The dominance of associative theorizing in implicit attitude research: Propositional and behavioral alternatives

Psychological Record

Volumn 61, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 465-496

  Hughes, Sean ^a   Barnes Holmes, Dermot ^a   De Houwer, Jan ^b  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND   (Ireland)

^b GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Associative; Attitudes; Functional; Implicit cognition; Propositional

Indexed keywords

EID: 80052192865     PISSN: 00332933     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF03395772     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. ALBARRACIN, D., GLASMAN, L. R., & WALLACE, H. M. (2004). Survival and change in judgments: A model of activation and comparison. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 251-315). San Diego: Academic Press.
2. ALBARRACIN, D., JOHNSON, B. T., & ZANNA, M. P. (2005). The handbook of attitudes. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
3. BANAJI, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitudes can be measured. In H. L. Roediger, J. S. Nairne, I. Neath, & A. Surprenant (Eds.), The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (pp. 117-150). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
4. BAR-ANAN, Y., NOSEK, B. A., & VIANELLO, M. (2009). The sorting paired features task: A measure of association strengths. Experimental Psychology, 56, 329-343.
5. BARDEN, J., MADDUX, W. W., PETTY, R. E., & BREWER, M. B. (2004). Contextual moderation of racial bias: The impact of social roles on controlled and automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 5-22.
6. BARNES-HOLMES D., BARNES-HOLMES Y., POWER P., HAYDEN E., MILNE R., & STEWART I. (2006). Do you really know what you believe? Developing the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) as a direct measure of implicit beliefs. The Irish Psychologist, 32, 169-177.
7. BARNES-HOLMES, D., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., STEWART, I. & BOLES, S. (2010). A sketch of the implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP) and the relational elaboration and coherence (REC) model. The Psychological Record, 60, 527-542.
8. BARNES-HOLMES, D., MURPHY, A., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2010). The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP): Exploring the impact of private versus public contexts and the response latency criterion on pro- White and anti- White and antiBlack stereotyping among white Irish individuals. The Psychological Record, 60, 57-66.
9. BARNES-HOLMES, D., MURTAGH, L., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2010). Using the Implicit Association Test and the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure to measure attitudes towards meat and vegetables in vegetarians and meat- Eaters. The Psychological Record, 60, 287-306.
10. BARNES-HOLMES, D., WALDRON, D., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2009). Testing the validity of the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) and the Implicit Association Test (IAT): Measuring attitudes towards Dublin and country life in Ireland. The Psychological Record, 59, 389-406.
11. BIGLAN, A., & HAYES, S. C. (1996). Should the behavioral sciences become more pragmatic? The case for functional contextualism in research on human behavior. Applied and Preventive Psychology: Current Scientific Perspectives, 5, 47-57.
12. BLANTON, H., JACCARD, J., GONZALES, P. M., & CHRISTIE, C. (2006). Decoding the Implicit Association Test: Implications for criterion prediction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 192-212.
13. BROWN, A. S., GRAY, N. S., & SNOWDEN, R. J. (2009). Implicit measurement of sexual associations in child sex abusers. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21(2), 166-180.
14. BRUNSTROM, J. M. (2007). Associative learning and the control of human dietary behavior. Appetite, 49(1), 268-271.
15. CHAN, G., BARNES-HOLMES, D., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2009). Implicit attitudes to work and leisure among North American and Irish individuals: A preliminary study. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 9, 317-334.
16. COLLINS, A. M., & LOFTUS, E. F. (1975). A spreading activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407-428.
17. CONREY, F. R., SHERMAN, J. W., GAWRONSKI, B., HUGENBERG, K., & GROOM, C. (2005). Separating multiple processes in implicit social cognition: The quad model of implicit task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 469-487.
18. CRANO, W. D., & PRISLIN, R. (2006). Attitudes and persuasion. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 345-374.
19. CRANO, W., & PRISLIN, R. (2008). Attitudes and attitude change. New York: Psychology Press.
20. CRONBACH, L. J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
21. CULLEN, C., BARNES-HOLMES, D., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2009). The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) and the malleability of ageist attitudes. The Psychological Record, 59, 591-620.
22. DASGUPTA, N., & GREENWALD, A. G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81,800-814.
23. DAWSON, D. L., BARNES-HOLMES, D., GRESSWELL, D. M., HART, A. J. P., & GORE, N. J. (2009). Assessing the implicit beliefs of sexual offenders using the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure: A first study. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21, 57-75.
