Photovoltaic manufacturing: Present status, future prospects, and research needs

Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces and Films

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 2011, Pages

  Wolden, Colin A ^a   Kurtin, Juanita ^b   Baxter, Jason B ^c   Repins, Ingrid ^d   Shaheen, Sean E ^e   Torvik, John T ^f   Rockett, Angus A ^g   Fthenakis, Vasilis M ^h,i   Aydil, Eray S ^j  

^a Department of Geology and Geological Engineering   (United States)

^b Spectrawatt Inc   (United States)

^c Drexel University   (United States)

^d NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF DENVER   (United States)

^f Novus Energy Partners   (United States)

^g University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign   (United States)

^h Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

ⁱ BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^j University of Minnesota   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMORPHOUS AND NANOCRYSTALLINE SILICON; CDTE SOLAR CELLS; COPPER INDIUM GALLIUM DISELENIDE; CROSS-CUTTING; CRYSTALLINE SILICONS; CURRENT STATUS; CURRENT TRENDS; DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL; ELEMENTAL ABUNDANCE; EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES; FUTURE PROSPECTS; MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES; MATERIAL AVAILABILITY; NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATIONS; ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS; PRESENT STATUS; PRODUCTION CAPACITY; RESEARCH CHALLENGES; RESEARCH INVESTMENT; RESEARCH NEEDS;

AMORPHOUS FILMS; CADMIUM; CADMIUM ALLOYS; CADMIUM COMPOUNDS; CADMIUM TELLURIDE; GALLIUM; INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH; MANUFACTURE; NANOCRYSTALLINE SILICON; NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS; PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECTS; SELENIUM COMPOUNDS; SEMICONDUCTING SILICON COMPOUNDS; SOLAR CELLS; THIN FILMS;

AMORPHOUS SILICON;

