150(99) 00272-5 (Pubitemid 30064457)
6. Grundt H., Nilsen D. W. T., Mansoor M. A., Nordøy A., Increased lipid peroxidation during long-term intervention with high doses of n-3 fatty acids (PUFAs) following an acute myocardial infarction. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003 57 6 793 800 2-s2.0-0038391451 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601730 (Pubitemid 36789992)
7. Drevon C. A., Marine oils and their effects. Nutrition Reviews 1992 50 29 36
8. Mozaffarian D., Wu J. H. Y., Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2011 58 20 2047 2067
9. Leaf A., Xiao Y. F., Kang J. X., Billman G. E., Prevention of sudden cardiac death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2003 98 3 355 377 2-s2.0-0038700514 10.1016/S0163-7258(03)00039-1 (Pubitemid 36638548)
10. Siddiqui R. A., Harvey K. A., Zaloga G. P., Modulation of enzymatic activities by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to support cardiovascular health. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2008 19 7 417 437 2-s2.0-44649151762 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2007.07.001 (Pubitemid 351783409)
11. Li H., Ruan X. Z., Powis S. H., Fernando R., Mon W. Y., Wheeler D. C., Moorhead J. F., Varghese Z., EPA and DHA reduce LPS-induced inflammation responses in HK-2 cells: evidence for a PPAR- γ -dependent mechanism. Kidney International 2005 67 3 867 874 2-s2.0-20844440063 10.1111/j.1523-1755. 2005.00151.x (Pubitemid 41623311)
12. Monaco C., Andreakos E., Kiriakidis S., Mauri C., Bicknell C., Foxwell B., Cheshire N., Paleolog E., Feldmann M., Canonical pathway of nuclear factor B activation selectively regulates proinflammatory and prothrombotic responses in human atherosclerosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2004 101 15 5634 5639 2-s2.0-1842681951 10.1073/pnas.0401060101 (Pubitemid 38481208)
13. Khan S. A., Vanden Heuvel J. P., Reviews: current topics role of nuclear receptors in the regulation of gene expression by dietary fatty acids (review). The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2003 14 10 554 567 2-s2.0-0141992044 10.1016/S0955-2863(03)00098-6 (Pubitemid 37239008)
14. De Caterina R., Drug therapy: n-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease. The New England Journal of Medicine 2011 364 25 2439 2450 2-s2.0-79959484739 10.1056/NEJMra1008153
15. Saravanan P., Davidson N. C., Schmidt E. B., Calder P. C., Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. The Lancet 2010 376 9740 540 550 2-s2.0-77956063072 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60445-X
16. Robinson J. G., Stone N. J., Antiatherosclerotic and antithrombotic effects of omega-3 fatty acids. American Journal of Cardiology 2006 98 4 i39 i49 2-s2.0-33747188960 10.1385/1-59745-095-2:39 (Pubitemid 44226453)
17. Reiffel J. A., McDonald A., Antiarrhythmic effects of omega-3 fatty acids. American Journal of Cardiology 2006 98 4 i50 i60 2-s2.0-33747098514 10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.12.027 (Pubitemid 44223364)
18. Newman W. P., Middaugh J. P., Propst M. T., Rogers D. R., Atherosclerosis in Alaska natives and non-natives. The Lancet 1993 341 8852 1056 1057 2-s2.0-0027399112 10.1016/0140-6736(93)92413-N (Pubitemid 23114399)
19. Rapp J. H., Connor W. E., Lin D. S., Porter J. M., Dietary eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish oil: their incorporation into advanced human atherosclerotic plaques. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 1991 11 4 903 911 2-s2.0-0025785575
20. Thies F., Garry J. M. C., Yaqoob P., Rerkasem K., Williams J., Shearman C. P., Gallagher P. J., Calder P. C., Grimble R. F., Association of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with stability of atherosclerotic plaques: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet 2003 361 9356 477 485 2-s2.0-0037425770 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12468-3 (Pubitemid 36173713)
