Elasto-capillarity: Deforming an elastic structure with a liquid droplet

Journal of Physics Condensed Matter

Volumn 22, Issue 49, 2010, Pages

  Roman, B ^a   Bico, J ^a  

^a ESPCI   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DROPS; ELASTICITY; LIQUIDS; MICROSTRUCTURE;

3D MICROSTRUCTURES; DIFFERENT LENGTH SCALE; ELASTIC STRUCTURES; ELASTO CAPILLARITIES; MACROSCOPIC SCALE; MICRO ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEM (MEMS); SLENDER STRUCTURES; THIN-FILM COATINGS;

MEMS;

EID: 78649810065     PISSN: 09538984     EISSN: 1361648X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/22/49/493101     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Adamson A W and Gast A P 1997 Physical Chemistry of Surfaces 6th edn (New York: Wiley-Interscience)
2. de Gennes P G, Brochard-Wyard F and Quéré D 2003 Capillarity and Wetting Phenomena: Drops, Bubbles, Pearls, Waves 1st edn (New York: Springer)
3. Madou M J 2002 Fundamentals of Microfabrication: The Science of Miniaturization 2nd edn (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press)
4. Mastrangelo C H and Hsu C H 1993 Mechanical stability and adhesion of microstructures under capillary forces - part ii: experiments J. Microelectromech. Syst. 2 33-43
5. Abe T and Reed M L 1996 Control of liquid bridging induced stiction of micromechanical structures J. Micromech. Microeng. 6 213-6
6. Mayer T M, de Boer M P, Shinn N D, Clews P J and Michalske T A 2000 Chemical vapor deposition of fluoroalkylsilane monolayer films for adhesion control in microelectromechanical systems J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 18 2433-40
7. van SpengenW M, Puers R and De Wolf I 2002 A physical model to predict stiction in MEMS J. Micromech. Microeng. 12 702-13
8. Raccurt O, Tardif F, Arnaud d'Avitaya F and Vareine T 2004 Influence of liquid surface tension on stiction of SOI MEMS J. Micromech. Microeng. 14 1083-90
9. Tanaka T, Morigami M and Atoda N 1993 Mechanism of resist pattern collapse during development process Japan. J. Appl. Phys. 1 32 6059-64
10. Namatsu H, Kurihara K, Nagase M, Iwadate K and Murase K 1995 Dimensional limitations of silicon nanolines resulting from pattern distortion due to surface-tension of rinse water Appl. Phys. Lett. 66 2655-7
11. Hui C Y, Jagota A, Lin Y Y and Kramer E J 2002 Constraints on microcontact printing imposed by stamp deformation Langmuir 18 1394-407
12. Sharp K G, Blackman G S, Glassmaker N J, Jagota A and Hui C Y 2004 Effect of stamp deformation on the quality of microcontact printing: theory and experiment Langmuir 20 6430-8
13. Tas N, Sonnenberg T, Jansen H, Legtenberg R and Elwenspoek M 1996 Stiction in surface micromachining J. Micromech. Microeng. 6 385-97
14. Mastrangelo C H 1997 Adhesion-related failure mechanisms in micromechanical devices Tribol. Lett. 3 223-38
15. Maboudian R and Howe R T 1997 Critical review: adhesion in surface micromechanical structures J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 15 1-20
16. Nguyen C V, Delzeit L, Cassell A M, Li J, Han J and MeyyappanM 2002 Preparation of nucleic acid functionalized carbon nanotube arrays Nano Lett. 2 1079-81
17. Lau K K S, Bico J, Teo K B K, Chhowalla M, Amaratunga G A J, Milne W I, McKinley G H and Gleason K K 2003 Superhydrophobic carbon nanotube forests Nano Lett. 3 1701-5
18. Chakrapani N, Wei B, Carrillo A, Ajayan P M and Kane R S 2004 Capillarity-driven assembly of two-dimensional cellular carbon nanotube foams Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101 4009-12
