Animal models and conserved processes

Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2012, Pages

  Greek, Ray ^a   Rice, Mark J ^b  

^a Americans For Medical Advancement   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Anesthesia; Animal models; Cancer; Complexity; Conserved processes; Systems biology

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA;

ANIMAL; ANIMAL MODEL; ARTICLE; GENETIC SELECTION; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MOLECULAR EVOLUTION;

ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; EVOLUTION, MOLECULAR; MODELS, ANIMAL; SELECTION, GENETIC;

MLCS; MLOWN;

EID: 84865853434     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17424682     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1742-4682-9-40     Document Type: Article

References (333)

1. Kirschner MW, Gerhart JC, The Plausibility of Life New Haven: Yale University Press 2006
2. Braithwaite RB, Scientific explanation: a study of the function of theory, probability and law in science Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1953
3. Animal-Human Comparisons. Hinde R, The Oxford Companion to the Mind Oxford: Oxford University Press, Gregory RL, 1987 25 27
4. Scientific Models. Frigg R, Hartmann S, The Philosophy of Science: An Encyclopedia Volume 2 N-Z New York: Routledge, Sarkar S, Pfeifer J, 2012 740 749
5. Animal Model Research. The Apples and Oranges Quandry. Shapiro K, ATLA 2004 32 405 409
6. Hau J, Animal Models Boca Rotan: CRC Press, Hau J, Hoosier GK Jr, 2 Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science Second Edition Animal Models. 2003 1 9
7. Preface. Gad S, Animal Models in Toxicology Boca Rotan: CRC Press, Gad S, 2007 1 18
8. Longer Tests on Lab Animals Urged for Potential Carcinogens http://www.cspinet.org/new/200811172.html.
9. The limits of two-year bioassay exposure regimens for identifying chemical carcinogens. Huff J, Jacobson MF, Davis DL, Environ Health Perspect 2008 116 1439 1442
10. Genomically humanized mice: technologies and promises. Devoy A, Bunton-Stasyshyn RKA, Tybulewicz VLJ, Smith AJH, Fisher EMC, Nat Rev Genet 2012 13 14 20
11. Alzheimer's therapy: a BACE in the hand? Vassar R, Nat Med 2011 17 932 933
12. THS CEO criticized for links to animal testing http://m.torontosun.com/ 2011/09/23/ths-ceo-criticized-for-links-to-animal-testing?noimage.
13. Clinical Toxicity - Could it have been predicted? Post-marketing experience. Heywood R, Animal Toxicity Studies: Their Relevance for Man Lancaster: Quay, Lumley CE, Walker S, 1990 57 67
14. Shanks N, Greek R, Animal Models in Light of Evolution Boca Raton: Brown Walker 2009
15. Is the use of sentient animals in basic research justifiable? Greek R, Greek J, Philos Ethics Humanit Med 2010 5 14
16. Greek R, Shanks N, FAQs About the Use of Animals in Science: A handbook for the scientifically perplexed Lanham: University Press of America 2009
17. Experimental use of nonhuman primates is not a simple problem. Shanks N, Greek R, Nat Med 2008 14 807 808
18. Are animal models predictive for humans? Shanks N, Greek R, Greek J, Philos Ethics Humanit Med 2009 4 2
19. Animals and Medicine: Do Animal Experiments Predict Human Response? Shanks N, Greek R, Nobis N, Greek J, Skeptic 2007 13 44 51
20. Letter. Dogs, Genes and Drugs. Greek R, Am Sci 2008 96 4
21. An analysis of the Bateson Review of research using nonhuman primates. Greek R, Hansen LA, Menache A, Medicolegal Bioethics 2011 1 3 22
22. Animal models in an age of personalized medicine. Greek R, Menache A, Rice MJ, Personalized Med 2012 9 47 64
23. The History and Implications of Testing Thalidomide on Animals. Greek R, Shanks N, Rice MJ, The Journal of Philosophy, Science & Law 2011 11 http://www6.miami.edu/ethics/jpsl/archives/all/TestingThalidomide.html.
24. Reengineering Translational Science: The Time Is Right. Collins FS, Sci Transl Med 2011 3 90cm17
25. Predictive in vivo animal models and translation to clinical trials. Cook N, Jodrell DI, Tuveson DA, Drug Discov Today 2012 17 253 260
26. Healthy animals and animal models of human disease(s) in safety assessment of human pharmaceuticals, including therapeutic antibodies. Dixit R, Boelsterli U, Drug Discov Today 2007 12 336 342
27. In Vitro Biomimetic Model of the Human Immune System for Predictive Vaccine Assessments. Drake DR III, Singh I, Nguyen MN, Kachurin A, Wittman V, Parkhill R, Kachurina O, Moser JM, Burdin N, Moreau M, et al. Disruptive Sci Technol 2012 1 28 40
28. FDA Issues Advice to Make Earliest Stages Of Clinical Drug Development More Efficient http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2006/ ucm108576.htm.
29. Drug safety tests and subsequent clinical experience. Fletcher AP, J R Soc Med 1978 71 693 696
30. Modern biomedical research: an internally self-consistent universe with little contact with medical reality? Horrobin DF, Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003 2 151 154
31. Can the pharmaceutical industry reduce attrition rates? Kola I, Landis J, Nat Rev Drug Discov 2004 3 711 715
32. Clinical toxicity: could it have been predicted? Premarketing experience. Lumley C, Animal Toxicity Studies: Their Relevance for Man Quay, Lumley C, Walker S, 1990 49 56
33. This Issue. M.E, Models that better mimic human cancer Nat Biotechnol. 2010 & 22ii
34. Removing obstacles in neuroscience drug discovery: the future path for animal models. Markou A, Chiamulera C, Geyer MA, Tricklebank M, Steckler T, Neuropsychopharmacol Offic Publ Am Coll Neuropsychopharmacol 2009 34 74 89
35. 1,026 experimental treatments in acute stroke. O'Collins VE, Macleod MR, Donnan GA, Horky LL, van der Worp BH, Howells DW, Ann Neurol 2006 59 467 477
36. Promoting Convergence in Biomedical Science. Sharp PA, Langer R, Science 2011 333 527
37. The absolute oral bioavailability of selected drugs. Sietsema WK, Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1989 27 179 211
38. What can be learned from case studies? The company approach. Suter K, Animal Toxicity Studies: Their Relevance for Man Lancaster: Quay, Lumley C, Walker S, 1990 71 78
39. Are animal models as good as we think? Wall RJ, Shani M, Theriogenology 2008 69 2 9
40. Detection of systemic hypersensitivity to drugs using standard guinea pig assays. Weaver JL, Staten D, Swann J, Armstrong G, Bates M, Hastings KL, Toxicology 2003 193 203 217
41. Building a better mouse. Zielinska E, Scientist 2010 24 34 38
42. The use of nonhuman animals in biomedical research. Ringach DL, Am J Med Sci 2011 342 305 313
43. Rudczynski AB, Letter to the editor. New Haven Register 2011 Available at http://www.nhregister.com/articles/2011/03/25/opinion/ doc4d8bb9186a82b265857273.txt.