21. von Schacky C., Angerer P., Kothny W., Theisen K., Mudra H., The effect of dietary ω -3 fatty acids on coronary atherosclerosis. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 1999 130 7 554 562 2-s2.0-0033528646 (Pubitemid 29169382)
22. Sacks F. M., Stone F. H., Gibson C. M., Silverman D. I., Rosner B., Pasternak R. C., Controlled trial of fish oil for regression of human coronary atherosclerosis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 1995 25 7 1492 1498 2-s2.0-0029015352 10.1016/0735-1097(95)00095-L
23. Erkkilä A. T., Matthan N. R., Herrington D. M., Lichtenstein A. H., Higher plasma docosahexaenoic acid is associated with reduced progression of coronary atherosclerosis in women with CAD. Journal of Lipid Research 2006 47 12 2814 2819 2-s2.0-33845591793 10.1194/jlr.P600005-JLR200 (Pubitemid 44936095)
24. Bang H. O., Dyerberg J., Nielsen A. B., Plasma lipid and lipoprotein pattern in Greenlandic West-coast Eskimos. The Lancet 1971 1 7710 1143 1145 2-s2.0-0015211669
25. Bonaa K. H., Bjerve K. S., Straume B., Gram I. T., Thelle D., Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on blood pressure in hypertension. A population-based intervention trial from the Tromso study. The New England Journal of Medicine 1990 322 12 795 801 2-s2.0-0025308724 (Pubitemid 20094142)
26. Luo J., Rizkalla S. W., Boillot J., Alamowitch C., Chaib H., Bruzzo F., Desplanque N., Dalix A. M., Durand G., Slama G., Dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids improve adipocyte insulin action and glucose metabolism in insulin-resistant rats: relation to membrane fatty acids. The Journal of Nutrition 1996 126 8 1951 1958 2-s2.0-9344233301 (Pubitemid 26260216)
27. Chicco A., D'Alessandro M. E., Karabatas L., Gutman R., Lombardo Y. B., Effect of moderate levels of dietary fish oil on insulin secretion and sensitivity, and pancreas insulin content in normal rats. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 1996 40 2 61 70 2-s2.0-0029925827 (Pubitemid 26152177)
28. Hansson G. K., Libby P., Schönbeck U., Yan Z. Q., Innate and adaptive immunity in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Circulation Research 2002 91 4 281 291 2-s2.0-0037163149 10.1161/01.RES.0000029784.15893.10 (Pubitemid 34976993)
29. Dyerberg J., Bang H. O., Haemostatic function and platelet polyunsaturated fatty acids in Eskimos. The Lancet 1979 2 8140 433 435 2-s2.0-0018581433 (Pubitemid 9250399)
30. Bang H. O., Dyerberg J., The bleeding tendency in Greenland Eskimos. Danish Medical Bulletin 1980 27 4 202 205 2-s2.0-0019148840 (Pubitemid 11254857)
31. Harris W. S., Miller M., Tighe A. P., Davidson M. H., Schaefer E. J., Omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk: clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis 2008 197 1 12 24 2-s2.0-39649111988 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.11.008
32. Grundt H., Nilsen D. W. T., Mansoor M. A., Hetland Ø., Nordøy A., Reduction in homocysteine by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after 1 year in a randomised double-blind study following an acute myocardial infarction: no effect on endothelial adhesion properties. Pathophysiology of Haemostasis and Thrombosis 2003 33 2 88 95 2-s2.0-0344493770 10.1159/000073852 (Pubitemid 37449283)
33. Schmidt E. B., Varming K., Ernst E., Madsen P., Dyerberg J., Dose-response studies on the effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on lipids and haemostasis. Thrombosis and Haemostasis 1990 63 1 1 5 2-s2.0-0025138565 (Pubitemid 20057303)
34. Eritsland J., Arnesen H., Seljeflot I., Kierulf P., Long-term effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on haemostatic variables and bleeding episodes in patients with coronary artery disease. Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis 1995 6 1 17 22 2-s2.0-0028909807