EID: 79955151643     PISSN: 07342101     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1116/1.3569757     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. M. I. Hoffert, Nature (London) 0028-0836 395, 881 (1998). 10.1038/27638 (Pubitemid 28503425)
2. N. S. Lewis, Mater. Res. Bull. 0025-5408 32, 808 (2007). 10.1557/mrs2007.168
3. D. Mills, Sol. Energy 0038-092X 76, 19 (2004). 10.1016/S0038-092X(03) 00102-6 (Pubitemid 38047610)
4. J. R. Bolton, Science 0036-8075 202, 705 (1978). 10.1126/science.202. 4369.705
5. P. V. Kamat, J. Phys. Chem. C 1932-7447 111, 2834 (2007). 10.1021/jp066952u (Pubitemid 46384290)
6. T. Surek, J. Cryst. Growth 0022-0248 275, 292 (2005). 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2004.10.093 (Pubitemid 40421051)
7. C. A. Wolden, NSF PV Workshop Summary, http://inside.mines.edu/fs-home/ cwolden/PVworkshop/Report2.html, 2010.
8. A. Goetzberger, C. Hebling, and H. W. Schock, Mater. Sci. Eng. R. 0927-796X 40, 1 (2003). 10.1016/S0927-796X(02)00092-X
9. F. Aratani, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 13, 463 (2005). 10.1002/pip.648
10. K. Bullis, Technol. Rev. 0040-1692 113, 52 (2010).
11. S. Mehta, 2009 Global PV Cell and Module Production Analysis (GTM Research, San Francisco, CA, 2009).
12. P. Mints, Analysis of Worldwide PV Markets and Five-Year Application Forecast 2009/2010 (Navigant Consulting, San Francisco, CA, 2010).
13. M. A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa, and W. Warta, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 346 (2010). 10.1002/pip.1021
14. D. S. Kim, V. Yelundur, K. Nakayashiki, B. Rounsaville, V. Meemongkolkiat, A. M. Gabor, and A. Rohatgi, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 90, 1227 (2006). 10.1016/j.solmat.2005.07.008
15. EFG-Solar Cell Product Specification Sheet (Schott Solar, Albuquerque, NM, 2010).
16. M. A. Green, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 9, 123 (2001). 10.1002/pip.360
17. W. Shockley and H. J. Queisser, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 32, 510 (1961). 10.1063/1.1736034
18. G. del Coso, I. Tobias, C. Canizo, and A. Luque, J. Cryst. Growth 0022-0248 299, 165 (2007). 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2006.12.004 (Pubitemid 46176986)
19. S. Pizzini, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 94, 1528 (2010). 10.1016/j.solmat.2010.01.016
20. M. Raugei, S. Bargigli, and S. Ulgiati, Energy 0360-5442 32, 1310 (2007). 10.1016/j.energy.2006.10.003 (Pubitemid 46589877)
21. T. F. Ciszek, Mater. Res. Bull. 0025-5408 7, 731 (1972). 10.1016/0025-5408(72)90121-3
22. T. F. Ciszek, J. L. Hurd, and M. Schietzelt, J. Electrochem. Soc. 0013-4651 129, 2838 (1982). 10.1149/1.2123689
23. J. P. Kalejs, J. Cryst. Growth 0022-0248 230, 10 (2001). 10.1016/S0022-0248(01)01352-5 (Pubitemid 32658081)
24. A. G. Aberle, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 65, 239 (2001). 10.1016/S0927-0248(00)00099-4
25. G. P. Smestad, Optoelectronics of Solar Cells (SPIE, Bellingham, WA, 2002). 10.1117/3.446028
26. M. Wolf in Proceedings of the 14th IEEE Photovoltaics Conference, San Diego, CA, 1980, p. 674.
27. M. J. Kerr, J. Schmidt, and A. Cuevas, in Proceedings of the 29th IEEE Photovoltaics Specialists Conference, New Orleans, LA, 2002, p. 438.
28. M. A. Green, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 7, 327 (1999). 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(199907/08)7:4<327::AID-PIP250>3.0.CO;2-B
29. A. Luque, A. Cuevas, and J. M. Ruiz, Sol. Cells 0379-6787 2, 151 (1980). 10.1016/0379-6787(80)90007-1
30. K. A. Munzer, K. T. Holdermann, R. E. Schlosser, and S. Sterk, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 0018-9383 46, 2055 (1999). 10.1109/16.791996 (Pubitemid 30523992)
