Possibilities for the utilisation of marine by-products

International Journal of Food Science and Technology

Volumn 46, Issue 10, 2011, Pages 2001-2014

  Rustad, Turid ^a   Storrø, Ivar ^b   Slizyte, Rasa ^b  

^a NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Norway)

^b SINTEF OCEAN   (Norway)

Author keywords

By products; Fish; Marine lipids; Proteins; Rest raw materials

Indexed keywords

BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS; BIOACTIVE PEPTIDES; BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES; FISH MEAL; FISH WASTES; INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION; MARINE LIPIDS; MARKET POTENTIAL; NUTRACEUTICALS; OMEGA-3-FATTY ACIDS; POSTHARVEST; PROTEIN FRACTIONS; REGULATORY STATUS; VALUE-ADDED PROCESS;

AMINO ACIDS; BYPRODUCTS; FATTY ACIDS; FISH; FISHERIES; HYDROXYAPATITE; LIPIDS; PHOSPHORUS; PROFITABILITY; PROTEINS;

FISH PRODUCTS;

EID: 80052794804     PISSN: 09505423     EISSN: 13652621     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02736.x     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Adler-Nissen, J. (1984). Control of the proteolytic reaction and of the level of bitterness in protein hydrolysis processes. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 34B, 215-222.
2. Akse, L., Joensen, S., Barstad, H., Eilertsen, G. & Johnsen, G. 2002. Landing av usløyd fisk for utnyttelse av biproduktene. Fiskeriforskning.
3. Arnesen, J.A. & Gildberg, A. (2007). Extraction and characterisation of gelatine from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) skin. Bioresource Technology, 98, 53-57.
4. Aspmo, S.I., Horn, S.J. & Eijsink, V.G.H. (2005). Hydrolysates from Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) viscera as components of microbial growth media. Process Biochemistry, 40, 3714-3722.
5. Bekkevold, S. & Olafsen, T. (2007). Råvarer Med Muligheter. Trondheim: RUBIN AS.
6. Belitz, H. D. & Wieser, H. (1976). Steric arrangement of sweet and bitter taste of amino acids and peptides. Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel-untersuchung und -forschung, 160, 251-253.
7. Bower, C.K., Avena-Bustillos, R.J., Hietala, K.A., Bilbao-Sainz, C., Olsen, C.W. & Mchugh, T.H. (2010). Dehydration of Pollock skin prior to gelatin production. Journal of Food Science, 75, C317-C321.
8. Chen, Y.C. & Jaczynski, J. (2007). Protein recovery from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) processing byproducts via isoelectric swolubilization/precipitation and its gelation properties as affected by functional additives. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 9079-9088.
9. Chen, Y.C., Tou, J.C. & Jaczynski, J. (2007). Amino acid, fatty acid, and mineral profiles of materials recovered from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) processing by-products using isoelectric solubilization/precipitation. Journal of Food Science, 72, C527-C535.
10. Dauksas, E., Slizyte, R., Rustad, T. & Storro, I. (2004). Bitterness in fish protein hydrolysates and methods for removal. Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology, 13, 101-114.
11. Dauksas, E., Falch, E., Slizyte, R. & Rustad, T. (2005). Composition of fatty acids and lipid classes in bulk products generated during enzymic hydrolysis of cod (Gadus morhua) by-products. Process Biochemistry, 40, 2659-2670.
12. Dissaraphong, S., Benjakul, S., Visessanguan, W. & Kishimura, H. (2006). The influence of storage conditions of tuna viscera before fermentation on the chemical, physical and microbiological changes in fish sauce during fermentation. Bioresource Technology, 97, 2032-2040.
13. Docmar. 2007. Delprosjekt: peptid. Available at: (accessed 20 March 2011).
14. EC Hygiene directive (2004) URL document Available at: (accessed 20 March 2011).
15. EC Nr 1774/2002 (2002) The EC regulation on animal by-products. URL document Available at: (accessed 20 March 2011).
