Hormonal and metabolic modulation through nutrition: Towards a primary prevention of breast cancer

Breast

Volumn 19, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 322-332

  Ronco, Alvaro L ^a,b   De Stéfani, Eduardo ^c   Stoll, Mario ^d  

^a Facultad de Medicina   (Uruguay)

^b Centro Hospitalario Pereira Rossell   (Uruguay)

^c HOSPITAL DE CLÍNICAS   (Uruguay)

^d Unidad de Genética Molecular   (Uruguay)

Author keywords

Anthropometry; Breast cancer; Epidemiology; Estrogens; Fatty acids; Nutrition; Prevention

Indexed keywords

CAROTENOID; CHOLESTEROL; ESTROGEN; FAT; MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; PHYTOESTROGEN; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; SATURATED FATTY ACID; VITAMIN D;

ANTHROPOMETRY; BODY COMPOSITION; BREAST CANCER; CANCER PREVENTION; CANCER RISK; DAIRY PRODUCT; DIETARY INTAKE; ESTROGEN METABOLISM; FISH; FRUIT; HORMONAL REGULATION; HORMONE ACTION; HUMAN; LEGUME; LIPID DIET; METABOLIC REGULATION; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; POULTRY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RED MEAT; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SOMATOTYPE; VEGETABLE; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