44. Mouse models of brain tumors and their applications in preclinical trials. Fomchenko EI, Holland EC, Clin Cancer Res 2006 12 5288 5297
45. Predictability of Conventional Animal Toxicity Tests. Litchfield JT Jr, Ann N Y Acad Sci 1965 123 268 272
46. Regulatory agencies, drugs, and the pregnant patient. Lasagna L, Drug use in pregnancy Sydney: ADIS Health. Science Press, Stern L, 1984
47. Species similarities and differences in pharmacokinetics. Lin JH, Drug Metab Dispos 1995 23 1008 1021
48. Toxicology of environmental agents: a blend of applied and basic research. Dixon RL, Environ Health Perspect 1972 2 103 116
49. Clinical value of serum CA19-9 levels in evaluating resectability of pancreatic carcinoma. Zhang S, Wang Y-M, Sun C-D, Lu Y, Wu L-Q, World J Gastroenterol 2008 14 3750 3753
50. Prehospital Termination of Resuscitation in Cases of Refractory Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest. Sasson C, Hegg AJ, Macy M, Park A, Kellermann A, McNally B, JAMA 2008 300 1432 1438
51. Psychopathy and recidivism among female inmates. Salekin RT, Rogers R, Ustad KL, Sewell KW, Law Hum Behav 1998 22 109 128
52. Using verbal autopsy to assess the prevalence of HIV infection among deaths in the ART period in rural Uganda: a prospective cohort study, 2006-2008. Mayanja BN, Baisley K, Nalweyiso N, Kibengo FM, Mugisha JO, Paal LV, Maher D, Kaleebu P, Population Health Metrics 2011 9 36 10.1186/1478-7954-9-36
53. Predictive values at risk of falling in physically active and no active elderly with Berg Balance Scale. Santos G, Souza A, Virtuoso J, Tavares G, Mazo G, Rev Bras Fisioter 2011 15 95 101
54. Committee on Models for Biomedical Research Board on Basic Biology, Committee on Models for Biomedical Research. Board on Basic Biology. Commission on Life Science. National Research Council. Models for Biomedical Research: A New Perspective Washington, DC: National Academy Press 1985
55. From bedside to bench and back again: research issues in animal models of human disease. Tkacs NC, Thompson HJ, Biol Res Nurs 2006 8 78 88
56. Basic Issues in the Use of Animals in Health Research. Overmier JB, Carroll ME, Animal Research and Human Health Washington DC: American Psychological Association, Carroll ME, Overmier JB, 2001 5
57. Two Models of Models in Biomedical Research. LaFollette H, Shanks N, Phil Q 1995 45 141 160
58. LaFollette H, Shanks N, Brute Science: Dilemmas of animal experimentation London and New York: Routledge 1996
59. Theories, Models, and Equations in Systems Biology. Schaffner KF, Systems Biology: Philosophical Foundations Netherlands: Elsevier, Boogerd F, Bruggeman FJ, Hofmeyr J-HS, Westerhoff HV, 2007 145 162
60. Bernard C, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine New York: Dover 1957
61. Bunge M, Causality And Modern Science New York: Dover 3 1979
62. Vivisection and the Emergence of Experimental Medicine in Nineteenth Century France. Elliot P, Vivisection in Historical Perspective New York: Croom Helm, Rupke N, 1987 48 77
63. Animal Experimentation: The Legacy of Claude Bernard. LaFollette H, Shanks N, Int Stud Philos Sci 1994 8 195 210
64. Principles of Toxicology. Klaassen CD, Eaton DL, Casarett and Doull's Toxicology New York: McGraw-Hill, Amdur MO, Doull J, Klaassen C, 4 1993
65. Milner R, Darwin's Universe: Evolution from A to Z Berkeley: University of California Press 2009
66. Causality in Complex Systems. Wagner A, Biol Philos 1999 14 83 101
67. On the Notion of Cause. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. Russell B, New Ser 1913 13 1 26
68. Animal Models and the Development of an HIV Vaccine. Greek R, J AIDS Clin Res 2012 S8 001
69. Giere RN, Bickle J, Mauldin RF, Understanding Scientific Reasonoing Toronto: Thomson Wadsworth 5 2006
70. Random Samples. Well-Wired Whales. Holden C, Science 2006 314 1363
71. Structure of the cerebral cortex of the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae (Cetacea, Mysticeti, Balaenopteridae). Hof PR, Van der Gucht E, Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2007 290 1 31
72. Von Economo neurons in the elephant brain. Hakeem AY, Sherwood CC, Bonar CJ, Butti C, Hof PR, Allman JM, Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2009 292 242 248
73. Crick F, Of Molecules and Man Seattle: University of Washington Press 1966
74. The sequence of the human genome. Venter JC, Adams MD, Myers EW, Li PW, Mural RJ, Sutton GG, Smith HO, Yandell M, Evans CA, Holt RA, et al. Science 2001 291 1304 1351
75. A physical map of the human genome. McPherson JD, Marra M, Hillier L, Waterston RH, Chinwalla A, Wallis J, Sekhon M, Wylie K, Mardis ER, Wilson RK, et al. Nature 2001 409 934 941
76. Complexity in biology. Exceeding the limits of reductionism and determinism using complexity theory. Mazzocchi F, EMBO Rep 2008 9 10 14
77. Modelling biological complexity: a physical scientist's perspective. Coveney PV, Fowler PW, J R Soc Interface 2005 2 267 280
78. Coveney PV, Highfield RR, Frontiers of complexity London: Faber and Faber 1996
79. The limits of reductionism in medicine: could systems biology offer an alternative? Ahn AC, Tewari M, Poon CS, Phillips RS, PLoS Med 2006 3 208
80. Biological networks. Alm E, Arkin AP, Curr Opin Struct Biol 2003 13 193 202
81. Cairns-Smith AG, Seven Clues to the Origin of Life: A Scientific Detective Story Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986
82. Reverse engineering of biological complexity. Csete ME, Doyle JC, Science 2002 295 1664 1669
83. Goodwin B, How the Leopard Changed Its Spots: The Evolution of Complexity Princeton: Princeton University Press 2001
84. Regulatory mechanisms of gene expression: complexity with elements of deterministic chaos. Jura J, Wegrzyn P, Koj A, Acta Biochim Pol 2006 53 1 10
85. Kauffman SA, he Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution Oxford University Press 1993
86. Computational systems biology. Kitano H, Nature 2002 420 206 210
87. Systems biology: a brief overview. Kitano H, Science 2002 295 1662 1664
88. Definitions, Measures, and Models of Robustness in Gene Regulatory Network. Report of research work for CSSS05 http://www.santafe.edu/education/ csss/csss05/papers/monte-et-al.-cssssf05.pdf.