16. Einarsson, T., Fjellstad, B., Evjenth, S., Bekkevold, S. & Næsfeldt, C. (2001). Utvikling og utprøving av modifisert sløyemaskin for lakseindustrien. Trondheim: RUBIN.
17. Eysturskard, J., Haug, I.J., Elharfaoui, N., Djabourov, M. & Draget, K.I. (2009a). Structural and mechanical properties of fish gelatin as a function of extraction conditions. Food Hydrocolloids, 23, 1702-1711.
18. Eysturskard, J., Haug, I.J., Ulset, A.-S. & Draget, K.I. (2009b). Mechanical properties of mammalian and fish gelatins based on their weight average molecular weight and molecular weight distribution. Food Hydrocolloids, 23, 2315-2321.
19. Falch, E., Rustad, T., Jonsdottir, R. et al. (2006). Geographical and seasonal differences in lipid composition and relative weight of by-products from gadiform species. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19, 727-736.
20. Falch, E., Sandbakk, M. & Aursand, M. (2007). On-board handling of marine by-products to prevent microbial spoilage, enzymatic reactions and lipid oxidation. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 47-64. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing Limited.
21. FAO (1986) The production of fish meal and oil. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.
22. FAO (2011). Global aquaculture production. [Internet document] URL Available at: (accessed 10 October 2011).
23. Ferraro, V., Cruz, I.B., Jorge, R.F., Malcata, F.X., Pintado, M.E. & Castro, P.M.L. (2010). Valorisation of natural extracts from marine source focused on marine by-products: a review. Food Research International, 43, 2221-2233.
24. Funasuta, Y., Kawasaki, K.-I. & Kanogaya, S. (2004). Extractive components of fish sauces from waste of the frigate mackerel surimi processing and a comparison with those of several Asian fish sauces. In: More Efficient Utilization of Fish and Fisherie Products (edited by M. Sakaguchi). Pp. 193-202. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
25. Gehring, C.K., Gigliotti, J.C., Moritz, J.S., Tou, J.C. & Jaczynski, J. (2011). Functional and nutritional characteristics of proteins and lipids recovered by isoelectric processing of fish by-products and low-value fish: a review. Food Chemistry, 124, 422-431.
26. Gildberg, A. (1993). Enzymatic processing of marine raw-materials. Process Biochemistry, 28, 1-15.
27. Gildberg, A. (2002). Enhancing returns from greater utilization. In: Safety and Quality Issues in Fish Processing (edited by H.A. Bremner). Pp. 425-449. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC.
28. Gildberg, A., Arnesen, J.A. & Carlehog, M. (2002). Utilisation of cod backbone by biochemical fractionation. Process Biochemistry, 38, 475-480.
29. Gómez-Guillén, M.C., Pérez-Mateos, M., Gómez-Estaca, J., López-Caballero, E., Giménez, B. & Montero, P. (2009). Fish gelatin: a renewable material for developing active biodegradable films. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 20, 3-16.
30. Grimsmo, L. & Bliksvær, A. (2009). Effektiv transport av kjølt marint biråstoff. Forprosjekt. Trondheim: RUBIN.
31. Gudmundsson, M. & Hafsteinsson, H. (1997). Gelatin from cod skins as affected by chemical treatments. Journal of Food Science, 62, 37-39.
32. Guerard, F.G., Sellos, D. & Le Gal, Y. (2007). Enzymatic methods for marine by-products recovery fish and shellfish upgrading, traceability. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products Marine Biotechnology I (edited by F. Shahidi, R. Ulber & Y. Le Gal). Pp. 107-143. Cambridge: Woodhead Publ. Ltd.
33. Guérard, F., Sellos, D. & Le Gal, Y. (2005). Fish and shellfish upgrading, traceability. In: Adv. Biochem. Engin./Biotechnol (edited by R. Ulber & Y. Le Gal). Pp. 127-163. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
34. Gutierrez, M.E., Garcia, A.F., De Madariaga, M.A., Sagrista, M.L., Casado, F.J. & Mora, M. (2003). Interaction of tocopherols and phenolic compounds with membrane lipid components: evaluation of their antioxidant activity in a liposomal model system. Life Sciences, 72, 2337-2360.