24. DE HART, T., PELHAM, B.W., & TENNEN, H. (2006). What lies beneath: Parenting style and implicit self- Esteem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42,1-17.
25. DE HOUWER, J. (2003). The extrinsic affective Simon task. Experimental Psychology 50, 77-85.
26. DE HOUWER, J. (2006a). What are implicit measures and why are we using them. In R.W. Wiers & A. W. Stacy (Eds.), The handbook of implicit cognition and addiction (pp. 11-28). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers.
27. DE HOUWER, J. (2006b). Using the Implicit Association Test does not rule out an impact of conscious propositional knowledge on evaluative conditioning. Learning and Motivation, 37, 176-187.
28. DE HOUWER, J. (2007). A conceptual and theoretical analysis of evaluative conditioning. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 10, 230-241.
29. DE HOUWER, J. (2009a). Comparing measures of attitudes at the procedural and functional level. In R. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Brinol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures (pp. 361-390). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
30. DE HOUWER, J. (2009b). The propositional approach to associative learning as an alternative for association formation models. Learning and Behavior, 37, 1-20.
31. DE HOUWER, J. (2011). Why the cognitive approach in psychology would profit from a functional approach and vice versa. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 202-209.
32. DE HOUWER, J., & MOORS, A. (2007). How to define and examine the implicitness of implicit measures. In B. Wittenbrink & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit measures of attitudes: Procedures and controversies (pp. 179-194). New York: Guilford Press.
33. DE HOUWER, J., & MOORS, A. (2010). Implicit measures: Similarities and differences. In B. Gawronski, & B. K. Payne (Eds.), Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications. New York: Guilford Press.
34. DE HOUWER, J., TEIGE-MOCIGEMBA, S., SPRUYT, A., & MOORS, A. (2009a). Implicit measures: A normative analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 347-368.
35. DE HOUWER, J., TEIGE-MOCIGEMBA, S., SPRUYT, A., & MOORS, A. (2009b). Theoretical claims necessitate basic research: Reply to Gawronski, Lebel, Peters, and Banse (2009) and Nosek and Greenwald (2009). Psychological Bulletin, 135, 377-379.
36. DEVINE, P. G., PLANT, E. A., AMODIO, D. M., HARMON-JONES, E., & VANCE, S. L. (2002). The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 835-848.
37. DEVOS, T., & BANAJI, M. R. (2005). American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 447-466.
38. DOVIDIO, J. F., KAWAKAMI, K., & GAERTNER, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62-68.
39. DOVIDIO, J. F., KAWAKAMI, K., SMOAK, N., & GAERTNER, S. L. (2009). The roles of implicit and explicit processes in contemporary prejudice. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Brinol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures (pp. 165-192). New York: Psychology Press.
40. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510-540.
41. DOTSCH, R., & WIGBOLDUS, D. H. J. (2008). Virtual prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44,1194-1198.
42. EGLOFF, B., & SCHMUKLE, S. C. (2002). Predictive validity of an Implicit Association Test for assessing anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1441-1455.
43. ESSES, V. M., DOVIDIO, J. F., & HODSON, G. (2002). Public attitudes toward immigration in the United States and Canadian response to the September 11, 2001, 'Attack on America.' Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2, 69-85.
44. EVANS, J. S. (2008). Dual- Processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255-278.
45. FAZIO, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE model as an integrative framework. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 75-109). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
46. FAZIO, R. H. (2007). Attitudes as object- Evaluation associations of varying strength. Social Cognition, 25, 603-637.
47. FAZIO, R. H., JACKSON, J. R., DUNTON, B. C., & WILLIAMS, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
48. FAZIO, R., & OLSON, M. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327.
49. FAZIO, R. H., & TOWLES-SCHWEN, T. (1999). The MODE Model of attitude- Behavior processes. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 97-116). New York: Guilford Press.
50. FERGUSON, M. J. & BARGH, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 557-572.
51. FESTINGER, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
52. FIEDLER, K., MESSNER, C., & BLUEMKE, M. (2006). Unresolved problems with the "I", the "A", and the "T": A logical and psychometric critique of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). European Review of Social Psychology, 17, 74-147.
53. FOX, E. (2006). Constructing a pragmatic science of learning and instruction with functional contextualism. Educational Technology Research & Development, 54(1), 5-36.
54. FRIESE, M., HOFMANN, W., & WÄNKE, M. (2008). When impulses take over: Moderated predictive validity of explicit and implicit attitude measures in predicting food choice and consumption behavior. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 397-419.
55. GALDI, S., ARCURI, L., & GAWRONSKI, B. (2008). Automatic mental associations predict future choices of undecided Decision makers. Science, 321, 1100-1102.