89. Morowitz HJ, The Emergence of Everything: How the World Became Complex Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002
90. The Concept of Integrative Levels and Biology. Novikoff AB, Science 1945 101 209 215
91. Engineering complex systems. Ottino JM, Nature 2004 427 399
92. Sole R, Goodwin B, Signs of Life: How Complexity Pervades Biology Basic Books. 2002
93. Reductionism and complexity in molecular biology. Scientists now have the tools to unravel biological complexity and overcome the limitations of reductionism. Van Regenmortel M, EMBO Rep 2004 5 1016 1020
94. Biological complexity emerges from the ashes of genetic reductionism. van Regenmortel M, J Mol Recognit 2004 17 145 148
95. Van Regenmortel MH, Hull DL, Promises and Limits of Reductionism in the Biomedical Sciences (Catalysts for Fine Chemical Synthesis) West Sussex: Wiley 2002
96. The bigger picture. Vicsek T, Nature 2002 418 131
97. Woodger JH, Biological Principles New York: Humanities Press 1967
98. The state of innovation in drug development. Kola I, Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008 83 227 230
99. How emergence arises. de Haan J, Ecol Complex 2006 3 293 301
100. Multi-scale computational modelling in biology and physiology. Southern J, Pitt-Francis J, Whiteley J, Stokeley D, Kobashi H, Nobes R, Kadooka Y, Gavaghan D, Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2008 96 60 89
101. Morin E, Introduction á la Pensée Complexe Paris: ESF 1990
102. Haldane JBS, On Being the Right Size New York: Harper's 1926
103. Morange M, The misunderstood gene Cambridge: Harvard University Press 2001
104. Theoretical Biology. Kauffman S, Epigenetic and Evolutionary Order from Complex Systems Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Goodwin B, Saunders P, 1990
105. Self-organization, complexity and chaos: the new biology for medicine. Coffey DS, Nat Med 1998 4 882 885
106. The concept of self-organization in cellular architecture. Misteli T, J Cell Biol 2001 155 181 185
107. Phenotypically concordant and discordant monozygotic twins display different DNA copy-number-variation profiles. Bruder CE, Piotrowski A, Gijsbers AA, Andersson R, Erickson S, de Stahl TD, Menzel U, Sandgren J, von Tell D, Poplawski A, et al. Am J Hum Genet 2008 82 763 771
108. Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Fraga MF, Ballestar E, Paz MF, Ropero S, Setien F, Ballestar ML, Heine-Suner D, Cigudosa JC, Urioste M, Benitez J, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005 102 10604 10609
109. Changes in the pattern of DNA methylation associate with twin discordance in systemic lupus erythematosus. Javierre BM, Fernandez AF, Richter J, Al-Shahrour F, Martin-Subero JI, Rodriguez-Ubreva J, Berdasco M, Fraga MF, O'Hanlon TP, Rider LG, et al. Genome Res 2010 20 170 179
110. Remodeling rodent models to mimic human type 1 diabetes. von Herrath M, Nepom GT, Eur J Immunol 2009 39 2049 2054
111. Surviving a knockout blow. Pearson H, Nature 2002 415 8 9
112. A successful form for reductionism. Morange M, Biochem 2001 23 37 39
113. Disease-associated epigenetic changes in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Dempster EL, Pidsley R, Schalkwyk LC, Owens S, Georgiades A, Kane F, Kalidindi S, Picchioni M, Kravariti E, Toulopoulou T, et al. Hum Mol Genet 2011 20 4786 4796
114. Changes in the pattern of DNA methylation associate with twin discordance in systemic lupus erythematosus. Javierre BM, Fernandez AF, Richter J, Al-Shahrour F, Martin-Subero JI, Rodriguez-Ubreva J, Berdasco M, Fraga MF, O'Hanlon TP, Rider LG, et al. Genome Res 2010 20 170 179
115. Ontogenetic De Novo Copy Number Variations (CNVs) as a Source of Genetic Individuality: Studies on Two Families with MZD Twins for Schizophrenia. Maiti S, Kumar KHBG, Castellani CA, O'Reilly R, Singh SM, PLoS One 2011 6 17125
116. Phenotypic differences in genetically identical organisms: the epigenetic perspective. Wong AH, Gottesman II, Petronis A, Hum Mol Genet 2005 14 1 11 18
117. The evolution of molecular biology. Kellenberger E, EMBO Rep 2004 5 546 549
118. Animal experiments under fire for poor design. Giles J, Nature 2006 444 981
119. Editorial: A slippery slope. Nature 2009 462 699
120. Animal models in biomedical research: some epistemological worries. LaFollette H, Shanks N, Publ Aff Q 1993 7 113 130
121. Olfaction: diverse species, conserved principles. Ache BW, Young JM, Neuron 2005 48 417 430
122. Unlocking the power of cross-species genomic analyses: identification of evolutionarily conserved breast cancer networks and validation of preclinical models. Bennett CN, Green JE, Breast Cancer Res 2008 10 213
123. The Obg subfamily of bacterial GTP-binding proteins: essential proteins of largely unknown functions that are evolutionarily conserved from bacteria to humans. Czyz A, Wegrzyn G, Acta Biochim Pol 2005 52 35 43
124. Acidocalcisomes-conserved from bacteria to man. Docampo R, de Souza W, Miranda K, Rohloff P, Moreno SN, Nat Rev Microbiol 2005 3 251 261
125. Insulin resistance is an evolutionarily conserved physiological mechanism at the cellular level for protection against increased oxidative stress. Erol A, Bioessays 2007 29 811 818
126. Evolutionarily conserved structural and functional roles of the FYVE domain. Hayakawa A, Hayes S, Leonard D, Lambright D, Corvera S, Biochem Soc Symp 2007 74 95 105
127. [Conserved telomeric-end structures among fission yeast and humans]. Miyoshi T, Ishikawa F, Tanpakushitsu Kakusan Koso 2008 53 1850 1857
128. Conserved developmental processes and the formation of evolutionary novelties: examples from butterfly wings. Saenko SV, French V, Brakefield PM, Beldade P, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2008 363 1549 1555
129. Structure and function of the PB1 domain, a protein interaction module conserved in animals, fungi, amoebas, and plants. Sumimoto H, Kamakura S, Ito T, Sci STKE 2007 401 2007:re6.