35. Haug, I.J., Draget, K.I. & Smidsrød, O. (2004a). Physical and rheological properties of fish gelatin compared to mammalian gelatin. Food Hydrocolloids, 18, 203-213.
36. Haug, I.J., Draget, K.I. & Smidsrød, O. (2004b). Physical behaviour of fish gelatin-[kappa]-carrageenan mixtures. Carbohydrate Polymers, 56, 11-19.
37. Helgason, J.G., Akse, L. & Joensen, S. (1996). Biprodukter fra saltfiskproduksjon - utnyttelse av hode og rygger. Fiskeriforskning rapport.
38. Helgason, J.G., Akse, L., Joensen, S. & Myrseth, L. (1997). Konsumprodukter av torskehoder og -rygger. Fiskeriforskning.
39. Je, J.Y., Lee, K.H., Lee, M.H. & Ahn, C.B. (2009). Antioxidant and antihypertensive protein hydrolysates produced from tuna liver by enzymatic hydrolysis. Food Research International, 42, 1266-1272.
40. Jeon, Y.J., Byun, H.G. & Kim, S.K. (2000). Improvement of functional properties of cod frame protein hydrolysates using ultrafiltration membranes. Process Biochemistry, 35, 471-478.
41. Jung, W.K., Park, P.J. & Kim, S.K. (2003). Purification and characterization of a new lectin from the hard roe of skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis. International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, 35, 255-265.
42. Kahlon, T.S. & Woodruff, C.L. (2002). In vitro binding of bile acids by soy protein, pinto beans, black beans and wheat gluten. Food Chemistry, 79, 425-429.
43. Karim, A.A. & Bhat, R. (2009). Fish gelatin: properties, challenges, and prospects as an alternative to mammalian gelatins. Food Hydrocolloids, 23, 563-576.
44. Kawasaki, T.C.J., Jun, Y., Fukushima, K. et al. (2002). Antihypertensive effect and safety evaluation of vegetable drink with peptides derived from sardine protein hydrolysates on mild hypertensive, high-normal blood pressure subjects. Fukuoka Igaku Zasshi, 93, 208-218.
45. Kerry, J.P. & Murphy, S.C. (2007). Physical and chemical properties of lipid by-products from seafood waste. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 22-46. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing Limited.
46. Kim, S.-K. & Jung, W.-K. (2007). Fish and bone as a calcium source. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 328-339. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing Limited.
47. Kim, S.-K. & Mendis, E. (2006). Bioactive compounds from marine processing byproducts - a review. Food Research International, 39, 383-393.
48. Kim, J.-S. & Park, J.W. (2007). Mince from seafood processing by-product and surimi as food ingredient. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 196-228. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing Limited.
49. Kim, S.-K. & Wijesekara, I. (2010). Development and biological activities of marine-derived bioactive peptides: a review. Journal of Functional Foods, 2, 1-9.
50. Kjølås, F.H. (2010). Utvikling og uttesting av skånsom sløyemaskin for hvitfisk. Fase 1 - oppdrettstorsk. Pp. Trondheim: RUBIN.
51. Klompong, V., Benjakul, S., Kantachote, D. & Shahidi, F. (2007). Antioxidative activity and functional properties of protein hydrolysate of yellow stripe trevally (Selaroides leptolepis) as influenced by the degree of hydrolysis and enzyme type. Food Chemistry, 102, 1317-1327.
52. Klompong, V., Benjakul, S., Kantachote, D., Hayes, K.D. & Shahidi, F. (2008). Comparative study on antioxidative activity of yellow stripe trevally protein hydrolysate produced from alcalase and flavourzyme. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 43, 1019-1026.
53. Kristinsson, H.G. (2007). Aquatic food protein hydrolysates. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 229-248. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
54. Kristinsson, H.G. & Hultin, H.O. (2003). Effect of low and high pH treatment on the functional properties of cod muscle proteins. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 5103-5110.