19. Liu H, Li S H, Zhai J, Li H J, Zheng Q S, Jiang L and Zhu D B 2004 Self-assembly of large-scale micropatterns on aligned carbon nanotube films Angew. Chem. Int. Edn 43 1146-9
20. Journet C, Moulinet S, Ybert C, Purcell S T and Bocquet L 2005 Contact angle measurements on superhydrophobic carbon nanotube forests: effect of fluid pressure Europhys. Lett. 71 104-9
21. Dev A and Chaudhuri S 2007 Uniform large-scale growth of micropatterned arrays of ZnO nanowires synthesized by a surfactant assisted approach Nanotechnology 18 175607
22. Fan J G, Dyer D, Zhang G and Zhao Y P 2004 Nanocarpet effect: pattern formation during the wetting of vertically aligned nanorod arrays Nano Lett. 4 2133-8
23. Fan J G and Zhao Y P 2006 Characterization of watermarks formed in nano-carpet effect Langmuir 22 3662-71
24. Chandra D, Taylor J A and Yang S 2008 Replica molding of high-aspect-ratio (sub-)micron hydrogel pillar arrays and their stability in air and solvents Soft Matter 4 979-84
25. Chandra D and Yang S 2009 Capillary-force-induced clustering of micropillar arrays: is it caused by isolated capillary bridges or by the lateral capillary meniscus interaction force? Langmuir 25 10430-4
26. Paulose J, Nelson D R and Aizenberg J 2010 Two-parameter sequential adsorption model applied to microfiber clustering Soft Matter 6 2421-34
27. Otten A and Herminghaus S 2004 How plants keep dry: a physicists point of view Langmuir 20 2405-8
28. Bernardino N R, Blickle V and Dietrich S 2010Wetting of surfaces covered by elastic hairs Langmuir 26 7233-41
29. Fan J and Zhao Y 2010 Nanocarpet effect induced superhydrophobicity Langmuir 26 8245-50
30. van Honschoten J W, Escalante M, Tas N R, Jansen H V and Elwenspoek M 2007 Elastocapillary filling of deformable nanochannels J. Appl. Phys. 101 094310
31. van Honschoten J W, Escalante M, Tas N R and ElwenspoekM 2009 Formation of liquid menisci in flexible nanochannels J. Colloid Interface Sci. 329 133-9
32. Tas N R, Escalante M, van Honschoten J W, Jansen H V and Elwenspoek M 2010 Capillarity negative pressure measured by nanochannel collapse Langmuir 26 1473-6
33. van Honschoten J W, Brunets N and Tas N R 2010 Capillarity at the nanoscale Chem. Soc. Rev. 39 1096-114
34. Yang Y, Gao Y F, Sun D Y, Asta M and Hoyt J J 2010 Capillary force induced structural deformation in liquid infiltrated elastic circular tubes Phys. Rev. B 81 241407
35. Park K J and Kim H-Y 2008 Bending of floating flexible legs J. Fluid Mech. 610 381-90
36. Vella D 2008 Floating objects with finite resistance to bending Langmuir 24 8701-6
37. Eisner T and Aneshansley D J 2000 Defense by foot adhesion in a beetle (Hemisphaerota cyanea) Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97 6568-73
38. Vogel S 2006 Living in a physical world VIII, gravity and life in water J. Biosci. 31 309-22 (Pubitemid 44411504)
39. Flynn M R and Bush J W M 2008 Underwater breathing: the mechanics of plastron respiration J. Fluid Mech. 608 275-96
40. Halpern D and Grotberg J B 1992 Fluid-elastic instabilities of liquid-lined flexible tubes J. Fluid Mech. 244 615-32
41. Clements J A 1997 Lung surfactant: a personal perspective Annu. Rev. Physiol. 59 1-21
42. Heil M andWhite J P 2002 Airway closure: surface-tension-driven non-axisymmetric instabilities of liquid-lined elastic rings J. Fluid Mech. 462 79-109
43. Hazel A L and Heil M 2005 Surface-tension-induced buckling of liquid-lined elastic tubes: a model for pulmonary airway closure Proc. R. Soc. A 461 1847-68
44. Grotberg J B and Jensen O E 2004 Biofluid mechanics in flexible tubes Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 36 121-47
45. Lester G R 1961 Contact angles of liquids at deformable solid surfaces J. Colloid Sci. 16 315-26