35. Harris W. S., Sands S. A., Windsor S. L., Ali H. A., Stevens T. L., Magalski A., Porter C. B., Borkon A. M., Omega-3 fatty acids in cardiac biopsies from heart transplantation patients: correlation with erythrocytes and response to supplementation. Circulation 2004 110 12 1645 1649 2-s2.0-4644336694 10.1161/01.CIR.0000142292.10048.B2 (Pubitemid 39297988)
36. Owen A. J., Peter-Przyborowska B. A., Hoy A. J., McLennan P. L., Dietary fish oil dose- and time-response effects on cardiac phospholipid fatty acid composition. Lipids 2004 39 10 955 961 2-s2.0-11844274574 10.1007/s11745-004- 1317-0 (Pubitemid 40095878)
37. Garg M. L., Leitch J., Blake R. J., Garg R., Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid incorporation into human atrium following fish oil supplementation. Lipids 2006 41 12 1127 1132 2-s2.0-33846247932 10.1007/s11745-006-5062-1 (Pubitemid 46095225)
38. Nodari S., Metra M., Milesi G., Manerba A., Cesana B. M., Gheorghiade M., Dei Cas L., The role of n-3 PUFAs in preventing the arrhythmic risk in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 2009 23 1 5 15 2-s2.0-58549111004 10.1007/s10557-008-6142-7
39. Mozaffarian D., Geelen A., Brouwer I. A., Geleijnse J. M., Zock P. L., Katan M. B., Effect of fish oil on heart rate in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Circulation 2005 112 13 1945 1952 2-s2.0-25444484216 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.556886 (Pubitemid 41377412)
40. Mozaffarian D., Stein P. K., Prineas R. J., Siscovick D. S., Dietary fish and ω -3 fatty acid consumption and heart rate variability in US adults. Circulation 2008 117 9 1130 1137 2-s2.0-41149155370 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107. 732826 (Pubitemid 351544069)
41. Jouven X., Zureik M., Desnos M., Guérot C., Ducimetière P., Resting heart rate as a predictive risk factor for sudden death in middle-aged men. Cardiovascular Research 2001 50 2 373 378 2-s2.0-0035028441 10.1016/S0008-6363(01)00230-9 (Pubitemid 32382164)
42. Matthan N. R., Jordan H., Chung M., Lichtenstein A. H., Lathrop D. A., Lau J., A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of ω -3 fatty acids on selected arrhythmia outcomes in animal models. Metabolism 2005 54 12 1557 1565 2-s2.0-28444495476 10.1016/j.metabol.2005.05.026 (Pubitemid 41728145)
43. Brouwer I. A., Raitt M. H., Dullemeijer C., Kraemer D. F., Zock P. L., Morris C., Katan M. B., Connor W. E., Camm J. A., Schouten E. G., McAnulty J., Effect of fish oil on ventricular tachyarrhythmia in three studies in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators. European Heart Journal 2009 30 7 820 826 2-s2.0-64849110630 10.1093/eurheartj/ehp003
44. Metcalf R. G., Sanders P., James M. J., Cleland L. G., Young G. D., Effect of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the inducibility of ventricular tachycardia in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 2008 101 6 758 761 2-s2.0-40049100064 10.1016/j.amjcard. 2007.11.007
45. Schrepf R., Limmert T., Weber P. C., Theisen K., Sellmayer A., Immediate effects of n-3 fatty acid infusion on the induction of sustained ventricular tachycardia. The Lancet 2004 363 9419 1441 1442 2-s2.0-2342502655 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16105-9 (Pubitemid 38586722)
46. Christensen J. H., Riahi S., Schmidt E. B., Mølgaard H., Pedersen A. K., Heath F., Nielsen J. C., Toft E., N-3 fatty acids and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with ischaemic heart disease and implantable cardioverter defibrillators. Europace 2005 7 4 338 344 2-s2.0-20344381281 10.1016/j.eupc.2005.02.118 (Pubitemid 40790418)
47. Leaf A., Albert C. M., Josephson M., Steinhaus D., Kluger J., Kang J. X., Cox B., Zhang H., Schoenfeld D., Prevention of fatal arrhythmias in high-risk subjects by fish oil n-3 fatty acid intake. Circulation 2005 112 18 2762 2768 2-s2.0-27844607043 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.549527 (Pubitemid 41641669)