130. Teneurins: a conserved family of transmembrane proteins involved in intercellular signaling during development. Tucker RP, Chiquet-Ehrismann R, Dev Biol 2006 290 237 245
131. Conserved functions of the pRB and E2F families. van den Heuvel S, Dyson NJ, Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2008 9 713 724
132. YAP, TAZ, and Yorkie: a conserved family of signal-responsive transcriptional coregulators in animal development and human disease. Wang K, Degerny C, Xu M, Yang XJ, Biochem Cell Biol 2009 87 77 91
133. The Theory of Facilitated Variation. Gerhart J, Kirschner M, the Light of Evolution Washington DC: National Acdemy of Sciences, Avise JC, Ayala FJ, Adaptation and Complex Design. 2007 45 64
134. FOXO animal models reveal a variety of diverse roles for FOXO transcription factors. Arden KC, Oncogene 2008 27 2345 2350
135. SERCA pumps and human diseases. Hovnanian A, Subcell Biochem 2007 45 337 363
136. A gene complex controlling segmentation in Drosophila. Lewis EB, Nature 1978 276 565 570
137. Molecular cloning and chromosome mapping of a mouse DNA sequence homologous to homeotic genes of Drosophila. McGinnis W, Hart CP, Gehring WJ, Ruddle FH, Cell 1984 38 675 680
138. Shaping animal body plans in development and evolution by modulation of Hox expression patterns. Gellon G, McGinnis W, Bioessays 1998 20 116 125
139. The zootype and the phylotypic stage. Slack JM, Holland PW, Graham CF, Nature 1993 361 490 492
140. Hox cluster duplications and the opportunity for evolutionary novelties. Wagner GP, Amemiya C, Ruddle F, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003 100 14603 14606
141. Zebrafish hox clusters and vertebrate genome evolution. Amores A, Force A, Yan YL, Joly L, Amemiya C, Fritz A, Ho RK, Langeland J, Prince V, Wang YL, et al. Science 1998 282 1711 1714
142. Hox, ParaHox, ProtoHox: facts and guesses. Garcia-Fernandez J, Heredity 2005 94 145 152
143. The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14. Lee RC, Feinbaum RL, Ambros V, Cell 1993 75 843 854
144. An abundant class of tiny RNAs with probable regulatory roles in Caenorhabditis elegans. Lau NC, Lim LP, Weinstein EG, Bartel DP, Science 2001 294 858 862
145. New microRNAs from mouse and human. Lagos-Quintana M, Rauhut R, Meyer J, Borkhardt A, Tuschl T, RNA 2003 9 175 179
146. MicroRNA signatures in human cancers. Calin GA, Croce CM, Nat Rev Cancer 2006 6 857 866
147. Changes in microRNA profile and effects of miR-320 in insulin-resistant 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Ling HY, Ou HS, Feng SD, Zhang XY, Tuo QH, Chen LX, Zhu BY, Gao ZP, Tang CK, Yin WD, et al. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2009 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2009.05207.x
148. MicroRNA expression profiles classify human cancers. Lu J, Getz G, Miska EA, Alvarez-Saavedra E, Lamb J, Peck D, Sweet-Cordero A, Ebert BL, Mak RH, Ferrando AA, et al. Nature 2005 435 834 838
149. Animal MicroRNAs confer robustness to gene expression and have a significant impact on 3'UTR evolution. Stark A, Brennecke J, Bushati N, Russell RB, Cohen SM, Cell 2005 123 1133 1146
150. Pharmacogenomics genes show varying perceptibility to microRNA regulation. Rukov JL, Vinther J, Shomron N, Pharmacogenet Genomics 2011 21 251 262
151. MicroRNAs as a molecular basis for mental retardation, Alzheimer's and prion diseases. Provost P, Brain Res 2010 1338 58 66
152. MicroRNA-21 in cardiovascular disease. Cheng Y, Zhang C, J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2010 3 251 255
153. Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack. Varki A, Altheide TK, Genome Res 2005 15 1746 1758
154. Functional Comparison of Innate Immune Signaling Pathways in Primates. Barreiro LB, Marioni JC, Blekhman R, Stephens M, Gilad Y, PLoS Genet 2010 6 1001249
155. A chimpanzee genome project is a biomedical imperative. Varki A, Genome Res 2000 10 1065 1070
156. Loss of Siglec expression on T lymphocytes during human evolution. Nguyen DH, Hurtado-Ziola N, Gagneux P, Varki A, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006 103 7765 7770
157. Rewirable gene regulatory networks in the preimplantation embryonic development of three mammalian species. Xie D, Chen CC, Ptaszek LM, Xiao S, Cao X, Fang F, Ng HH, Lewin HA, Cowan C, Zhong S, Genome Res 2010 20 804 815
158. Cdc14: a highly conserved family of phosphatases with non-conserved functions? Mocciaro A, Schiebel E, J Cell Sci 2010 123 2867 2876
159. Recent evolution of the NF-kappaB and inflammasome regulating protein POP2 in primates. Atianand MK, Fuchs T, Harton JA, BMC Evol Biol 2011 11 56
160. Why can all of biology be anesthetized? Eckenhoff RG, Anesth Analg 2008 107 859 861
161. Meyer and Overton revisited. Lynch C 3rd, Anesth Analg 2008 107 864 867
162. Genetics and the evolution of the anesthetic response. Sedensky MM, Morgan PG, Anesth Analg 2008 107 855 858
163. A hypothesis on the origin and evolution of the response to inhaled anesthetics. Sonner JM, Anesth Analg 2008 107 849 854
164. Naturally occurring variability in anesthetic potency among inbred mouse strains. Sonner JM, Gong D, Eger EI 2nd, Anesth Analg 2000 91 720 726
165. Sensitivity to anesthesia by pregnenolone appears late in evolution. Olver A, Deamer D, Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Alcohol and Anesthetics New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Rubin E, Miller K, Roth S, 1991 561 565
166. C. elegans and volatile anesthetics. Morgan PG, Kayser EB, Sedensky MM, WormBook 2007 1 11 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd= Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list-uids=18050492.