31. V. Depauw, I. Gordon, G. Beaucarne, J. Poortmans, R. Mertens, and J. P. Celis, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 106, 033516 (2009). 10.1063/1.3183942
32. M. L. Terry, A. Straub, D. Inns, D. Y. Song, and A. G. Aberle, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 86, 172108 (2005). 10.1063/1.1921352 (Pubitemid 40861258)
33. D. Y. Song, D. Inns, A. Straub, M. L. Terry, P. Campbell, and A. G. Aberle, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 513, 356 (2006). 10.1016/j.tsf.2006.01.010 (Pubitemid 44202337)
34. F. Dross, J. Robbelein, B. Vandevelde, E. Van Kerschaver, I. Gordon, G. Beaucarne, and J. Poortmans, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process. 0947-8396 89, 149 (2007). 10.1007/s00339-007-4195-2 (Pubitemid 350092301)
35. C. Podewils, in Photon International, May, 2009, p. 116.
36. M. J. Kerr and A. Cuevas, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 0268-1242 17, 35 (2002). 10.1088/0268-1242/17/1/306 (Pubitemid 34080680)
37. J. Schmidt, A. Merkle, R. Brendel, B. Hoex, M. C. M. van de Sanden, and W. M. M. Kessels, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 16, 461 (2008). 10.1002/pip.823
38. D. Shir, J. Yoon, D. Chanda, J. H. Ryu, and J. A. Rogers, Nano Lett. 1530-6984 10, 3041 (2010). 10.1021/nl101510q
39. S. Pillai and M. A. Green, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 94, 1481 (2010). 10.1016/j.solmat.2010.02.046
40. P. C. Rowlette and C. A. Wolden, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 1, 2586 (2009). 10.1021/am900506y
41. S. Eglash, Laser Focus World 1043-8092 45, 39 (2009).
42. P. Engelhart, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 15, 521 (2007). 10.1002/pip.758
43. D. A. Cusano, Solid-State Electron. 0038-1101 6, 217 (1963). 10.1016/0038-1101(63)90078-9
44. J. Britt and C. Ferekides, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 62, 2851 (1993). 10.1063/1.109629
45. R. F. Brebrick and A. J. Strauss, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 0022-3697 25, 1441 (1964). 10.1016/0022-3697(64)90059-9
46. J. M. Kestner, S. McElvain, S. Kelly, L. M. Woods, T. R. Ohno, and C. A. Wolden, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 83, 55 (2004). 10.1016/j.solmat.2004.02.013
47. P. V. Meyers and S. P. Albright, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 8, 161 (2000). 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8:1<161::AID-PIP307>3.0.CO;2-A (Pubitemid 30583822)
48. X. Wu, Sol. Energy 0038-092X 77, 803 (2004). 10.1016/j.solener.2004.06. 006 (Pubitemid 39605889)
49. A. D. Compaan, A. Gupta, S. Lee, S. Wang, and J. Drayton, Sol. Energy 0038-092X 77, 815 (2004). 10.1016/j.solener.2004.06.013 (Pubitemid 39605890)
50. X. Wu, S. Asher, D. H. Levi, D. E. King, Y. Yan, T. A. Gessert, and P. Sheldon, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 89, 4564 (2001). 10.1063/1.1351539
51. N. Naghavi, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 411 (2010). 10.1002/pip.955
52. D. W. Niles, G. Herdt, and M. Al-Jassim, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 81, 1978 (1997). 10.1063/1.364054
53. M. A. Hernández-Fenollosa, D. P. Halliday, K. Durose, M. D. Campo, and J. Beier, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 431-432, 176 (2003). 10.1016/S0040-6090(03)00238-4
54. M. Carmody, S. Mallick, J. Margetis, R. Kodama, T. Biegala, D. Xu, P. Bechmann, J. W. Garland, and S. Sivananthan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 96, 153502 (2010). 10.1063/1.3386529
55. W. K. Metzger, I. L. Repins, and M. A. Contreras, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 93, 022110 (2008). 10.1063/1.2957983
56. J. Sites and J. Pan, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 515, 6099 (2007). 10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12.147 (Pubitemid 46635690)