48. Harris W. S., Von Schacky C., The omega-3 index: a new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease? Preventive Medicine 2004 39 1 212 220 2-s2.0-2942724415 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.02.030 (Pubitemid 38797975)
49. Sun Q., Ma J., Campos H., Hankinson S. E., Hu F. B., Comparison between plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid content as biomarkers of fatty acid intake in US women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007 86 1 74 81 2-s2.0-34447274030 (Pubitemid 47041595)
50. von Schacky C., Harris W. S., Cardiovascular benefits of omega-3 fatty acids. Cardiovascular Research 2007 73 2 310 315 2-s2.0-33845573084 10.1016/j.cardiores.2006.08.019 (Pubitemid 44937689)
51. Cao J., Schwichtenberg K. A., Hanson N. Q., Tsai M. Y., Incorporation and clearance of omega-3 fatty acids in erythrocyte membranes and plasma phospholipids. Clinical Chemistry 2006 52 12 2265 2272 2-s2.0-33845531934 10.1373/clinchem.2006.072322 (Pubitemid 44925001)
52. Burr M. L., Fehily A. M., Gilbert J. F., Rogers S., Holliday R. M., Sweetnam P. M., Elwood P. C., Deadman N. M., Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: Diet and reinfarction trial (DART). The Lancet 1989 2 8666 757 761 2-s2.0-0024363690 (Pubitemid 19234807)
53. Marchioli R., Dietary supplementation with N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. The Lancet 1999 354 9177 447 455 2-s2.0-0345109256 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)07072-5 (Pubitemid 29368922)
54. Rauch B., Schiele R., Schneider S., Diller F., Victor N., Gohlke H., Gottwik M., Steinbeck G., Del Castillo U., Sack R., Worth H., Katus H., Spitzer W., Sabin G., Senges J., OMEGA, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial to test the effect of highly purified omega-3 fatty acids on top of modern guideline-adjusted therapy after myocardial infarction. Circulation 2010 122 21 2152 2159 2-s2.0-78650169331 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.948562
55. Kromhout D., Giltay E. J., Geleijnse J. M., N-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine 2010 363 21 2015 2026 2-s2.0-78549233384 10.1056/NEJMoa1003603
56. Gissi-HF Investigators, Tavazzi L., Maggioni A. P., Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet 2008 372 1223 1230
57. Ghio S., Scelsi L., Latini R., Masson S., Eleuteri E., Palvarini M., Vriz O., Pasotti M., Gorini M., Marchioli R., Maggioni A., Tavazzi L., Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and of rosuvastatin on left ventricular function in chronic heart failure: a substudy of GISSI-HF trial. European Journal of Heart Failure 2010 12 12 1345 1353 2-s2.0-78649650998 10.1093/eurjhf/hfq172
58. Moertl D., Hammer A., Steiner S., Hutuleac R., Vonbank K., Berger R., Dose-dependent effects of omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids on systolic left ventricular function, endothelial function, and markers of inflammation in chronic heart failure of nonischemic origin: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, 3-arm study. American Heart Journal 2011 161 5 915.e1 915.e9 2-s2.0-79955882606 10.1016/j.ahj.2011.02.011
59. Nodari S., Triggiani M., Campia U., Manerba A., Milesi G., Cesana B. M., Gheorghiade M., Dei Cas L., Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on left ventricular function and functional capacity in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2011 57 7 870 879 2-s2.0-79851509274 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.11.017
60. Iso H., Kobayashi M., Ishihara J., Sasaki S., Okada K., Kita Y., Kokubo Y., Tsugane S., Intake of fish and n3 fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among Japanese: The Japan Public Health Center-Based (JPHC) study cohort I. Circulation 2006 113 2 195 202 2-s2.0-33645007540 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA. 105.581355