46. Rusanov A I 1978 On the thermodynamic of deformable solid surfaces J. Colloid Interface Sci. 63 330-45
47. ShanahanM E R and Carré A 1995 Viscoelastic dissipation in wetting and adhesion phenomena Langmuir 11 1396-402
48. Carré A, Gastel J C and Shanahan M E R 1996 Viscoelastic effects in the spreading of liquids Nature 379 432-4
49. Pericet-Camara R, Best A, Butt H-J and Bonaccurso E 2008 Effect of capillary pressure and surface tension on the deformation of elastic surfaces by sessile liquid microdrops: an experimental investigation Langmuir 24 10565-8
50. Pericet-Camara R, Auernhammer G K, Koynov K, Lorenzoni S, Raiteri R and Bonaccurso E 2009 Solid-supported thin elastomer films deformed by microdrops Soft Matter 5 3611-7
51. Yu Y-S and Zhao Y-P 2009 Elastic deformation of soft membrane with finite thickness induced by a sessile liquid droplet J. Colloid Interface Sci. 339 489-94
52. Extrand C W and Kumagai Y 1996 Contact angles and hysteresis on soft surfaces J. Colloid Interface Sci. 184 191-200
53. Carré A and ShanahanMER 1997 Effect of cross-linking on the dewetting of an elastomeric surface J. Colloid Interface Sci. 191 141-5
54. Sokuler M, Auernhammer G K, Roth M, Liu C, Bonaccurso E and Butt H-J 2010 The softer the better: fast condensation on soft surfaces Langmuir 26 1544-7
55. Johnson K L, Kendall K and Roberts A D 1971 Energy and the contact of elastic solids Proc. R. Soc. A 324 301-13
56. Landau L D and Lifshitz E M 1986 Theory of Elasticity 3rd edn (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann)
57. Timoshenko S P and Woinowsky-Krieger S 1959 Theory of Plates and Shells 2nd edn (Singapore: McGraw-Hill)
58. Py C, Reverdy P, Doppler L, Bico J, Roman B and Baroud C N 2007 Capillary origami: spontaneous wrapping of a droplet with an elastic sheet Phys. Rev. Lett. 98 156103
59. Cohen A E and Mahadevan L 2003 Kinks, rings, and rackets in filamentous structures Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100 12141-6
60. ZhouW, Huang Y, Liu B, Hwang K C, Zuo J M, Buehler M J and Gao H 2007 Self-folding of single- and multiwall carbon nanotubes Appl. Phys. Lett. 90 073107
61. Cranford S, Sen D and Buehler M J 2009 Meso-origami: folding multilayer graphene sheets Appl. Phys. Lett. 95 123121
62. Py C, Bastien R, Bico J, Roman B and Boudaoud A 2007 3D aggregation of wet fibers Europhys. Lett. 77 44005
63. Kendall K 1971 The adhesion and surface energy of elastic solids J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 4 1186-95
64. Kendall K 1976 Preparation and properties of rubber dislocations Nature 261 35-6
65. Vella D, Bico J, Boudaoud A, Roman B and Reis P M 2009 The macroscopic delamination of thin films from elastic substrates Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106 10901-6
66. Obreimoff J W 1930 The splitting strength of mica Proc. R. Soc. A 127 290-7
67. Barthel E, Kerjan O, Nael P and Nadaud N 2005 Asymmetric silver to oxide adhesion in multilayers deposited on glass by sputtering Thin Solid Films 473 272-7
68. Majidi C and Adams G G 2009 A simplified formulation of adhesion problems with elastic plates Proc. R. Soc. A 465 2217-30
69. Majidi C and Adams G G 2010 Adhesion and delamination boundary conditions for elastic plates with arbitrary contact shapeMech. Res. Commun. 37 214-8
70. Kim H Y and Mahadevan L 2006 Capillary rise between elastic sheets J. Fluid Mech. 548 141-50
71. Tyree M T and Zimmerman M H 2002 Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap (New York: Springer)
72. Noblin X, Westbrook J, Rojas N, Argentina M and Dumais J 2009 Biomechanics of fern spores discharge: the sporangium opening Proc. 6th Plant Biomechanics Conf. (Cayenne) pp 179-86