57. M. Beck (personal communication).
58. M. A. Green, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 (2011) (in press).
59. D. Cahen and R. Noufi, Sol. Cells 0379-6787 30, 53 (1991). 10.1016/0379-6787(91)90037-P
60. H. R. Moutinho, M. M. Al-Jassim, D. H. Levi, P. C. Dippo, and L. L. Kazmerski, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 0734-2101 16, 1251 (1998). 10.1116/1.581269 (Pubitemid 128091577)
61. D. Grecu and A. D. Compaan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 75, 361 (1999). 10.1063/1.124375
62. Y. Yan, D. Albin, and M. M. Al-Jassim, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 78, 171 (2001). 10.1063/1.1338969 (Pubitemid 33661794)
63. S. Erra, C. Shivakumar, H. Zhao, K. Barri, D. L. Morel, and C. S. Ferekides, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 515, 5833 (2007). 10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12. 064 (Pubitemid 46635636)
64. T. A. Gessert, S. Asher, S. Johnston, M. Young, P. Dippo, and C. Corwine, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 515, 6103 (2007). 10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12.107 (Pubitemid 46635691)
65. V. M. Fthenakis, M. Fuhrmann, J. Heiser, A. Lanzirotti, J. Fitts, and W. Wang, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 13, 713 (2005). 10.1002/pip.624
66. H. Steinberger, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 6, 99 (1998). 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(199803/04)6:2<99::AID-PIP211>3.0.CO;2-Q
67. D. E. Carlson and C. R. Wronski, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 28, 671 (1976). 10.1063/1.88617
68. A. H. Mahan, Y. Xu, E. Iwaniczko, D. L. Williamson, B. P. Nelson, and Q. Wang, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 0022-3093 299-302, 2 (2002). 10.1016/S0022-3093(02) 00927-4 (Pubitemid 34473230)
69. A. V. Shah, H. Schade, M. Vanecek, J. Meier, E. Vallat-Sauvain, N. Wyrsch, U. Kroll, C. Droz, and J. Bailat, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 12, 113 (2004). 10.1002/pip.533
70. D. L. Staebler and C. R. Wronski, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 31, 292 (1977). 10.1063/1.89674
71. S. Veprek and V. Marecek, Solid-State Electron. 0038-1101 11, 683 (1968). 10.1016/0038-1101(68)90071-3
72. A. Shah, J. Meier, E. Vallat-Sauvain, C. Droz, U. Kroll, N. Wyrsch, J. Guillet, and U. Graf, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 403-404, 179 (2002). 10.1016/S0040-6090(01)01658-3 (Pubitemid 34102965)
73. J. Yang, A. Banerjee, and S. Guha, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 70, 2975 (1997). 10.1063/1.118761
74. M. Taguchi, H. Sakata, Y. Yoshimine, E. Maruyama, A. Terakawa, M. Tanaka, and S. Kiyama, in Proceedings of the of the 31st IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Orlando, FL, 2005, p. 866.
75. A. Poruba, A. Fejfar, Z. Remes, J. Springer, M. Vanecek, J. Kocka, J. Meier, P. Torres, and A. Shah, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 88, 148 (2000). 10.1063/1.373635
76. T. Roschek, T. Repmann, J. Muller, B. Rech, and H. Wagner, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 0734-2101 20, 492 (2002). 10.1116/1.1450585 (Pubitemid 34413237)
77. M. Fukawa, S. Suzuki, L. H. Guo, M. Kondo, and A. Matsuda, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 66, 217 (2001). 10.1016/S0927-0248(00)00176-8 (Pubitemid 32091944)
78. Y. Mai, S. Klein, R. Carius, J. Wolff, A. Lambertz, F. Finger, and X. Geng, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 97, 114913 (2005). 10.1063/1.1927689 (Pubitemid 40850280)
79. J. Rüdiger, H. Brechtel, A. Kottwitz, J. Kuske, and U. Stephan, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 427, 16 (2003). 10.1016/S0040-6090(02)01174-4