167. Behavioral effects of volatile anesthetics in Caenorhabditis elegans. Crowder CM, Shebester LD, Schedl T, Anesthesiology 1996 85 901 912
168. Strain differences in minimum anesthetic concentrations in Drosophila melanogaster. Gamo S, Ogaki M, Nakashima-Tanaka E, Anesthesiology 1981 54 289 293
169. Inhalational and local anesthetics reduce tactile and thermal responses in mimosa pudica. Milne A, Beamish T, Can J Anaesth 1999 46 287 289
170. The effect of inhalational anaesthetics on the swimming velocity of Tetrahymena pyriformis. Nunn JF, Sturrock JE, Wills EJ, Richmond JE, McPherson CK, J Cell Sci 1974 15 537 554
171. Exaptation-a missing term in the science of form. Gould SJ, Vrba ES, Paleobiology 1982 8 4 15
172. The exaptive excellence of spandrels as a term and prototype. Gould SJ, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997 94 10750 10755
173. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Gould SJ, Lewontin RC, Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1979 205 581 598
174. Molecular genetic analysis of volatile-anesthetic action. Keil RL, Wolfe D, Reiner T, Peterson CJ, Riley JL, Mol Cell Biol 1996 16 3446 3453
175. Isoflurane Inhibits NaChBac, a Prokaryotic Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel. Ouyang W, Jih T-Y, Zhang T-T, Correa AM, Hemmings HC Jr, J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007 322 1076 1083
176. Metabolic changes of membrane lipid composition in Acholeplasma laidlawii by hydrocarbons, alcohols, and detergents: arguments for effects on lipid packing. Wieslander A, Rilfors L, Lindblom G, Biochemistry 1986 25 7511 7517
177. Chronic exposure to inhaled anesthetics increases cholesterol content in Acholeplasma laidlawii. Koblin DD, Wang HH, Biochim Biophys Acta 1981 649 717 725
178. Adaptation of membrane lipids to alcohols. Ingram LO, J Bacteriol 1976 125 670 678
179. Membrane changes during growth of Tetrahymena in the presence of ethanol. Nandini-Kishore SG, Mattox SM, Martin CE, Thompson GA Jr, Biochim Biophys Acta 1979 551 315 327
180. Membrane fluidizing effects of the general anesthetic methoxyflurane elicit an acclimation response in Tetrahymena. Nandini-Kishore SG, Kitajima Y, Thompson GA Jr, Biochim Biophys Acta 1977 471 157 161
181. A putative cation channel and its novel regulator: cross-species conservation of effects on general anesthesia. Humphrey JA, Hamming KS, Thacker CM, Scott RL, Sedensky MM, Snutch TP, Morgan PG, Nash HA, Curr Biol: CB 2007 17 624 629
182. Minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration: a standard of anesthetic potency. Eger EI 2nd, Saidman LJ, Brandstater B, Anesthesiology 1965 26 756 763
183. Selective breeding of mice strains with different sensitivity to isoflurane. Wang Q, Zheng Y, Lu J, Chen L, Wang J, Zhou JX, Chin Med J (Engl) 2010 123 1315 1319
184. Mouse chromosome 7 harbors a quantitative trait locus for isoflurane minimum alveolar concentration. Cascio M, Xing Y, Gong D, Popovich J, Eger EI 2nd, Sen S, Peltz G, Sonner JM, Anesth Analg 2007 105 381 385
185. Isoflurane induces coronary steal in a canine model of chronic coronary occlusion. Buffington CW, Romson JL, Levine A, Duttlinger NC, Huang AH, Anesthesiology 1987 66 280 292
186. Is isoflurane dangerous for the patient with coronary artery disease? Becker LC, Anesthesiology 1987 66 259 261
187. Systemic distribution of blood flow in swine while awake and during 1.0 and 1.5 MAC isoflurane anesthesia with or without 50% nitrous oxide. Lundeen G, Manohar M, Parks C, Anesth Analg 1983 62 499 512
188. Regional distribution of brain and myocardial perfusion in swine while awake and during 1.0 and 1.5 MAC isoflurane anaesthesia produced without or with 50% nitrous oxide. Manohar M, Parks C, Cardiovasc Res 1984 18 344 353
189. Isoflurane anesthesia and myocardial ischemia: comparative risk versus sufentanil anesthesia in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. The SPI (Study of Perioperative Ischemia) Research Group. Leung JM, Goehner P, O'Kelly BF, Hollenberg M, Pineda N, Cason BA, Mangano DT, Anesthesiology 1991 74 838 847
190. Practical treatment recommendations for the safe use of anaesthetics. Sear JW, Drugs 1992 43 54 68
191. Isoflurane and coronary heart disease. Agnew NM, Pennefather SH, Russell GN, Anaesthesia 2002 57 338 347
192. Modifier genes and oligogenic disease. Agarwal S, Moorchung N, J Nippon Med Sch 2005 72 326 334
193. Genotype to Phenotype: A Complex Problem. Dowell RD, Ryan O, Jansen A, Cheung D, Agarwala S, Danford T, Bernstein DA, Rolfe PA, Heisler LE, Chin B, et al. Science 2010 328 469
194. Editorial: Deconstructing Genetic Contributions to Autoimmunity in Mouse Models. PLoS Biol 2004 2 220
195. Genetic screening for signal transduction in the era of network biology. Friedman A, Perrimon N, Cell 2007 128 225 231
196. Genetic background is an important determinant of metastatic potential. Hunter K, Welch DR, Liu ET, Nat Genet 2003 34 23 24 author reply 25.
197. Comparison of differentially expressed genes in T lymphocytes between human autoimmune disease and murine models of autoimmune disease. Liu Z, Maas K, Aune TM, Clin Immunol 2004 112 225 230
198. Genetic modifiers of beta-thalassemia. Thein SL, Haematologica 2005 90 649 660
199. A Genome-Wide Study of DNA Methylation Patterns and Gene Expression Levels in Multiple Human and Chimpanzee Tissues. Pai AA, Bell JT, Marioni JC, Pritchard JK, Gilad Y, PLoS Genet 2011 7 1001316
200. Genetic analysis of genome-wide variation in human gene expression. Morley M, Molony CM, Weber TM, Devlin JL, Ewens KG, Spielman RS, Cheung VG, Nature 2004 430 743 747
201. Genetic structure of human populations. Rosenberg NA, Pritchard JK, Weber JL, Cann HM, Kidd KK, Zhivotovsky LA, Feldman MW, Science 2002 298 2381 2385
202. Gene-expression variation within and among human populations. Storey JD, Madeoy J, Strout JL, Wurfel M, Ronald J, Akey JM, Am J Hum Genet 2007 80 502 509
203. Evaluation of genetic variation contributing to differences in gene expression between populations. Zhang W, Duan S, Kistner EO, Bleibel WK, Huang RS, Clark TA, Chen TX, Schweitzer AC, Blume JE, Cox NJ, Dolan ME, Am J Hum Genet 2008 82 631 640
204. The contributions of normal variation and genetic background to mammalian gene expression. Pritchard C, Coil D, Hawley S, Hsu L, Nelson PS, Genome Biol 2006 7 26
205. Evolution of gene expression in the Drosophila melanogaster subgroup. Rifkin SA, Kim J, White KP, Nat Genet 2003 33 138 144
206. Regional and strain-specific gene expression mapping in the adult mouse brain. Sandberg R, Yasuda R, Pankratz DG, Carter TA, Del Rio JA, Wodicka L, Mayford M, Lockhart DJ, Barlow C, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000 97 11038 11043
207. Differential profiles of genes expressed in neonatal brain of 129X1/SvJ and C57BL/6 J mice: A database to aid in analyzing DNA microarrays using nonisogenic gene-targeted mice. Suzuki Y, Nakayama M, DNA Res 2003 10 263 275