73. Borno R T, Steinmeyer J D and Maharbiz M M 2006 Transpiration actuation: the design, fabrication and characterization of biomimetic microactuators driven by the surface tension of water J. Micromech. Microeng. 16 2375-83
74. Bico J, Roman B, Moulin L and Boudaoud A 2004 Elastocapillary coalescence in wet hair Nature 432 690
75. Liu J-L, Feng X-Q, Xia R and Zhao H-P 2007 Hierarchical capillary adhesion of microcantilevers or hairs J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 40 5564-70
76. Kwon H-M, Kim H-Y, Puell J and Mahadevan L 2008 Equilibrium of an elastically confined liquid drop J. Appl. Phys. 103 093519
77. Kim C-J, Kim J Y and Sridharan B 1998 Comparative evaluation of drying techniques for surface micromachining Sensors Actuators A 64 17-26
78. Deladi S, Svetovoy V, Krijen G J M and Elwenspoek M C 2004 Flash release - an alternative for releasing complex MEMS devices J. Micromech. Microeng. 14 1659-64
79. Hill J J, Haller K, Gelfand B and Ziegler K J 2010 Eliminating capillary coalescence of nanowire arrays with applied electric fields Appl. Mat. Inter. 2 1992-8
80. Burns S J and Lawn B R 1968 A simulated crack experiment illustrating the energy balance criterion Int. J. Fract. Mech. 4 339-45
81. Chopin J, Vella D and Boudaoud A 2008 The liquid blister test Proc. R. Soc. A 464 2887-906
82. Hutchinson J W and Suo Z 1992 Mixed mode cracking in layered materials Adv. Appl. Mech. 29 63-191
83. Mei Y, Thurmer D J, Cavallo F, Kiravittaya S and Schmidt O G 2007 Semiconductor sub-micro-/nanochannel networks by deterministic layer wrinkling Adv. Mater. 19 2124-8
84. Annabattula R K, Veenstra J M, Mei Y F, Schmidt O G and Onck P R 2010 Self-organization of linear nanochannel networks Phys. Rev. B 81 224114
85. Boudaoud A, Bico J and Roman B 2007 Elastocapillary coalescence: aggregation and fragmentation with a maximal size Phys. Rev. E 76 060102
86. Pokroy B, Kang S H, Mahadevan L and Aizenberg J 2009 Self-organization of a mesoscale bristle into ordered, hierarchical helical assemblies Science 323 237-40
87. Zhao Y P and Fan J G 2006 Clusters of bundled nanorods in nanocarpet effect Appl. Phys. Lett. 88 103123
88. Chandra D and Yang S 2010 Stability of high-aspect-ratio micropillar arrays against adhesive and capillary forces Acc. Chem. Res. 43 1080-91
89. ChaudhuryM K, Weaver T, Hui C Y and Kramer E J 1996 Adhesive contact of cylindrical lens and a flat sheet J. Appl. Phys. 80 30-7
90. Roca-Cusachs P, Rico F, Martínez E, Toset J, Farré R and Navajas D 2005 Stability of microfabricated high aspect ratio structures in poly(dimethylsiloxane) Langmuir 21 5542-8
91. Geim A K, Dubonos S V, Grigorieva I V, Novoselov K S, Zhukov A A and Shapoval S Y 2003 Microfabricated adhesive mimicking gecko foot-hair Nat. Mater. 2 461-3
92. Autumn K, Liang Y A, Hsieh S T, ZeschW, Chan W P, Kenny T W, Fearing R and Full R J 2000 Adhesive force of a single gecko foot-hair Nature 405 681-5
93. Yao H and Gao H 2006 Mechanics of robust and releasable adhesion in biology: bottom-up designed hierarchical structures of gecko J. Mech. Phys. Solids 54 1120-46
94. Bush J W M and Hu D L 2006 Walking on water: biolocomotion at the interface Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 38 339-69
95. Neukirch S, Roman B, de Gaudemaris B and Bico J 2007 Piercing a liquid surface with an elastic rod: buckling under capillary forces J. Mech. Phys. Solids 55 1212-35
96. Kornev K G, Callegari G, Kuppler J, Ruetsch S and Neimark A V 2006 Ribbon-to-fiber transformation in the process of spinning of carbon-nanotube dispersion Phys. Rev. Lett. 97 188303