55. Kristinsson, H.G. & Liang, Y. (2006). Effect of pH-shift processing and surimi processing on Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulates) muscle proteins. Journal of Food Science, 71, C304-C312.
56. Kristinsson, H.G. & Rasco, B.A. (2000a). Biochemical and functional properties of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) muscle proteins hydrolyzed with various alkaline proteases. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 657-666.
57. Kristinsson, H.G. & Rasco, B.A. (2000b). Fish protein hydrolysates: production, biochemical, and functional properties. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 40, 43-81.
58. Kristinsson, H.G., Theodore, A.E. & Ingadottir, B. (2007). Chemical processing methods for protein recoverey from marine by-products and underutilized fish species. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 144-168. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing Limited.
59. Laidmäe, I., Mccormick, M.E., Herod, J.L. et al. (2006). Stability, sterility, coagulation, and immunologic studies of salmon coagulation proteins with potential use for mammalian wound healing and cell engineering. Biomaterials, 27, 5771-5779.
60. Laidmäe, I., Salum, T., Sawyer, E.S., Janmey, P.A. & Uibo, R. (2010). Characterization of the biological effect of fish fibrin glue in experiments on rats: immunological and coagulation studies. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 93A, 29-36.
61. Liaset, B. & Espe, M. (2008). Nutritional composition of soluble and insoluble fractions obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis of fish-raw materials. Process Biochemistry, 43, 42-48.
62. Liaset, B., Lied, E. & Espe, M. (2000). Enzymatic hydrolysis of by-products from the fish-filleting industry; chemical characterisation and nutritional evaluation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 80, 581-589.
63. Liaset, B., Julshamn, K. & Espe, M. (2003). Chemical composition and theoretical nutritional evaluation of the produced fractions from enzymic hydrolysis of salmon frames with Protamex (TM). Process Biochemistry, 38, 1747-1759.
64. Liu, C.C., Morioka, K., Itoh, Y. & Obatake, A. (2000). Contribution of lipid oxidation to bitterness and loss of free amino acids in the autolytic extract from fish wastes: effective utilization of fish wastes. Fisheries Science, 66, 343-348.
65. Mackie, I.M. (1974). Proteolytic enzymes in recovery of proteins from fish waste. Process biochemistry, 9, 12-14.
66. Mackie, I.M. (1982). General review of fish protein hydrolysates. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 7, 113-124.
67. Malde, M., Bugel, S., Kristensen, M., Malde, K., Graff, I. & Pedersen, J. (2010). Calcium from salmon and cod bone is well absorbed in young healthy men: a double-blinded randomised crossover design. Nutrition & Metabolism, 7, 61.
68. Mohr, V. (1977). Fish protein concentrate production by enzymic hydrolysis. In: (J. Adler-Nissen) FEBS (Federation of European Biochemical Societies), 11th meeting, Copenhagen.
69. Mohr, V. (1979). Enzymes technology in the meat and fisheries industries. In: The International Microbiology and Food industry Congress, Paris.
70. Morrissey, M.T. & Okada, T. (2007). Marine enzymes from seafood by-products. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 374-396. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited.
71. Morrissey, M.T. & Sylvia, G. (2004). Intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting efficient utilization of marine resources. In: More efficient Utilization of Fish and Fisherie Products (edited by M. Sakaguchi). Pp. 37-43. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
72. Ninan, G., Joseph, J. & Abubacker, Z. (2010). Physical, mechanical, and barrier properties of carp and mammalian skin gelatin films. Journal of Food Science, 75, E620-E626.
73. NORWEGIAN PATENT NO327780 (2009) Fremgangsmåte ved separasjon av lipider og proteiner fra biologisk materiale Denofa Elvevoll, E., Jansson, S.