80. M. N. van den Donker, B. Rech, F. Finger, W. M. M. Kessels, and M. C. M. van de Sanden, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 87, 263503 (2005). 10.1063/1.2152115 (Pubitemid 43032067)
81. L. L. Kazmerski, F. R. White, and G. K. Morgan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 29, 268 (1976). 10.1063/1.89041
82. L. Stolt, J. Hedström, J. Kessler, M. Ruckh, K. -O. Velthaus, and H. -W. Schock, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 62, 597 (1993). 10.1063/1.108867
83. A. M. Gabor, J. R. Tuttle, D. S. Albin, M. A. Contreras, R. Noufi, and A. M. Herman, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 65, 198 (1994). 10.1063/1.112670
84. T. Anegawa, Y. Oda, T. Minemoto, and H. Takakura, J. Cryst. Growth 0022-0248 311, 742 (2009). 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2008.09.136
85. A. N. Tiwari, D. Lincot, and M. Contreras, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 389 (2010). 10.1002/pip.1010
86. S. Niki, M. Contreras, I. Repins, M. Powalla, K. Kushiya, S. Ishizuka, and K. Matsubara, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 453 (2010). 10.1002/pip.969
87. M. A. Contreras, B. Egaas, K. Ramanathan, J. Hiltner, F. Hasoon, and R. Noufi, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 7, 311 (1999). 10.1002/(SICI)1099- 159X(199907/08)7:4<311::AID-PIP274>3.0.CO;2-G
88. K. Ramanathan, G. Teeter, J. C. Keane, and R. Noufi, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 480-481, 499 (2005). 10.1016/j.tsf.2004.11.050 (Pubitemid 40643029)
89. R. Scheer, A. Ṕrez-Rodríguez, and W. K. Metzger, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 467 (2010). 10.1002/pip.966
90. C. J. Hibberd, E. Chassaing, W. Liu, D. B. Mitzi, D. Lincot, and A. N. Tiwari, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 434 (2010). 10.1002/pip.914
91. R. N. Bhattacharya, J. Electrochem. Soc. 0013-4651 130, 2040 (1983). 10.1149/1.2119516
92. D. Lincot, Sol. Energy 0038-092X 77, 725 (2004). 10.1016/j.solener.2004. 05.024 (Pubitemid 39605881)
93. M. G. Panthani, V. Akhavan, B. Goodfellow, J. P. Schmidtke, L. Dunn, A. Dodabalapur, P. F. Barbara, and B. A. Korgel, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 0002-7863 130, 16770 (2008). 10.1021/ja805845q
94. M. Kaelin, D. Rudmann, F. Kurdesau, T. Meyer, H. Zogg, and A. N. Tiwari, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 431-432, 58 (2003). 10.1016/S0040-6090(03)00194-9
95. V. K. Kapur, B. M. Basol, and E. S. Tseng, Sol. Cells 0379-6787 21, 65 (1987). 10.1016/0379-6787(87)90105-0
96. V. K. Kapur, A. Bansal, P. Le, and O. I. Asensio, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 431-432, 53 (2003). 10.1016/S0040-6090(03)00253-0
97. J. van Duren, D. Jackrel, F. Jacob, C. Leidholm, A. Pudov, M. Robinson, and Y. Roussillon, in Conference Record of the 17th International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference, Fukuoka, Japan, 2007.
98. D. B. Mitzi, Adv. Mater. 0935-9648 21, 3141 (2009). 10.1002/adma. 200802027
99. W. Liu, D. B. Mitzi, M. Yuan, A. J. Kellock, S. J. Chey, and O. Gunawan, Chem. Mater. 0897-4756 22, 1010 (2010). 10.1021/cm901950q
100. S. Siebentritt, M. Igalson, C. Persson, and S. Lany, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 390 (2010). 10.1002/pip.936
101. G. L. Graff, R. E. Williford, and P. E. Burrows, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 96, 1840 (2004). 10.1063/1.1768610
102. B. A. Andersson, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 8, 61 (2000). 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8:1<61::AID-PIP301>3.0.CO;2-6 (Pubitemid 30583829)
103. M. A. Green, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 17, 347 (2009). 10.1002/pip.899
104. C. Wadia, A. P. Alivisatos, and D. M. Kammen, Environ. Sci. Technol. 0013-936X 43, 2072 (2009). 10.1021/es8019534