EID: 77957143924     PISSN: 09609776     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.breast.2010.05.005     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Ferlay J., Bray F., Pisani P., Parkin D.M. GLOBOCAN 2002: cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence worldwide IARC CancerBase No. 5 2004, Version 2.0, IARC Press, Lyon.
2. Cancer incidence in five continents 2002, vol. 8. IARC Scientific Publications No. 155, IARC, Lyon. D.M. Parkin, S.L. Whelan, J. Ferlay, L. Teppo, D.B. Thomas (Eds.).
3. Food and Agricultural Organization [Accessed 30.04.10]. http://faostat.fao.org/site/610/DesktopDefault.aspx%3FPageID%3D610%23ancor.
4. United Nations Organization, Program of Human Development Human development index rankings Available at:, [accessed 27.04.10]. http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/.
5. U.S.Census Bureau International data base [accessed 30.04.10]. http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/country.php.
6. Matos E., Brandani A. Review on meat consumption and cancer in South America. Mutat Res 2002, 506-507:243-249.
7. Lafon L., Ronco A.L. Analysis of geographic distribution of cancer in Montevideo. Rev Med Uruguay 2002, 1:36-47. [in Spanish].
8. Ronco A., De Stéfani E., Mendilaharsu M., Deneo-Pellegrini H. Meat, fat and the risk of breast cancer: a case-control study from Uruguay. Int J Cancer 1996, 65:328-331.
9. De Stéfani E., Ronco A., Mendilaharsu M., Guidobono M., Deneo-Pellegrini H. Meat intake, heterocyclic amines, and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study in Uruguay. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997, 6:573-581.
10. De Stéfani E., Deneo-Pellegrini H., Mendilaharsu M., Ronco A.L. Essential fatty acids and breast cancer: a case-control study in Uruguay. Int J Cancer 1998, 76:491-494.
11. De Stéfani E., Correa P., Ronco A., Mendilaharsu M., Guidobono M., Deneo-Pellegrini H. Dietary fiber and risk of breast cancer. A case-control study in Uruguay. Nutr Cancer 1997, 28:14-19.
12. Ronco A.L., De Stéfani E., Boffetta P., Deneo-Pellegrini H., Mendilaharsu M., Leborgne F. Vegetables, fruits, and related nutrients and risk of breast cancer: a case control study in Uruguay. Nutr Cancer 1999, 35:111-119.
13. Ronco A.L., De Stéfani E. Role of classic and dietary discriminant factors for classification of breast cancer high-risk populations: a study with neural networks. Cancer Strategy 1999, 1:203-209.
14. Ronco A.L., De Stéfani E. Phytoestrogens and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study. Rev Med Uruguay 1999, 94-102. [in Spanish].
15. Ronco A.L., De Stéfani E., Dáttoli R. Dairy foods and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study in Montevideo, Uruguay. Eur J Cancer Prev 2002, 11:457-463.
16. Ronco A.L., De Stéfani E., Fabra A. White meat intake and the risk of breast cancer: a case-control study in Montevideo, Uruguay. Nutr Res 2003, 23:151-162.
17. Ronco A., De Stéfani E., Deneo-Pellegrini H., Fabra A. Polyunsaturated fats consumption and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study. Rev Bras Nutr Clin 2005, 20:S1-SS8. p. 12 [in Spanish].
18. Ronco A., De Stéfani E., Boffetta P., Deneo-Pellegrini H., Acosta G., Mendilaharsu M. Food patterns and risk of breast cancer: a factor analysis study in Uruguay. Int J Cancer 2006, 19:1672-1678.
19. Mendoza B., Ronco A. Vitamin D and breast cancer: a short review. Biomedicina 2007, 2:139-148.
20. Ronco A.L., De Stéfani E., Deneo-Pellegrini H. Fruit intake and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study. Frontiers in breast cancer research 2008, 175-186. Nova Science Publishers, New York. L.P. Fortugno (Ed.).
21. Ronco A.L., Mendoza B., Varas X., Jaumandreu S., De Stéfani E., Febles G., et al. Somatotype and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study in Uruguay. Braz J Epidemiol 2008, 11:215-227.
22. Ronco A.L., Boeing H., De Stéfani E., Schulz M., Schulze M., Pischon T. A case-control study on fat to muscle ratio and risk of breast cancer. Nutr Cancer 2009, 61:466-474.
23. Torres-Sánchez L., Galván-Portillo M., Lewis S., Gómez-Dantés H., López-Carrillo L. Diet and breast cancer in Latin-America. Salud Pub Mex 2009, 51:S181-S190. [in Spanish].
24. MacMahon B., Feinleib M. Breast cancer in relation to nursing and menopausal history. J Natl Cancer Inst 1960, 24:733-753.
25. Tannenbaum A. Genesis and growth of tumors. III. Effects of a high-fat diet. Cancer Res 1942, 2:468-475.
26. Hemminki K. Genetic and environmental factors in carcinogenesis. Mechanisms in carcinogenesis and cancer prevention 2003, 13-21. Springer, New York. H.U. Vainio, E.K. Hietanen (Eds.).
27. De Stéfani E., Parkin D.M., Khlat M., Vassallo A., Abella M. Cancer in migrants to Uruguay. Int J Cancer 1990, 46:233-237.
28. Ronco A., Leibovici S., Vassallo J.A. Cancer mortality in migrants to Uruguay. Arch Med Int Urug 1994, 16:3107-3112. [in Spanish].
29. World Cancer Research Fund Food, nutrition and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective 1997, American Institute for Cancer Research, Washington DC, p. 252-287.
30. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective 2007, American Institute for Cancer Research, Washington DC.
31. Hanf V., Gonder U. Nutrition and primary prevention of breast cancer: foods, nutrients and breast cancer risk. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2005, 123:139-149.
32. Duncan A.M. The role of nutrition in the prevention of breast cancer. AACN Clin Issues 2004, 15:119-135.
33. Sepkovic D.W., Bradlow H.L. Estrogen hydroxylation - the good and the bad. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009, 1155:57-67.
34. Fishman J., Osborne M.P., Telang N.T. The role of estrogen in mammary carcinogenesis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1995, 91-100.
35. Fishman J., Boyar R.M., Hellman L. Influence of body weight on estradiol metabolism in young women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975, 41:989-991.
36. Bradlow H.L., Hershcopf R., Fishman J. Oestradiol 16 alpha-hydroxylase: a risk marker for breast cancer. Cancer Surv 1986, 5:573-583.