61. Yokoyama M., Origasa H., Matsuzaki M., Matsuzawa Y., Saito Y., Ishikawa Y., Oikawa S., Sasaki J., Hishida H., Itakura H., Kita T., Kitabatake A., Nakaya N., Sakata T., Shimada K., Shirato K., Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. The Lancet 2007 369 9567 1090 1098 2-s2.0-33947583493 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60527-3 (Pubitemid 46483662)
62. Mozaffarian D., Rimm E. B., Fish intake, contaminants and human health. Evaluating the risks and benefits. Journal of the American Medical Association 2006 296 15 1885 1899 (Pubitemid 44596197)
63. Manger M. S., Strand E., Ebbing M., Seifert R., Refsum H., Nordrehaug J. E., Nilsen D. W., Drevon C. A., Tell G. S., Bleie Ø., Vollset S. E., Pedersen E. R., Nygård O., Dietary intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and coronary events in Norwegian patients with coronary artery disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010 92 1 244 251 2-s2.0-77954572318 10.3945/ajcn.2010.29175
64. The ORIGIN Trial Investigators, N-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with dysglycemia. The New England Journal of Medicine 2012 367 1760 1761
65. Hu F. B., Bronner L., Willett W. C., Stampfer M. J., Rexrode K. M., Albert C. M., Hunter D., Manson J. E., Fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Journal of the American Medical Association 2002 287 14 1815 1821 2-s2.0-0037051975 (Pubitemid 34303626)
66. Oh K., Hu F. B., Manson J. E., Stampfer M. J., Willett W. C., Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 Years of follow-up of the nurses' health study. American Journal of Epidemiology 2005 161 7 672 679 2-s2.0-15744363705 10.1093/aje/kwi085 (Pubitemid 40411095)
67. Singh R. B., Niaz M. A., Sharma J. P., Kumar R., Rastogi V., Moshiri M., Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: the Indian experiment of infarct survival-4. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 1997 11 3 485 491 2-s2.0-0030862755 10.1023/A:1007757724505 (Pubitemid 27367714)
68. Kromhout D., Bosschieter E. B., de Lezenne Coulander C., The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. The New England Journal of Medicine 1985 312 19 1205 1209 2-s2.0-0021812276 (Pubitemid 15009153)
69. Daviglus M. L., Stamler J., Orencia A. J., Dyer A. R., Liu K., Greenland P., Walsh M. K., Morris D., Shekelle R. B., Fish consumption and the 30-year risk of fatal myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine 1997 336 15 1046 1053 2-s2.0-0030899940 10.1056/NEJM199704103361502 (Pubitemid 27163856)
70. Streppel M. T., Ocké M. C., Boshuizen H. C., Kok F. J., Kromhout D., Long-term fish consumption and n-3 fatty acid intake in relation to (sudden) coronary heart disease death: the Zutphen study. European Heart Journal 2008 29 16 2024 2030 2-s2.0-49749139672 10.1093/eurheartj/ehn294
71. Morris M. C., Manson J. E., Rosner B., Buring J. E., Willett W. C., Hennekens C. H., Fish consumption and cardiovascular disease in the physicians' health study: a prospective study. American Journal of Epidemiology 1995 142 2 166 175 2-s2.0-0029008571
72. Ascherio A., Rimm E. B., Stampfer M. J., Giovannucci E. L., Willett W. C., Dietary intake of marine n-3 fatty acids, fish intake, and the risk of coronary disease among men. The New England Journal of Medicine 1995 332 15 977 982 2-s2.0-0028924095 10.1056/NEJM199504133321501
73. Kromhout D., Bloemberg B. P. M., Feskens E. J. M., Hertog M. G. L., Menotti A., Blackburn H., Alcohol, fish, fibre and antioxidant vitamins intake do not explain population differences in coronary heart disease mortality. International Journal of Epidemiology 1996 25 4 753 759 2-s2.0-0029738769 (Pubitemid 26290057)