97. Chiodi F, Roman B and Bico J 2010 Piercing an interface with a brush: collaborative stiffening Europhys. Lett. 90 44006
98. Wosten H A B, van Wetter M A, Lugones L G, van der Mei H C, Busscher H J and Wessels J G H 1999 How a fungus escapes the water to grow into the air Curr. Biol. 9 85-8
99. Vollrath F and Edmonds T E 1989 Modulation of the mechanical properties of spider silk by coating with water Nature 340 305-7
100. Marky N L and Manning G S 1991 The elastic resilience of DNA can induce all-or-none structural transitions in the nucleosome core particle Biopolymers 31 1543-57
101. Schiessel H 2003 The physics of chromatin J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 15 R699-774
102. Bonaccurso E and Butt H-J 2005 Microdrops on atomic force microscope cantilevers: evaporation of water and spring constant calibration J. Phys. Chem. B 109 253-63
103. Haschke T, Bonaccurso E, Butt H-J, Lautenschlager D, Schönfeld F and Wiechert W 2006 Sessile-drop-induced bending of atomic force microscope cantilevers: a model system for monitoring microdrop evaporation J. Micromech. Microeng. 16 2273-80
104. Zheng X-P, Zhao H-P, Gao L-T, Liu J-L, Yu S-W and Feng X-Q 2008 Elasticity-driven droplet movement on a microbeam with gradient stiffness: a biomimetic self-propelling mechanism J. Colloid Interface Sci. 323 133-40
105. Bowden N, Choi I S, Grzybowski B A and Whitesides G M 1999 Mesoscale self-assembly of hexagonal plates using lateral capillary forces: synthesis using the 'capillary bond' J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121 5373-91
106. Green P W, Syms R R A and Yeatman E M 1995 Demonstration of three-dimensional microstructure self-assembly J. Microelectromech. Syst. 4 170-6
107. Gracias D H, Kavthekar V, Love J C, Paul K E and Whitesides G M 2002 Fabrication of micrometer-scale, patterned polyhedra by self-assembly Adv. Mater. 14 235
108. Syms R R A, Yeatman E M, Bright V M andWhitesides G M 2003 Surface tension-powered self-assembly of micro structures - the state-of-the-art J. Microelectromech. Syst. 12 387-417
109. Boncheva M, Bruzewicz D A and Whitesides G M 2003 Millimeter-scale self-assembly and its applications Pure Appl. Chem. 75 621-30
110. Mastrangeli M, Abbasi S, Varel C, Van Hoof C, Celis J-P and Boehringer K F 2009 Self-assembly from milli-to nanoscales: methods and applications J. Micromech. Microeng. 19 083001
111. Leong T G, Zarafshar A M and Gracias D H 2010 Three-dimensional fabrication at small size scales Small 6 792-806
112. van Honschoten J W, Berenschot J W, Ondarçuhu T, Sanders R G P, Sundaram J, Elwenspoek M and Tas N R 2010 Elastocapillary fabrication of three-dimensional microstructures Appl. Phys. Lett. 97 014103
113. Cho J-H and Gracias D H 2009 Self-assembly of lithographically patterned nanoparticles Nano Lett. 9 4049-52
114. Cho J-H, Azam A and Gracias D H 2010 Three-dimensional nanofabrication using surface forces Langmuir 26 16534-9
115. Cho J-H, James T and Gracias D H 2010 Curving nanostructures using extrinsic stress Adv. Mater. 22 2320-4
116. Guo X, Li H, Ahn B Y, Duoss E B, Hsia K J, Lewis J A and Nuzzo R G 2009 Two- and three-dimensional folding of thin film single-crystalline silicon for photovoltaic power applications Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106 20149-54
117. Patra N, Wang B and Kral P 2009 Nanodroplet activated and guided folding of graphene nanostructures Nano Lett. 9 3766-71
118. de Langre E, Baroud C N and Reverdy P 2010 Energy criteria for elasto-capillary wrapping J. Fluid Struct. 26 205-17