56. GAWRONSKI, B. (2009). Ten frequently asked questions about implicit measures and their frequently supposed, but not entirely correct answers. Canadian Psychology, 50,141-150.
57. GAWRONSKI, B., & BODENHAUSEN, G. V. (2006). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692-731.
58. GAWRONSKI, B., & BODENHAUSEN, G. V. (2007a). Unraveling the processes underlying evaluation: Attitudes from the perspective of the APE Model. Social Cogniton, 25, 687-717.
59. GAWRONSKI, B., & BODENHAUSEN, G. V. (2007b). What do we know about implicit attitude measures and what do we have to learn? In B. Wittenbrink & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit measures of attitudes: Progress and controversies (pp. 265-286). New York: Guilford.
60. GAWRONSKI, B., & STRACK, F. (2004). On the propositional nature of cognitive consistency: Dissonance changes explicit, but not implicit attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 535-542.
61. GREENWALD, A. G., & BANAJI, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self- Esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4-27.
62. GREENWALD, A. G., BANAJI, M. R., RUDMAN, L. A., FARNHAM, S. D., NOSEK, B. A., & MELLOTT, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self- Esteem, andself- Esteem, andselfConcept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25.
63. GREENWALD, A. G., & KRIEGER, L. H. (2006). Implicit bias: Scientific foundations. California Law Review, 94, 945-967.
64. GREENWALD, A. G., MCGHEE, D. E., & SCHWARTZ, J. K. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
65. GREENWALD, A. G., NOSEK, B. A., BANAJI, M. R., & KLAUER, K. C. (2005). Validity of the salience asymmetry interpretation of the IAT: Comment on Rothermund and Wentura (2004). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(3), 420-425.
66. GREGG, A. P., SEIBT, B., & BANAJI, M. H. (2006). Easier done than undone: Asymmetries in the malleability of implicit preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90,1-20.
67. GREY, L, & BARNES, D. (1996). Stimulus equivalence and attitudes. The Psychological Record, 46, 243-270.
68. GROSS, A., & FOX, E. J. (2009). Relational frame theory: An overview of the controversy. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 25, 87-98
69. GRUMM, M., NESTLER, S., & VON COLLANI, G. (2009). Changing explicit and implicit attitudes: The case of self- Esteem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(2), 327-335.
70. HALL, G. (2009). Learning in simple systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 210-211.
71. HAYES, S. C. (2004). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Relational Frame Theory, and the third wave of behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy 35, 639-665.
72. HAYES, S. C., BARNES-HOLMES, D., & ROCHE, B. (Eds.). (2001). Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. New York: Plenum Press.
73. HAYES, S. C., LUOMA, J. B., BOND, F. W., MASUDA, A., & LILLIS, J. (2006). Acceptance and Commitment therapy: Model, processes, and outcomes. Behavior Research and Therapy, 44,1-25.
74. HE, Y., JOHNSON, M. K., DOVIDIO, J. E, & MCCARTHY, G. (2009). The relation between race- Related implicit associations and scalp- Related implicit associations and scalpRecorded neural activity evoked by faces from different races. Social Neuroscience, 4,426-442.
75. HOLTGRAVES, T. (2004). Social desirability and self- Reports: Testing models of socially desirable responding. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30, 161-172.
76. HUGHES, S., & BARNES-HOLMES, D. (2011). On the formation and persistence of implicit attitudes: New evidence from the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP). The Psychological Record.
77. HULL, C.L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century.
78. INBAR, Y., PIZARRO, D. A., KNOBE, J., & BLOOM, P. (2009). Disgust sensitivity predicts intuitive disapproval of gays. Emotion, 9, 435-439.
79. KAHNEMAN, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58, 697-720.
80. KARPINSKI, A., & STEINMAN, R. B. (2006). The single category implicit association test as a measure of implicit social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 16-32.
81. KOOLE, S. L., DIJKSTERHUIS, A., & VAN KNIPPENBERG, A. (2001). What's in a name: Implicit self- Esteem and the automatic self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 669-685.
82. KROSNICK., J. A., JUDD, C. M., & WITTENBRINK, B. (2005). The measurement of attitudes. In D. Albarracin, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 21-76). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
83. LIEBERMAN, M. D., GAUNT, R., GILBERT, D. T., & TROPE, Y. (2002). Reflection and reflexion: A social cognitive neuroscience approach to attributional inference. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 199-249.
84. LOVIBOND, P. F., & SHANKS, D. R., (2002). The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical interpretations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 28, 3-26.