74. NOVONORDISK (1999). Enzyme business, enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins using Novo Nordisk proteases. Application sheet, B 163k-GB.
75. Ockerman, H.W. (1997). Fishery by-products. In: Fish Processing Technology (edited by G.M. Hall). Pp. 155-192. London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
76. Pastoriza, L., Sampedro, G., Cabo, M.L., Herrera, J.J.R. & Bernardez, M. (2004). Solubilisation of proteins from rayfish residues by endogenous and commercial enzymes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 84, 83-88.
77. Picot, L., Bordenave, S., Didelot, S. et al. (2006). Antiproliferative activity of fish protein hydrolysates on human breast cancer cell lines. Process Biochemistry, 41, 1217-1222.
78. Piggot, G.M. & Tucker, B.W. (1993). Production of Fish Oils. London, UK: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Limited.
79. Rajapakse, N., Jung, W.K., Mendis, E., Moon, S.H. & Kim, S.K. (2005). A novel anticoagulant purified from fish protein hydrolysate inhibits factor XIIa and platelet aggregation. Life Sciences, 76, 2607-2619.
80. Ramírez, A. (2007). Salmon by-product proteins. FAO Fisheries Circular. Rome: FAO.
81. Rubin (2008). Internasjonal markeds- og industrianalyse for biomarine ingredienser. Oppdatering av oktober 2008. Trondheim: RUBIN.
82. Rubin (2010). Varestrømanalyse 2009 (Biprodukter fra fisk og skalldyr). Trondheim: Rubin. Internet document URL Available at: (accessed 10 March 2011).
83. Rustad, T. (2003). Utilisation of marine by-products. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2, 458-463.
84. Rustad, T. (2007). Physical and chemical properties of protein seafood by-products. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 3-21. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing Limited.
85. Rustad, T., Falch, E., Arason, S. et al. (2004). Utilisation and stabilisation of by-products from cod species - final report QLK1-CT-2000-01017/QLRT-2001-02829. Trondheim.
86. Samaranayaka, A.G.P. & Li-Chan, E.C.Y. (2008). Autolysis-assisted production of fish protein hydrolysates with antioxidant properties from Pacific hake (Merluccius productus). Food Chemistry, 107, 768-776.
87. Sathivel, S., Smiley, S., Prinyawiwatkul, W. & Bechtel, P.J. (2005). Functional and nutritional properties of red salmon (Onchorhynchus nerka) enzymatic hydrolysates. Journal of Food Science, 70, C401-C406.
88. Sathivel, S., Huang, J. & Prinyawiwatkul, W. (2008). Thermal properties and applications of the Arrhenius equation for evaluating viscosity and oxidation rates of unrefined pollock oil. Journal of Food Engineering, 84, 187-193.
89. Shahidi, F. (1994a). Proteins from seafood processing discards. In: Seafood Proteins (edited by Z.E. Sikorski, B. Sun Pan & F. Shahidi). Pp. 171-193. New York: Chapman and Hall.
90. Shahidi, F. (1994b). Seafood processing by-products. In: Seafoods: Chemistry, Processing Technology and Quality (edited by F. Shahidi & J.R. Botta). Pp. 320-330. London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
91. Shahidi, F., Han, X.Q. & Synowiecki, J. (1995). Production and characteristics of protein hydrolysates from capelin (Mallotus villosus). Food Chemistry, 53, 285-293.
92. Skjævestad, B. (2010). Muligheter for Marine proteiningredienser i det amerikanske helse- og ernæringsmarkedet. Trondheim: Rubin.
93. Skjævestad, B. & Vogt, G. (2009). Omega-3 oljer fra ferskt marint råstoff. En mulig konkurransestrategi for den norske omega-3 industrien. Trondheim: Rubin.
94. Slizyte, R., Dauksas, E., Falch, E., Storro, I. & Rustad, T. (2005a). Characteristics of protein fractions generated from hydrolysed cod (Gadus morhua) by-products. Process Biochemistry, 40, 2021-2033.
95. Slizyte, R., Rustad, T. & Storro, I. (2005b). Enzymatic hydrolysis of cod (Gadus morhua) by-products: optimization of yield and properties of lipid and protein fractions. Process Biochemistry, 40, 3680-3692.