208. Evolutionary and biomedical insights from the rhesus macaque genome. Gibbs RA, Rogers J, Katze MG, Bumgarner R, Weinstock GM, Mardis ER, Remington KA, Strausberg RL, Venter JC, Wilson RK, et al. Science 2007 316 222 234
209. Defining the role of pharmacology in the emerging world of translational research. Enna SJ, Williams M, Adv Pharmacol 2009 57 1 30
210. The use of body surface area as a criterion of drug dosage in cancer chemotherapy. Pinkel D, Cancer Res 1958 18 853 856
211. Dose translation from animal to human studies revisited. Reagan-Shaw S, Nihal M, Ahmad N, FASEB J Offic Publ Fed Am Soc Exp Biol 2008 22 659 661
212. Learning lessons from drugs that have recently entered the market. Teague SJ, Drug Discov Today 2009 16 398 411
213. Quantitative comparison of toxicity of anticancer agents in mouse, rat, hamster, dog, monkey, and man. Freireich EJ, Gehan EA, Rall DP, Schmidt LH, Skipper HE, Canc Chemother Rep 1966 50 219 244
214. Murine Models to Evaluate Novel and Conventional Therapeutic Strategies for Cancer. Talmadge JE, Singh RK, Fidler IJ, Raz A, Am J Pathol 2007 170 793 804
215. Revisions of general guidelines for the preclinical toxicology of new cytotoxic anticancer agents in Europe. The Cancer Research Campaign (CRC) Phase I/II Clinical Trials Committee and the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) New Drug Development Office. Burtles SS, Newell DR, Henrar RE, Connors TA, Eur J Cancer 1995 31A 408 410
216. Quantitative prediction of drug toxicity in humans from toxicology in small and large animals. Goldsmith MA, Slavik M, Carter SK, Cancer Res 1975 35 1354 1364
217. Phase I clinical studies with cytotoxic drugs: pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations. Newell DR, Br J Cancer 1990 61 189 191
218. Quantitative prediction of human cancer risk from rodent carcinogenic potencies: a closer look at the epidemiological evidence for some chemicals not definitively carcinogenic in humans. Goodman G, Wilson R, Regul Toxicol Pharmacol: RTP 1991 14 118 146
219. The allometric approach for interspecies scaling of pharmacokinetics and toxicity of anti-cancer drugs. Paxton JW, Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1995 22 851 854
220. Exaggerated carcinogenicity of chemicals. Abelson PH, Science 1992 256 1609
221. Interspecies comparison of in vivo caffeine pharmacokinetics in man, monkey, rabbit, rat, and mouse. Bonati M, Latini R, Tognoni G, Young JF, Garattini S, Drug Metab Rev 1984 15 1355 1383
222. Problems and opportunities in toxicity testing arising from species differences in xenobiotic metabolism. Caldwell J, Toxicol Lett 1992 64 651 659
223. Species variations in the metabolism of phenol. Capel ID, French MR, Millburn P, Smith RL, Williams RT, Biochem J 1972 127 25P 26P
224. The fate of (14C)phenol in various species. Capel ID, French MR, Millburn P, Smith RL, Williams RT, Xenobiotica; Fate Foreign Compounds Biol Syst 1972 2 25 34
225. The use of the dog in toxicity tests on pharmaceutical compounds. Parkinson C, Grasso P, Hum Exp Toxicol 1993 12 99 109
226. Efficacy of tamoxifen based on cytochrome P450 2D6, CYP2C19 and SULT1A1 genotype in the Italian Tamoxifen Prevention Trial. Serrano D, Lazzeroni M, Zambon CF, Macis D, Maisonneuve P, Johansson H, Guerrieri-Gonzaga A, Plebani M, Basso D, Gjerde J, et al. Pharmacogenomics J 2011 11 100 107
227. Drug metabolism in non-human primates. Smith RL, Caldwell J, Drug metabolism-from microbe to man London: Taylor & Francis, Parke DV, Smith RL, 1977 331 356
228. Furosemide induced hepatotoxicity. Walker RM, McElligott TF, J Pathol 1981 135 301 314
229. An end to the search for new drugs? Weatherall M, Nature 1982 296 387 390
230. Potential roles for preclinical pharmacology in phase I clinical trials. Collins JM, Zaharko DS, Dedrick RL, Chabner BA, Cancer Treat Rep 1986 70 73 80
231. Stereoselectivity of iododoxorubicin reduction in various animal species and humans. Strolin Benedetti M, Fraier D, Pianezzola E, Castelli MG, Dostert P, Gianni L, Xenobiotica; Fate Foreign Compounds Biol Syst 1993 23 115 121
232. Activity and toxicity of 4'-iodo-4'-deoxydoxorubicin in patients with advanced breast cancer. Gianni L, Capri G, Greco M, Villani F, Brambilla C, Luini A, Crippa F, Bonadonna G, Ann Oncol 1991 2 719 725
233. The war on cancer: have we won the battle but lost the war? Brennan R, Federico S, Dyer MA, Oncotarget 2010 1 77 83
234. Risks and benefits of phase 1 oncology trials, 1991 through 2002. Horstmann E, McCabe MS, Grochow L, Yamamoto S, Rubinstein L, Budd T, Shoemaker D, Emanuel EJ, Grady C, N Eng J Med 2005 352 895 904
235. Addressing the Ethical Challenges of First-in-Human Trials. Chapman AR, J Clin Res Bioeth 2011 2 113
236. Leaf C, Why we are losing the war on cancer Fortune 2004 77 92
237. First-in-human trial participants: not a vulnerable population, but vulnerable nonetheless. Dresser R, J Law Med Ethics 2009 37 38 50
238. Young M, Prediction v AttritionDrug Discovery World 2008 9 12
239. Cancer Models: Systems for identifying new drugs are often faulty. Gura T, Science 1997 278 1041 1042
240. Developing drug prototypes: pharmacology replaces safety and tolerability? Cohen AF, Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010 9 856 865
241. The safety and side effects of monoclonal antibodies. Hansel TT, Kropshofer H, Singer T, Mitchell JA, George AJT, Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010 9 325 338
242. Gene therapy on trial. Marshall E, Science 2000 288 951 957
243. Evaluation of agile designs in first-in-human (FIH) trials-a simulation study. Perlstein I, Bolognese JA, Krishna R, Wagner JA, AAPS J 2009 11 653 663
244. How first-time-in-human studies are being performed: a survey of phase I dose-escalation trials in healthy volunteers published between 1995 and 2004. Buoen C, Bjerrum OJ, Thomsen MS, J Clin Pharmacol 2005 45 1123 1136
245. A Brief Survey of First-in-Human Studies. Wexler D, Bertelsen KM, J Clin Pharmacol 2011 51 988 993
246. Big physics, small doses: the use of AMS and PET in human microdosing of development drugs. Lappin G, Garner RC, Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003 2 233 240
247. The utility of microdosing over the past 5 years. Lappin G, Garner RC, Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2008 4 1499 1506
248. Use of microdosing to predict pharmacokinetics at the therapeutic dose: experience with 5 drugs. Lappin G, Kuhnz W, Jochemsen R, Kneer J, Chaudhary A, Oosterhuis B, Drijfhout WJ, Rowland M, Garner RC, Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006 80 203 215
249. Bacterial toxins: a table of lethal amounts. Gill DM, Microbiol Rev 1982 46 86 94
250. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (R-TECS) Cincinnati: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health 1996
251. Foundation review: Improved preclinical safety assessment using micro-BAL devices: the potential impact on human discovery and drug attrition. Giri S, Bader A, Drug Discov Today 2011 16 382 397