85. MCCONNELL, A. R., & LEIBOLD, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37,435-442.
86. MCCONNELL, A. R., RYDELL, R. J., STRAIN, L. M., & MACKIE, D. M. (2008). Forming implicit and explicit attitudes toward individuals: Social group association cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 792-807.
87. MCKENNA, I. M., BARNES-HOLMES, D., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2007). Testing the fake- Ability of the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP): The first study. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 7, 253-268.
88. MITCHELL, C. J., DE HOUWER, J., & LOVIBOND, P. F. (2009). The propositional nature of human associative learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 183-198
89. NISBETT, R. E., & WILSON, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231-259.
90. NOSEK, B. A. (2007) Implicit- Explicit relations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 65-69.
91. NOSEK, B. A., & BANAJI, M. R. (2001). The go/no- Go association task. Social Cognition, 19, 625-664.
92. NOSEK, B., BANAJI, M., & GREENWALD, A. (2002). Math=male, me=female, therefore math me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83,44-59.
93. O'HORA, D., PELÁEZ, M., BARNES-HOLMES, D., RAE, G., ROBINSON, K., & CHAUDHARY, T. (2008). Temporal relations and intelligence: Correlating relational performance with performance on the WAIS- III. The Psychological Record, 58, 569-584.
94. OLSON, M. A., & FAZIO, R. H. (2001). Implicit attitude formation through classical conditioning. Psychological Science, 12, 413-417.
95. OLSON, M. A., & FAZIO, R. H. (2002). Implicit acquisition and manifestation of classically conditioned attitudes. Social Cognition, 20, 89-104.
96. OLSON, M. A., & FAZIO, R. H. (2006). Reducing automatically activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 421-433.
97. OLSON, M. A., & FAZIO, R. H. (2009). Implicit and explicit measures of attitudes: The perspective of the MODE model. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures (pp. 19-63). New York: Psychology Press.
98. OLSON, M. A., & KENDRICK, R. V. (2008). Origins of attitudes. In W. Crano & R. Prislin (Eds.), Attitudes and attitude change (pp. 111-131). New York: Psychology Press.
99. PAULHUS, D. L. (1989). Socially desirable responding. In D. M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 201-209). New York: Springer-Verlag.
100. PAVLOV, I. P. (1928). Twenty-five years of objective study of the higher nervous activity (behavior) of animals [W.H. Gantt, Trans.]. New York: International.
101. PAYNE, B. K., CHENG, S. M., GOVORUN, O., & STEWART, B. D. (2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 277-293.
102. PAYNE, B. K., & GAWRONSKI, B. (2010). A history of implicit social cognition: Where is it coming from? Where is it now? Where is it going? In B. Gawronski & B. K. Payne (Eds.), Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
103. PELHAM, B. W., MIRENBERG, M. C., & JONES, J. K. (2002). Why Susie sells seashells by the seashore: Implicit egotism and major life decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82,469-487.
104. PETTY, R. E., & BRIÑOL, P. (2006). A meta- Cognitive approach to "implicit" and "explicit" evaluations: Comment on Gawronski and Bodenhausen (2006). Psychological Bulletin, 132, 740-744.
105. POWER, P. M., BARNES-HOLMES, D., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2009). The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) as a measure of implicit relative preferences: A first study. The Psychological Record, 59, 621-640.
106. RANGANATH, K. A., & NOSEK, B. A. (2008). Implicit attitude generalization occurs immediately, explicit attitude generalization takes time. Psychological Science, 19, 249-254.
107. REHFELDT, R. A., & BARNES-HOLMES, Y. (2009). Derived relational responding: Applications for learners with autism and other developmental disabilities. Oakland, CA: Context Press/New Harbinger.
108. RINCK, M., & BECKER, E. S. (2007). Approach and avoidance in fear of spiders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 105-120.
109. ROTHERMUND, K., WENTURA, D., & DE HOUWER, J. (2005). Retrieval of incidental stimulus- Response associations as a source of negative priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 482-495.
110. RUDMAN, L. A. (2004). Sources of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 79-82.
111. RYDELL, R. J., & GAWRONSKI, B. (2009). I like you, I like you not: Understanding the formation of context dependent automatic evaluations. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 1118-1152.
112. RYDELL, R. J., & MCCONNELL, A. R. (2006). Understanding implicit and explicit attitude change: A systems of reasoning Failure manipulations: A metaAnalysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 995-1008.
113. RYDELL, R. J., MCCONNELL, A. R., MACKIE, D. M., & STRAIN, L. M. (2006). Of two minds: Forming and changing valence inconsistent attitudes. Psychological Science, 17, 954-958.