74. Nilsen D. W. T., Albrektsen G., Landmark K., Moen S., Aarsland T., Woie L., Effects of a high-dose concentrate of n-3 fatty acids or corn oil introduced early after an acute myocardial infarction on serum triacylglycerol and HDL cholesterol. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001 74 1 50 56 2-s2.0-0034967987 (Pubitemid 32577089)
75. Burr M. L., Ashfield-Watt P. A. L., Dunstan F. D. J., Fehily A. M., Breay P., Ashton T., Zotos P. C., Haboubi N. A. A., Elwood P. C., Lack of benefit of dietary advice to men with angina: results of a controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003 57 2 193 200 2-s2.0-0037326841 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601539 (Pubitemid 36240469)
76. Pietinen P., Ascherio A., Korhonen P., Hartman A. M., Willett W. C., Albanes D., Virtamo J., Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 1997 145 10 876 887 2-s2.0-0031009308 (Pubitemid 27200774)
77. Harris W. S., Omega-3 fatty acids: the Japanese factor? Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2008 52 6 425 427
78. Brouwer I. A., Zock P. L., Camm A. J., Böcker D., Hauer R. N. W., Wever E. F. D., Dullemeijer C., Ronden J. E., Katan M. B., Lubinski A., Buschler H., Schouten E. G., Effect of fish oil on ventricular tachyarrhythmia and death in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators: The Study on Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Ventricular Arrhythmia (SOFA) Randomized Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2006 295 22 2613 2619 2-s2.0-33745100018 10.1001/jama.295.22.2613 (Pubitemid 43882336)
79. Finzi A. A., Latini R., Barlera S., Rossi M. G., Ruggeri A., Mezzani A., Favero C., Franzosi M. G., Serra D., Lucci D., Bianchini F., Bernasconi R., Maggioni A. P., Nicolosi G., Porcu M., Tognoni G., Tavazzi L., Marchioli R., Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on malignant ventricular arrhythmias in patients with chronic heart failure and implantable cardioverter- defibrillators: a substudy of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Insufficienza Cardiaca (GISSI-HF) trial. American Heart Journal 2011 161 2 338 343 2-s2.0-79851479633 10.1016/j.ahj.2010.10.032
80. Raitt M. H., Connor W. E., Morris C., Kron J., Halperin B., Chugh S. S., McClelland J., Cook J., MacMurdy K., Swenson R., Connor S. L., Gerhard G., Kraemer D. F., Oseran D., Marchant C., Calhoun D., Shnider R., McAnulty J., Fish oil supplementation and risk of ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation in patients with implantable defibrillators: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2005 293 23 2884 2891 2-s2.0-20444461678 10.1001/jama.293.23.2884 (Pubitemid 41029142)
81. Madsen T., Christensen J. H., Thøgersen A. M., Schmidt E. B., Toft E., Intravenous infusion of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inducibility of ventricular tachycardia in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Europace 2010 12 7 941 946 2-s2.0-77954968566 10.1093/europace/euq085
82. Aarsetoey H., Aarsetoey R., Lindner T., Staines H., Harris W. S., Nilsen D. W. T., Low levels of the omega-3 index are associated with sudden cardiac arrest and remain stable in survivors in the subacute phase. Lipids 2011 46 2 151 161 2-s2.0-79952316972 10.1007/s11745-010-3511-3
83. Marchioli R., Barzi F., Bomba E., Chieffo C., Di Gregorio D., Di Mascio R., Franzosi M. G., Geraci E., Levantesi G., Maggioni A. P., Mantini L., Marfisi R. M., Mastrogiuseppe G., Mininni N., Nicolosi G. L., Santini M., Schweiger C., Tavazzi L., Tognoni G., Tucci C., Valagussa F., Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: time-course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto Miocardico (GISSI)-Prevenzione. Circulation 2002 105 16 1897 1903 2-s2.0-0037161373 10.1161/01.CIR.0000014682.14181.F2 (Pubitemid 34437615)