252. Wade N, New Treatment for Cancer Shows Promise in Testing New York: Times 2009 June 29, 2009.
253. Economics of new oncology drug development. DiMasi JA, Grabowski HG, J Clin Oncol: Offic J Am Soc Clin Oncol 2007 25 209 216
254. Trends in risks associated with new drug development: success rates for investigational drugs. DiMasi JA, Feldman L, Seckler A, Wilson A, Clin Pharmacol Ther 2010 87 272 277
255. Can the pharmaceutical industry reduce attrition rates? Kola I, Landis J, Nat Rev Drug Discov 2004 3 711 715
256. Maximizing mouse cancer models. Frese KK, Tuveson DA, Nat Rev Cancer 2007 7 645 658
257. Human tumor xenografts as predictive preclinical models for anticancer drug activity in humans: better than commonly perceived-but they can be improved. Kerbel RS, Cancer Biol Ther 2003 2 134 139
258. Assessing therapeutic responses in Kras mutant cancers using genetically engineered mouse models. Singh M, Lima A, Molina R, Hamilton P, Clermont AC, Devasthali V, Thompson JD, Cheng JH, Reslan HB, Ho CCK, et al. Nat Biotechnol 2010 28 585 593
259. Integrating pharmacology and in vivo cancer models in preclinical and clinical drug development. Peterson JK, Houghton PJ, Eur J Cancer 2004 40 837 844
260. Raising the bar for cancer therapy models. Francia G, Kerbel RS, Nat Biotech 2010 28 561 562
261. Relationships between drug activity in NCI preclinical in vitro and in vivo models and early clinical trials. Johnson JI, Decker S, Zaharevitz D, Rubinstein LV, Venditti JM, Schepartz S, Kalyandrug S, Christian M, Arbuck S, Hollingshead M, Sausville EA, Br J Cancer 2001 84 1424 1431
262. Kardong KV, Vertebrates. Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. International Edition Singapore: McGraw-Hill 6 2012
263. Long-term observations of human immunodeficiency virus-infected chimpanzees. Johnson BK, Stone GA, Godec MS, Asher DM, Gajdusek DC, Gibbs CJ Jr, AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1993 9 375 378
264. The chimpanzee and other non-human-primate models in HIV-1 vaccine research. Nath BM, Schumann KE, Boyer JD, Trends Microbiol 2000 8 426 431
265. Animal models for HIV AIDS: a comparative review. Stump DS, VandeWoude S, Comp Med 2007 57 33 43
266. Effects of α- and β-adrenergic agonists, phosphodiesterase inhibitors and adenosine on isolated human heart muscle preparations. Schmitz W, Scholz H, Erdmann E, Trends Pharmacol Sci 1987 8 447 450
267. Lipid changes in the plasma lipoproteins of baboons given an atherogenic diet. 3. A comparison between lipid changes in the plasma of the baboon and chimpanzee given atherogenic diets and those in human plasma lipoproteins of type II hyperlipoproteinaemia. Howard AN, Blaton V, Vandamme D, Van Landschoot N, Peeters H, Atherosclerosis 1972 16 257 272
268. Release of leukotrienes from porcine and human blood vessels by immunological and nonimmunological stimuli. Piper PJ, Antoniw JW, Stanton AW, Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988 524 133 141
269. Gross DR, Animal Models in Cardiovascular Research The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff 1985
270. When the party's over. Wadman M, Nature 2007 445 13
271. Peters J, Van-Slyke D, Quantitative Clinical Chemistry Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Second Interpretations. 1948
272. Effects of dietary fibers on nonfasting plasma lipoprotein and apolipoprotein levels in rats. Nishina PM, Schneeman BO, Freedland RA, J Nutr 1991 121 431 437
273. Innovation or Stagnation? Challenge and Opportunity on the Critical Path to New Medical Products http://www.nipte.org/docs/Critical-Path.pdf.
274. Preclinical studies of human disease: Time to take methodological quality seriously. van der Worp HB, Macleod MR, Journal of molecular and cellular cardiology 2011 51 4 449 50
275. The failure of neuronal protective agents versus the success of thrombolysis in the treatment of ischemic stroke. The predictive value of animal models. Jonas S, Aiyagari V, Vieira D, Figueroa M, Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 939 257 267
276. Translational semantics and infrastructure: another search for the emperor's new clothes? Mullane K, Williams M, Drug Discov Today 2012 17 459 468
277. Use of animal models has not contributed to development of acute stroke therapies: pro. Kaste M, Stroke 2005 36 2323 2324
278. The Poliomyelitis Story; a scientific hegira. Horstmann D, Yale J Biol Med 1985 58 79 90
279. Oshinsky DM, Polio: An American Story Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005
280. Paul JR, A History of Poliomyelitis New Haven: Yale University Press 1971
281. Testimony before the subcommittee on Hospitals and Health Care, Committee on Veterans Affair's, House of Representatives, April 26, 1984 serial no. 98-48. Sabin A, Book Testimony before the subcommittee on Hospitals and Health Care, Committee on Veterans Affair's, House of Representatives, April 26, 1984 serial no. 98-48 (Editor ed.eds.) Washington DC 1984
282. The Challenges of Intracranial Revascularization for Stroke Prevention. Broderick JP, N Eng J Med 2011 365 1054 1055
283. Stenting versus aggressive medical therapy for intracranial arterial stenosis. Chimowitz MI, Lynn MJ, Derdeyn CP, Turan TN, Fiorella D, Lane BF, Janis LS, Lutsep HL, Barnwell SL, Waters MF, et al. N Eng J Med 2011 365 993 1003
284. Failure of extracranial-intracranial arterial bypass to reduce the risk of ischemic stroke. Results of an international randomized trial. The EC/IC Bypass Study Group. The EC/IC Bypass Study Group, N Engl J Med 1985 313 1191 1200
285. Results of the Carotid Occlusion Surgery Study (COSS). Powers W, Clarke W, Grubb R, Videen T, Adams H, Derdeyn C, International Stroke Conference (COSS) Los Angeles 2011