114. SCHNABEL, K., BANSE, R., & ASENDORPF, J. B. (2006). Employing automatic approach and avoidance tendencies for the assessment of implicit personality self- Concept: The Implicit Association Procedure (IAP). Experimental Psychology, 53, 69-76.
115. SCHWARZ, N. (2007). Attitude construction: Evaluation in context. Social Cognition, 25(5), 638-656.
116. SCHWARZ, N. (2008). "Attitude measurement." In W. Crano & R. Prislin (Eds.), Attitudes and attitude change (pp. 41-60). London: Psychology Press.
117. SHANKS, D. R. (2007). Associationism and cognition: Human contingency learning at 25. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 291-309.
118. SHANKS, D. R. (2010). Learning: From association to cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 1, 273-301.
119. SHERMAN, S. J., ROSE, J. S., KOCH, K., PRESSON, C. C., & CHASSIN, L. (2003). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward cigarette smoking: The effects of context and motivation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 13-39.
120. SIDMAN, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behavior: A research story. Boston: Authors Cooperative.
121. SLOMAN, S. A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 3-22.
122. SMITH, E. R., & DE COSTER, J. (1999). Associative and rule- Based processing: A connectionist interpretation of dual process models. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 323-336). New York: Guilford.
123. SMITH, E. R., & DE COSTER, J. (2000). Dual- Process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4,108-131.
124. SRIRAM, N., & GREENWALD, A. G. (2009). The Brief Implicit Association Test. Experimental Psychology, 56, 283-294.
125. STACY, A. W., AMES, S. L., & GRENARD, J. L. (2007). Word associations tests of associative memory and implicit processes: Theoretical and assessment issues. In R.W. Wiers & A.W. Stacy (Eds.), The handbook of implicit cognition and addiction (pp. 75-90). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
126. STANLEY, D., PHELPS, E., & BANAJI, M. (2008). The neural basis of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(2), 164-170.
127. STRACK, F., & DEUTSCH, R. (2004). Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 220-247.
128. TEACHMAN, B. A., GAPINSKI, K. D., BROWNELL, K. D., RAWLINS, M., & JEYARAM, S. (2003). Demonstrations of implicit anti- Fat bias: The impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy. Health Psychology, 22, 68-78.
129. THORNDIKE, E. L. (1931). Human learning. New York: Century
130. UZIEL, L. (2010). Rethinking social desirability scales: From impression management to interpersonally orientated self-control. Perspectives of Psychological Science, 5, 243-262.
131. VAHEY, N. A., BARNES-HOLMES, D., BARNES-HOLMES, Y., & STEWART, I. (2009). A first test of Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) as a measure of self- Esteem: Irish prisoner groups and university students. The Psychological Record, 59, 371-388.
132. VANMAN, E. J., SALTZ, J. L., NATHAN, L. R., & WARREN, J. A. (2004). Racial discrimination by low- Prejudiced Whites. Psychological Science, 15, 711-719.
133. VON HIPPEL, W., BRENER, L., & VON HIPPEL, C. (2008). Implicit prejudice toward injecting drug users predicts intentions to change jobs among drug and alcohol nurses. Psychological Science, 19, 7-11.
134. WATT, A. W., KEENAN, M., BARNES, D., & CAIRNS, E. (1991). Social categorization and stimulus equivalence. The Psychological Record, 41, 33-50.
135. WEINSTEIN, J. H., WILSON, K. G., DRAKE, C. E., & KELLUM, K. K. (2008). A Relational Frame Theory Contribution to Social Categorization. Behavior and Social Issues, 17(1), 40-65.
136. WIGBOLDUS, D., HOLLAND, R. W., & VAN KNIPPENBERG, A. (2004). Singletarget implicit associations. Unpublished manuscript.
137. WILSON, T. D. (2009). Know thyself. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 384-389.
138. WILSON, T. D., LINDSEY, S., & SCHOOLER, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101-126.
139. WILSON, T. D., & SCHOOLER, J. W. (1991). Thinking too much: Introspection can reduce the quality of preferences and decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60,181-192.
140. WITTENBRINK, B. (2007). Measuring attitudes through priming. In B. Wittenbrink & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit measures of attitudes (pp. 17-58). New York: Guilford Press.
141. WITTENBRINK, B., JUDD, C. M., & PARK, B. (1997). Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship to questionnaire measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 262-274.
142. WITTENBRINK, B., JUDD, C. M., & PARK, B. (2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 815-827.