119. Antkowiak A, Rivetti M, Audoly B, Neukirch S and Josserand C 2010 Instant capillary origami, in preparation
120. Piñeirua M, Bico J and Roman B 2010 Capillary origami controlled by electrowetting Soft Matter 6 4491-6
121. Jung S, Reis P M, James J, Clanet C and Bush J W M 2009 Capillary origami in nature Phys. Fluids 21 091110
122. Reis P M, Hure J, Jung S, Bush J W M and Clanet C 2010 Grabbing water Soft Matter 6 5705-8
123. Yuan Q and Zhao Y-P 2010 Precursor film in dynamic wetting, electrowetting, and electro-elasto-capillarity Phys. Rev. Lett. 104 246101
124. Armstrong J E 2002 Fringe science: are the corollas of Nymphoides (Menyanthaceae) flowers adapted for surface tension interactions? Am. J. Bot. 89 362-5
125. Pocivavsek L, Dellsy R, Kern A, Johnson S, Lin B, Lee K Y C and Cerda E 2008 Stress and fold localization in thin elastic membranes Science 320 912-6
126. Huang J, Davidovitch B, Santangelo C, Russel T P and Menon N 2010 Smooth cascade of wrinkles at the edge of a floating elastic film Phys. Rev. Lett. 105 038302
127. Huang J, Juszkiewicz M, de JeuW H, Cerda E, Emrick T, Menon N and Russell T P 2007 Capillary wrinkling of floating thin polymer films Science 317 650-3
128. Cerda E, Ravi-Chandar K and Mahadevan L 2002 Wrinkling of an elastic sheet under tension Nature 419 579-80
129. Fortes M A 1984 Deformation of solid surfaces due to capillary forces J. Colloid Interface Sci. 100 17-26
130. Kern R 1992 Deformation of an elastic thin solid induced by a liquid droplet Surf. Sci. 264 467-94
131. Olives J 1993 Capillarity and elasticity. The example of the thin plate J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 5 2081-94
132. Métois J J 1991 Elastic straining of a thin graphite layer by a liquid droplet or a non-epitaxed Pb crystallite Surf. Sci. 241 279-88
133. Huang J, Menon N and Russell T P 2010 Soft Matter at press
134. Struik D J 1988 Lectures on Classical Differential Geometry 2nd edn (New York: Dover)
135. Alben S and Brenner M P 2007 Self-assembly of flat sheets into closed surfaces Phys. Rev. E 75 056113
136. Boncheva M, Andreev S A, Mahadevan L, Winkleman A, Reichman D R, Prentiss M G, Whitesides S and Whitesides G M 2005 Magnetic self-assembly of three-dimensional surfaces from planar sheets Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102 3924-9
137. Hure J, Bico J and Roman B 2010 Wrapping an adhesive sphere with a sheet, in preparation
138. Noblin X, Yang S and Dumais J 2009 Surface tension propulsion of fungal spores J. Exp. Biol. 212 2835-43
139. Aristoff J M, Duprat C and Stone H A 2010 Elastocapillary imbibition Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. at press (doi:10.1016/j.ijnonlinmec.2010.09.001)
140. Duprat C, Aristoff J M and Stone H A 2010 Dynamics of elastocapillary rise J. Fluid Mech. submitted
141. Cambeau T and Reyssat E 2010 Capillary rise in flexible channels, in preparation
142. Monaenkova D and Kornev K G 2010 Elastocapillarity: stress transfer through fibrous probes in wicking experiments J. Colloid Interface Sci. 348 240-349
143. Lobkovsky A, Gentges S, Li H, Morse D andWitten T A 1995 Scaling properties of stretching ridges in a crumpled elastic sheet Science 270 1482-5
144. Ben Amar M and Pomeau Y 1997 Crumpled paper Proc. R. Soc. A 453 729-55
145. Witten T A 2007 Stress focusing in elastic sheets Rev. Mod. Phys. 79 643-75
146. Gordon J E 1991 Structures 1st edn (London: Penguin Books)
147. Vogel S 2006 Living in a physical world VII, gravity and life on the ground J. Biosci. 31 201-14 (Pubitemid 44285655)
148. Vogel S 1994 Life in Moving Fluids 2nd edn (Princeton: Princeton University Press)