84. Siscovick D. S., Raghunathan T. E., King I., Weinmann S., Wicklund K. G., Albright J., Bovbjerg V., Arbogast P., Smith H., Kushi L. H., Cobb L. A., Copass M. K., Psaty B. M., Lemaitre R., Retzlaff B., Childs M., Knopp R. H., Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. Journal of the American Medical Association 1995 274 17 1363 1367 2-s2.0-0028855987
85. Albert C. M., Campos H., Stampfer M. J., Ridker P. M., Manson J. E., Willett W. C., Jing M., Blood levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids and the risk of sudden death. The New England Journal of Medicine 2002 346 15 1113 1118 2-s2.0-0037061915 10.1056/NEJMoa012918 (Pubitemid 34984601)
86. Lemaitre R. N., King I. B., Mozaffarian D., Kuller L. H., Tracy R. P., Siscovick D. S., N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, fatal ischemic heart disease, and nonfatal myocardial infarction in older adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003 77 2 319 325 2-s2.0-0037307256 (Pubitemid 36133372)
87. Pepe S., McLennan P. L., Dietary fish oil confers direct antiarrhythmic properties on the myocardium of rats. The Journal of Nutrition 1996 126 1 34 42 2-s2.0-0030045987 (Pubitemid 26030631)
88. Billman G. E., Kang J. X., Leaf A., Prevention of sudden cardiac death by dietary pure ω -3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs. Circulation 1999 99 18 2452 2457 2-s2.0-0033545884 (Pubitemid 29218243)
89. McLennan P. L., Bridle T. M., Abeywardena M. Y., Charnock J. S., Comparative efficacy of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in modulating ventricular fibrillation threshold in marmoset monkeys. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993 58 5 666 669 2-s2.0-0027486661 (Pubitemid 23319954)
90. Matthan N. R., Jordan H., Chung M., Lichtenstein A. H., Lathrop D. A., Lau J., A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of ω -3 fatty acids on selected arrhythmia outcomes in animal models. Metabolism 2005 54 12 1557 1565 2-s2.0-28444495476 10.1016/j.metabol.2005.05.026 (Pubitemid 41728145)
91. Aarsetøy H., Pönitz V., Nilsen O. B., Grundt H., Harris W. S., Nilsen D. W. T., Low levels of cellular omega-3 increase the risk of ventricular fibrillation during the acute ischaemic phase of a myocardial infarction. Resuscitation 2008 78 3 258 264 2-s2.0-48149091259 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.04.007
92. Hooper L., Thompson R. L., Harrison R. A., Summerbell C. D., Ness A. R., Moore H. J., Worthington H. V., Durrington P. N., Higgins J. P. T., Capps N. E., Riemersma R. A., Ebrahim S. B. J., Smith G. D., Risks and benefits of omega 3 fats for mortality, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review. British Medical Journal 2006 332 7544 752 760 2-s2.0-33645566760 10.1136/bmj.38755.366331.2F (Pubitemid 44365649)
93. Filion K. B., El Khoury F., Bielinski M., Schiller I., Dendukuri N., Brophy J. M., Omega-3 fatty acids in high-risk cardiovascular patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders 2010 10, article 24 2-s2.0-77953012291 10.1186/1471-2261-10-24
94. Whelton S. P., He J., Whelton P. K., Muntner P., Meta-analysis of observational studies on fish intake and coronary heart disease. American Journal of Cardiology 2004 93 9 1119 1123 2-s2.0-1942532144 10.1016/j.amjcard. 2004.01.038 (Pubitemid 38521040)
95. He K., Song Y., Daviglus M. L., Liu K., Van Horn L., Dyer A. R., Greenland P., Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Circulation 2004 109 22 2705 2711 2-s2.0-2942548948 10.1161/01.CIR.0000132503.19410.6B (Pubitemid 38737914)
96. Yzebe D., Lievre M., Fish oils in the care of coronary heart disease patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology 2004 18 5 581 592 2-s2.0-7944239594 10.1111/j.1472-8206. 2004.00268.x (Pubitemid 39468967)
97. Marik P. E., Varon J., Omega-3 dietary supplements and the risk of cardiovascular events: a systematic review. Clinical Cardiology 2009 32 7 365 372 2-s2.0-67749093275 10.1002/clc.20604