105. V. Fthenakis, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 1364-0321 13, 2746 (2009). 10.1016/j.rser.2009.05.001
106. K. Zweibel, Science 0036-8075 328, 699 (2010). 10.1126/science.1189690
107. K. Zweibel, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 63, 375 (2000). 10.1016/S0927-0248(00)00057-X
108. B. O'Regan and M. Gratzel, Nature (London) 0028-0836 353, 737 (1991). 10.1038/353737a0 (Pubitemid 21738149)
109. A. Hagfeldt, G. Boschloo, L. Sun, L. Kloo, and H. Pettersson, Chem. Rev. (Washington, D.C.) 0009-2665 110, 6595 (2010). 10.1021/cr900356p
110. M. K. Nazeeruddin, A. Kay, I. Rodicio, R. Humphry-Baker, E. Mueller, P. Liska, N. Vlachopoulos, and M. Graetzel, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 0002-7863 115, 6382 (1993). 10.1021/ja00067a063
111. G. E. Tulloch, J. Photochem. Photobiol., A 1010-6030 164, 209 (2004). 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2004.01.027
112. T. W. Hamann, R. A. Jensen, A. B. F. Martinson, H. Van Ryswyk, and J. T. Hupp, Energy Environ. Sci. 1754-5692 1, 66 (2008). 10.1039/b809672d
113. R. Harikisun and H. Desilvestro, Sol. Energy 0038-092X (2011) (in press).
114. N. Kato, K. Higuchi, H. Tanaka, J. Nakajima, T. Sano, and T. Toyoda, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 95, 301 (2011). 10.1016/j.solmat.2010.04.019
115. C. J. Brabec, S. Gowrisanker, J. J. M. Halls, D. Laird, S. J. Jia, and S. P. Williams, Adv. Mater. 0935-9648 22, 3839 (2010). 10.1002/adma.200903697
116. Heliatek, http://www.heliatek.com/news-19, 1 December 2010.
117. Konarka, http://www.konarka.com/index.php/newsroom/press-release-list/, 1 December 2010.
118. C. W. Tang, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 48, 183 (1986). 10.1063/1.96937 (Pubitemid 17615575)
119. M. S. White, D. C. Olson, S. E. Shaheen, N. Kopidakis, and D. S. Ginley, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 89, 143517 (2006). 10.1063/1.2359579 (Pubitemid 44522287)
120. S. K. Hau, H. L. Yip, and A. K. Y. Jen, Polym. Rev. 1558-3724 50, 474 (2010). 10.1080/15583724.2010.515764
121. C. Tao, S. Ruan, G. Xie, X. Kong, L. Shen, F. Meng, C. Liu, X. Zhang, W. Dong, and W. Chen, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 94, 043311 (2009). 10.1063/1.3076134
122. M. Riede, T. Mueller, W. Tress, R. Schueppel, and K. Leo, Nanotechnology 0957-4484 19, 424001 (2008). 10.1088/0957-4484/19/42/424001
123. H. Spanggaard and F. C. Krebs, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 83, 125 (2004). 10.1016/j.solmat.2004.02.021
124. E. Bundgaard and F. C. Krebs, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 91, 954 (2007). 10.1016/j.solmat.2007.01.015 (Pubitemid 46635041)
125. R. Kroon, M. Lenes, J. C. Hummelen, P. W. M. Blom, and B. d. Boer, Polym. Rev. 1558-3724 48, 531 (2008). 10.1080/15583720802231833
126. M. J. Currie, J. K. Mapel, T. D. Heidel, S. Goffri, and M. A. Baldo, Science 0036-8075 321, 226 (2008). 10.1126/science.1158342 (Pubitemid 351989089)
127. D. Veldman, S. C. J. Meskers, and R. A. J. Janssen, Adv. Funct. Mater. 1616-301X 19, 1939 (2009). 10.1002/adfm.200900090
128. T. Ameri, G. Dennler, C. Lungenschmied, and C. J. Brabec, Energy Environ. Sci. 1754-5692 2, 347 (2009). 10.1039/b817952b
129. A. Anctil, C. Babbit, B. Landi, and R. P. Raffaelle, in Proceedings of the 35th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist Conference, Honolulu, HI, 2010, p. 742.
130. R. García-Valverde, J. A. Cherni, and A. Urbina, Prog. Photovoltaics 1062-7995 18, 535 (2010). 10.1002/pip.967
131. J. Kalowekamo and E. Baker, Sol. Energy 0038-092X 83, 1224 (2009). 10.1016/j.solener.2009.02.003
132. R. Tipnis, J. Bernkopf, S. J. Jia, J. Krieg, S. Li, M. Storch, and D. Laird, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 93, 442 (2009). 10.1016/j.solmat.2008.11.018
133. V. Shrotriya, Nat. Photonics 1749-4885 3, 447 (2009). 10.1038/nphoton.2009.130