286. In pursuit of systems. Editorial, Nature 2005 435 1
287. Systems Biology https://sysbio.med.harvard.edu/.
288. A unifying view of 21st century systems biology. Vidal M, FEBS Lett 2009 583 3891 3894
289. The fractal geometry of life. Losa GA, Riv Biol 2009 102 29 59
290. Biological computation. Brenner S, Novartis Found Symp 1998 213 106 111 discussion 111-106.
291. From genes to whole organs: connecting biochemistry to physiology. Noble D, Novartis Found Symp 2001 239 111 123 discussion 123-118, 150-119
292. The conflict between complex systems and reductionism. Heng HH, JAMA 2008 300 1580 1581
293. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, Goff DC Jr, Bigger JT, Buse JB, Cushman WC, Genuth S, Ismail-Beigi F, Grimm RH Jr, et al. N Eng J Med 2008 358 2545 2559
294. Earlier chemotherapy for breast cancer: perhaps too late but still useful. Bear HD, Ann Surg Oncol 2003 10 334 335
295. High-Intensity Chemotherapy Does Not Improve Survival in Small Cell Lung Cancer. Savage L, J Natl Cancer Inst 2008 100 519
296. The disconnection between tumor response and survival. Mittra I, Nat Clin Pract Oncol 2007 4 203
297. Progress towards personalized medicine. Bates S, Drug Discov Today 2010 15 115 120
298. Pharmacogenetics: improving drug and dose selection. Bhathena A, Spear BB, Curr Opin Pharmacol 2008 8 639 646
299. Predictive tests and personalised medicine. Blair E, Drug Discovery World 2009 27 31
300. Big pharma moves from 'blockbusters' to 'niche busters'. Dolgin E, Nat Med 2010 16 837
301. Inhibition of mutated, activated BRAF in metastatic melanoma. Flaherty KT, Puzanov I, Kim KB, Ribas A, McArthur GA, Sosman JA, O'Dwyer PJ, Lee RJ, Grippo JF, Nolop K, Chapman PB, N Engl J Med 2010 363 809 819
302. Pharmacogenetic Predictors of Methylphenidate Dose-response in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Froehlich TE, Epstein JN, Nick TG, Melguizo Castro MS, Stein MA, Brinkman WB, Graham AJ, Langberg JM, Kahn RS, J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2011 50 1129 1139 e1122.
303. Genomics, Health Care, and Society. Hudson KL, N Eng J Med 2011 365 1033 1041
304. Pharmacogenetics of hypersensitivity to abacavir: from PGx hypothesis to confirmation to clinical utility. Hughes AR, Spreen WR, Mosteller M, Warren LL, Lai EH, Brothers CH, Cox C, Nelsen AJ, Hughes S, Thorborn DE, et al. Pharmacogenomics J 2008 8 365 374
305. Intronic polymorphism in CYP3A4 affects hepatic expression and response to statin drugs. Wang D, Guo Y, Wrighton SA, Cooke GE, Sadee W, Pharmacogenomics J 2011 11 274 286
306. Leprosy and the human genome. Misch EA, Berrington WR, Vary JC Jr, Hawn TR, Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2010 74 589 620
307. A twin-family study of susceptibility to poliomyelitis. Herndon CN, Jennings RG, Am J Hum Genet 1951 3 17 46
308. Hepatitis B virus markers in Chinese twins. Lin TM, Chen CJ, Wu MM, Yang CS, Chen JS, Lin CC, Kwang TY, Hsu ST, Lin SY, Hsu LC, Anticancer Res 1989 9 737 741
309. Aversive and Reinforcing Opioid Effects: A Pharmacogenomic Twin Study. Angst MS, Lazzeroni LC, Phillips NG, Drover DR, Tingle M, Ray A, Swan GE, Clark JD, Anesthesiology 2012 117 22 37 10.1097/ALN.1090b1013e31825a31822a31824e
310. Human genetic susceptibility to infectious disease. Chapman SJ, Hill AVS, Nat Rev Genet 2012 13 175 188
311. Hemangioma in twins. Cheung DS, Warman ML, Mulliken JB, Ann Plast Surg 1997 38 269 274
312. Cancer research. Probing the roots of race and cancer. Couzin J, Science 2007 315 592 594
313. Senile macular changes in the black African. Gregor Z, Joffe L, Br J Ophthalmol 1978 62 547 550
314. Ethnic and racial differences in the smoking-related risk of lung cancer. Haiman CA, Stram DO, Wilkens LR, Pike MC, Kolonel LN, Henderson BE, Le Marchand L, N Engl J Med 2006 354 333 342
315. Interethnic variation of drug metabolism. Kalow W, Trends Pharmacol Sci 1991 12 102 107
316. APOL1 Genetic Variants in Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis and HIV-Associated Nephropathy. Kopp JB, Nelson GW, Sampath K, Johnson RC, Genovese G, An P, Friedman D, Briggs W, Dart R, Korbet S, et al. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2011 22 11 2129 37
317. Common genetic variants account for differences in gene expression among ethnic groups. Spielman RS, Bastone LA, Burdick JT, Morley M, Ewens WJ, Cheung VG, Nat Genet 2007 39 226 231
318. The pharmacogenetics of analgesia. Stamer UM, Stuber F, Expert Opin Pharmacother 2007 8 2235 2245
319. Genetics and Variable Drug Response. Wilke RA, Dolan ME, JAMA 2011 306 306 307
320. Association of Age and Sex With Myocardial Infarction Symptom Presentation and In-Hospital Mortality. Canto JG, Rogers WJ, Goldberg RJ, Peterson ED, Wenger NK, Vaccarino V, Kiefe CI, Frederick PD, Sopko G, Zheng Z-J, JAMA 2012 307 813 822
321. Sex and the suffering brain. Holden C, Science 2005 308 1574
322. Gender in the pharmacy: does it matter? Kaiser J, Science 2005 308 1572
323. Sex differences in susceptibility to viral infection. Klein S, Huber S, Sex hormones and immunity to infection Berlin: Springer, Klein S, Roberts C, 2010 93 122
324. Wanted: women in clinical trials. Simon V, Science 2005 308 1517
325. Of Mice and Women: The Bias in Animal Models. Wald C, Wu C, Science 2010 327 1571 1572
326. HIV gender clues emerge. Willyard C, Nat Med 2009 15 830
327. Pharmacogenetics in drug regulation: promise, potential and pitfalls. Shah RR, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2005 360 1617 1638
328. Pharmacogenetics and the practice of medicine. Roses AD, Nature 2000 405 857 865
329. Influence of cytokine gene variations on immunization to childhood vaccines. Yucesoy B, Johnson VJ, Fluharty K, Kashon ML, Slaven JE, Wilson NW, Weissman DN, Biagini RE, Germolec DR, Luster MI, Vaccine 2009 27 6991 6997
330. Personalised vaccines could protect all children. King C, New Sci 2009 2737 11
331. Pharmacogenetics: past, present and future. Pirmohamed M, Drug Discov Today 2011 16 852 861
332. The Case for Personalized Medicine http://www. personalizedmedicinecoalition.org/sites/default/files/files/Case-for-PM-3rd- edition.pdf.
333. Studying Physiological Evolution: Paradigms and Pitfalls. Burggren WW, Bemis WE, Evolutionary Innovations Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Nitecki MH, 1990 191 228