98. Chen Q., Cheng L. Q., Xiao T. H., Zhang Y. X., Zhu M., Zhang R., Li K., Wang Y., Li Y., Effects of omega-3 fatty acid for sudden cardiac death prevention in patients with cardiovascular disease: a contemporary meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 2011 25 3 259 265 2-s2.0-79958252852 10.1007/s10557-011-6306-8
99. Bucher H. C., Hengstler P., Schindler C., Meier G., N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Medicine 2002 112 4 298 304 2-s2.0-0036124659 10.1016/S0002-9343(01)01114-7 (Pubitemid 34219443)
100. Kwak S. M., Myung S. K., Lee J. Y., Seo H. G., Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (eicosapentaenoic and docohexaenoic acid) in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Archives of Internal Medicine 2012 172 9 686 694
101. Jenkins D. J. A., Josse A. R., Beyene J., Dorian P., Burr M. L., LaBelle R., Kendall C. W. C., Cunnane S. C., Fish-oil supplementation in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators: a meta-analysis. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2008 178 2 157 164 2-s2.0-38349090537 10.1503/cmaj.070261
102. Rizos E. C., Ntzani E. E., Bika E., Kostapanos M. S., Elisaf M. S., Association between omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and risk of major cardiovascular disease events. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association 2012 308 10 1024 1033
103. Delgado-Lista J., Perez-Martinez P., Lopez-Miranda J., Perez-Jimenez F., Long chain omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. British Journal of Nutrition 2012 107 supplement 2 S201 S213
104. Kris-Etherton P. M., Harris W. S., Appel L. J., Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2002 106 21 2747 2757 2-s2.0-0037137299 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94 (Pubitemid 35364932)
105. Sadovsky R., Kris-Etherton P., Prescription omega-3-acid ethyl esters for the treatment of very high triglycerides. Postgraduate Medicine 2009 121 4 145 153 2-s2.0-68149099599 10.3810/pgm.2009.07.2020
106. Skulas-Ray A. C., West S. G., Davidson M. H., Kris-Etherton P. M., Omega-3 fatty acid concentrates in the treatment of moderate hypertriglyceridemia. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 2008 9 7 1237 1248 2-s2.0-43049178118 10.1517/14656566.9.7.1237 (Pubitemid 351721760)
107. Harris W. S., Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: a case for omega-3 index as a new risk factor. Pharmacological Research 2007 55 3 217 223 2-s2.0-34047147108 10.1016/j.phrs.2007.01.013 (Pubitemid 46518155)
108. Harris W. S., The omega-3 index: from biomarker to risk marker to risk factor. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 2009 11 6 411 417 2-s2.0-70449508666 10.1007/s11883-009-0062-2
109. Block R. C., Harris W. S., Reid K. J., Sands S. A., Spertus J. A., EPA and DHA in blood cell membranes from acute coronary syndrome patients and controls. Atherosclerosis 2008 197 2 821 828 2-s2.0-40949102602 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.07.042 (Pubitemid 351417881)
110. Kim Y. J., Jeong D. W., Lee J. G., Omega-3 index and smoking in patients with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction taking statins: a case-control study in Korea. Lipids in Health and Disease 2012 11, article 43
111. Aarsetoey H., Pönitz V., Grundt H., Staines H., Harris W. S., Nilsen D. W. T., (N-3) fatty acid content of red blood cells does not predict risk of future cardiovascular events following an acute coronary syndrome. The Journal of Nutrition 2009 139 3 507 513 2-s2.0-62749106798 10.3945/jn.108.096446
112. Watson P. D., Joy P. S., Nkonde C., Hessen S. E., Karalis D. G., Comparison of bleeding complications with omega-3 fatty acids + aspirin + clopidogrel-versus-aspirin + clopidogrel in patients with cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Cardiology 2009 104 8 1052 1054 2-s2.0-70349485059 10.1016/j.amjcard.2009.05.055