96. Slizyte, R., Mozuraityte, R., Martinez-Alvarez, O., Falch, E., Fouchereau-Peron, M. & Rustad, T. (2009). Functional, bioactive and antioxidative properties of hydrolysates obtained from cod (Gadus morhua) backbones. Process Biochemistry, 44, 668-677.
97. Stevenson, D.E., Ofman, D.J., Morgan, K.R. & Stanley, R.A. (1998). Protease-catalyzed condensation of peptides as a potential means to reduce the bitter taste of hydrophobic peptides found in protein hydrolysates. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 22, 100-110.
98. Sugiyama, K., Egawa, M., Onzuka, H. & Oba, K. (1991). Characteristics of sardine muscle hydrolysates prepared by various enzymatic treatments. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 57, 475-479.
99. Suh, H.J., Bae, S.H. & Noh, D.O. (2000). Debittering of corn gluten hydrolysate with active carbon. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 80, 614-618.
100. Taskaya, L. & Jaczynski, J. (2009). Flocculation-enhanced protein recovery from fish processing by-products by isoelectric solubilization/precipitation. Lwt-Food Science and Technology, 42, 570-575.
101. Taylor, K.D.A. & Himonides, A. (2007). Increased processed flesh yield by recovery from marine by-products. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 91-106. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing Limited.
102. The Global Education Project (2011) [Internet document] URL Available at: (accessed 10 June 2011).
103. Thorkelsson, G. & Kristinsson, H.G. (2009). Bioactive peptides from marine sources. State of art. Report to the NORA fund. Skýrsla Matís14-09.
104. Thorkelsson, G., Sigurgisladottir, S., Geirsdottir, M. et al. (2008). Mild processing techniques and development of functional marine protein and peptide ingredients. In: Improving Seafood Products for the Consumer (edited by T. Børresen). Pp. 363-398. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing limited.
105. Thorkelsson, G., Slizyte, R., Gildberg, A. & Kristinsson, H.G. (2009). Fish proteins and peptide products:processing methods, quality and functional properties. In: Marine Functional Food (edited by J.B. Luten). Pp. 115-139. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
106. Thormodsen, T. (2009) Industriell utvikling av peptoner fra biråstoff av laks. Trondheim: Rubin.
107. Torres, J.A., Chen, Y.C., Rodrigo-Garcia, J. & Jaczynski, J. (2007). Recovery of by-products from seafood processing streams. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products (edited by F. Shahidi). Pp. 65-90. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing limited.
108. Undeland, I., Lindqvist, H., Chen-Yun, Y. et al. (2009). Seafood and health: what is the full story. In: Marine Functional Food (edited by J.B. Luten). Pp. 17-87. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
109. Venugopal, V. (1995). Methods for processing and utilization of low cost fishes: a critical appraisal. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 32, 1-12.
110. Wahren, R. (2006). Lakseblod som ingrediens i næringsmidler. Trondheim: Rubin.
111. Wang, L.Z., Gorlin, J., Michaud, S.E. et al. (2000). Purification of Salmon clotting factors and their use as tissue sealants. Thrombosis Research, 100, 537-548.
112. Yang, J.L., Ho, H.Y., Chu, Y.J. & Chow, C.J. (2008). Characteristic and antioxidant activity of retorted gelatin hydrolysates from cobia (Rachycentron canadum) skin. Food Chemistry, 110, 128-136.
113. Yoshioka, K., Seki, A., Yamada, A. et al. (2004). Bone and lipid metabolism in the bone modeling of rats administered with the bonito docosahexaenoic acid, the viscera vitamin D abd the cuttlefish calcium. In: More Efficient Utilization of Fish and Fisherie Products (edited by M. Sakaguchi). Pp. 107-113. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
114. Zhou, P. & Regenstein, J.R. (2005). Effects of alkaline and acid pretreatments on Alaska Pollock skin gelatin extraction. Journal of Food Science, 70, c392-c396.