134. M. Jørgensen, K. Norrman, and F. C. Krebs, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 92, 686 (2008). 10.1016/j.solmat.2008.01.005
135. A. O. Musa, T. Akomolafe, and M. J. Carter, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 51, 305 (1998). 10.1016/S0927-0248(97)00233-X
136. A. Ennaoui, S. Fiechter, C. Pettenkofer, N. Alonsovante, K. Buker, M. Bronold, C. Hopfner, and H. Tributsch, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 29, 289 (1993). 10.1016/0927-0248(93)90095-K
137. H. Katagiri, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 480-481, 426 (2005). 10.1016/j.tsf.2004.11.024 (Pubitemid 40643016)
138. H. Katagiri, K. Saitoh, T. Washio, H. Shinohara, T. Kurumadani, and S. Miyajima, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 65, 141 (2001). 10.1016/S0927-0248(00)00088-X
139. K. Oishi, Thin Solid Films 0040-6090 517, 1449 (2008). 10.1016/j.tsf.2008.09.056
140. Q. J. Guo, H. W. Hillhouse, and R. Agrawal, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 0002-7863 131, 11672 (2009). 10.1021/ja904981r
141. C. Steinhagen, M. G. Panthani, V. Akhavan, B. Goodfellow, B. Koo, and B. A. Korgel, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 0002-7863 131, 12554 (2009). 10.1021/ja905922j
142. T. K. Todorov, K. B. Reuter, and D. B. Mitzi, Adv. Mater. 0935-9648 22, E156 (2010). 10.1002/adma.200904155
143. N. S. Lewis and G. Crabtree, Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization (U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, 2005).
144. R. D. Schaller and V. I. Klimov, Phys. Rev. Lett. 0031-9007 92, 186601 (2004). 10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.186601
145. A. J. Nozik, Chem. Phys. Lett. 0009-2614 457, 3 (2008). 10.1016/j.cplett.2008.03.094
146. W. A. Tisdale, K. J. Williams, B. A. Timp, D. J. Norris, E. S. Aydil, and X. -Y. Zhu, Science 0036-8075 328, 1543 (2010). 10.1126/science.1185509
147. J. B. Sambur, T. Novet, and B. A. Parkinson, Science 0036-8075 330, 63 (2010). 10.1126/science.1191462
148. J. M. Luther, M. Law, M. C. Beard, Q. Song, M. O. Reese, R. J. Ellingson, and A. J. Nozik, Nano Lett. 1530-6984 8, 3488 (2008). 10.1021/nl802476m
149. Y. Wu, C. Wadia, W. L. Ma, B. Sadtler, and A. P. Alivisatos, Nano Lett. 1530-6984 8, 2551 (2008). 10.1021/nl801817d
150. J. F. Geisz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 91, 023502 (2007). 10.1063/1.2753729 (Pubitemid 47114791)
151. J. D. Beach and B. E. McCandless, Mater. Res. Bull. 0025-5408 32, 225 (2007). 10.1557/mrs2007.26
152. National Nanotechnology Initiative-2011 Budget Supplement, http://www.nano.gov/NNI-2011-budget-supplement.pdf, 2010.
153. S. Chhajed, M. F. Schubert, J. K. Kim, and E. F. Schubert, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 93, 251108 (2008). 10.1063/1.3050463
154. K. Tanabe, Energy 0360-5442 2, 504 (2009). 10.3390/en20300504
155. B. P. Rand, P. Peumans, and S. R. Forrest, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 96, 7519 (2004). 10.1063/1.1812589 (Pubitemid 40044446)
156. A. J. Morfa, K. L. Rowlen, T. H. Reilly, M. J. Romero, and J. van de Lagemaat, Appl. Phys. Lett. 0003-6951 92, 013504 (2008). 10.1063/1.2823578
157. C. Strumpel, M. McCann, G. Beaucarne, V. Arkhipov, A. Slaoui, V. Svrcek, C. del Canizo, and I. Tobias, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 0927-0248 91, 238 (2007). 10.1016/j.solmat.2006.09.003 (Pubitemid 44880111)
158. D. Timmerman, I. Izeddin, P. Stallinga, I. N. Yassievich, and T. Gregorkiewicz, Nat. Photonics 1749-4885 2, 105 (2008). 10.1038/nphoton.2007.279
159. T. Trupke, M. A. Green, and P. Wurfel, J. Appl. Phys. 0021-8979 92, 4117 (2002). 10.1063/1.1505677 (Pubitemid 35209206)
160. F. Auzel, Chem. Rev. (Washington, D.C.) 0009-2665 104, 139 (2004). 10.1021/cr020357g