37. Muti P., Bradlow H.L., Micheli A., Krogh V., Freudenheim JL., Schünemann H., et al. Estrogen metabolism and risk of breast cancer: a prospective study of the 2:16 alpha-hydroxyestrone ratio in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Epidemiology 2000, 11:635-640.
38. Bolton J.L., Trush M.A., Penning T.M., Dryhurst G., Monks T.J. Role of quinones in toxicology. Chem Res Toxicol 2000, 13:135-160.
39. Li K.M., Todorovic R., Devanesan P., Higginbotham S., Köfeler H., Ramanathan R., et al. Metabolism and DNA binding studies of 4-hydroxyestradiol and estradiol-3,4-quinone in vitro and in female ACI rat mammary gland in vivo. Carcinogenesis 2004, 25:289-297.
40. Parl F.F., Dawling S., Roodi N., Crooke P.S. Estrogen metabolism and breast cancer. A risk model. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009, 1155:68-75.
41. Dawling S., Roodi N., Mernaugh R.L., Wang X., Parl F.F. Catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT)-mediated metabolism of catechol estrogens: comparison of wild-type and variant COMT isoforms. Cancer Res 2001, 61:6716-6722.
42. Hachey D.L., Dawling S., Roodi N., Parl F.F. Sequential action of phase I and II enzymes cytochrome p450 1B1 and glutathione S-transferase P1 in mammary estrogen metabolism. Cancer Res 2003, 63:8492-8499.
43. Cauley J.A., Zmuda J.M., Danielson M.E., Ljung B.M., Bauer D.C., Cummings S.R., et al. Estrogen metabolites and the risk of breast cancer in older women. Epidemiology 2003, 14:740-744.
44. Liehr J.G., Ricci M.J., Jefcoate C.R., Hannigan E.V., Hokanson J.A., Zhu B.T. 4-Hydroxylation of estradiol by human uterine myometrium and myoma microsomes: implications for the mechanism of uterine tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995, 92:9220-9224.
45. Liehr J.G., Ricci M.J. 4-Hydroxylation of estrogens as marker of human mammary tumors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93:3294-3296.
46. Fowke J.H., Qi D., Bradlow H.L., Shu X., Gao Y., Cheng J.R., et al. Urinary estrogen metabolites and breast cancer: differential pattern of risk found with pre- versus post-treatment collection. Steroids 2003, 68:65-72.
47. Falk R.T., Fears T., Xu X., Hoover R., Pike M.C., Wu A.H., et al. Urinary estrogen metabolites and their ratio among Asian American women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005, 14:221-226.
48. Cascorbi I., Brockmöller J., Roots I. A C4887A polymorphism in exon 7 of human CYP1A1: population frequency, mutation linkages, and impact on lung cancer susceptibility. Cancer Res 1996, 56:4965-4969.
49. Hanna I.H., Dawling S., Roodi N., Guengerich F.P., Parl F.F. Cytochrome P450 1B1 (CYP1B1) pharmacogenetics: association of polymorphisms with functional differences in estrogen hydroxilation activity. Cancer Res 2000, 60:3440-3444.
50. Jellinck P.H., Forkert P.G., Riddick D.S., Okey A.B., Michnovicz J.J., Bradlow H.L. Ah receptor binding properties of indole carbinols and induction of hepatic estradiol hydroxylation. Biochem Pharmacol 1993, 45:1129-1136.
51. Bradlow H.L., Sepkovic D.W., Telang N.T., Osborne M.P. Indole-3-carbinol. A novel approach to breast cancer prevention. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1995, 768:180-200.
52. McTernan P.G., Anderson L.A., Anwar A.J., Eggo M.C., Crocker J., Barnett A.H., et al. Glucocorticoid regulation of p450 aromatase activity in human adipose tissue: gender and site differences. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:1327-1336.
53. Wong G.Y., Bradlow H.L., Sepkovic D., Mehl S., Mailman J., Osborne M.P. Dose-ranging study of indole-3-carbinol for breast cancer prevention. J Cell Biochem Suppl 1997, 28-29:111-116.
54. Ronco A.L., De Stéfani E., Deneo-Pellegrini H., Mendilaharsu M.S. Nutritional epidemiology of breast cancer 2008, Montevideo. [in Spanish]. D.L.P. Ediciones (Ed.).
55. Key T.J., Allen N.E., Spencer E.A., Travis R.C. The effect of diet on risk of cancer. Lancet 2002, 360:861-868.
56. Wattenberg L.W. Inhibition of neoplasia by minor dietary constituents. Cancer Res 1983, 43:2448s-2453s.
57. Wattenberg L.W., Schäfer H.J., Waters L., Davis D.W. Inhibition of mammary tumor formation by broccoli and cabbage. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 1989, 30:181.
58. Sieri S., Krogh V., Pala V., Muti P., Micheli A., Evangelista A., et al. Dietary patterns and risk of breast cancer in the ORDET cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004, 13:567-572.
59. Hermann S., Linseisen J., Chang-Claude J. Nutrition and breast cancer risk by age 50: a population-based case-control study in Germany. Nutr Cancer 2002, 44:23-34.
60. Aune D., De Stéfani E., Ronco A.L., Boffetta P., Deneo-Pellegrini H., Acosta G., et al. Fruits, vegetables and the risk of cancer: a multisite case-control study in Uruguay. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2009, 10:419-428.
61. Rohan T.E., Howe G.R., Friedenreich C.M., Jain M., Miller A.B. Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: a cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 1993, 4:29-37.
62. Levi F., La Vecchia C., Gulie C., Negri E. Dietary factors and breast cancer risk in Vaud, Switzerland. Nutr Cancer 1993, 19:327-335.
63. Van't Veer P., Kolb C.M., Verhoef P., Schouten E., Hermus R., et al. Dietary fiber, beta-carotene and breast cancer: results from a case-control study. Int J Cancer 1990, 45:825-828.
64. Freudenheim J.L., Marshall J.R., Vena J.E., Laughlin R., Brasure J., Swanson MK., et al. Premenopausal breast cancer risk and intake of vegetables, fruits, and related nutrients. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996, 88:340-348.
65. Engeset D., Dyachenko A., Ciampi A., Lund E. Dietary patterns and risk of cancer of various sites in the Norwegian European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition cohort: the Norwegian women and cancer study. Eur J Cancer Prev 2009, 18:69-75.
66. Gandini S., Merzenich H., Robertson C., Boyle P. Meta-analysis of studies on breast cancer risk and diet: the role of fruit and vegetable consumption and the intake of associated micronutrients. Eur J Cancer 2000, 36:636-646.
67. Shen J., Gammon M.D., Terry M.B., Bradshaw P., Teitelbaum SL., et al. Telomere length, oxidative damage, antioxidants and breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2009, 124:1637-1643.
68. Aune D., De Stéfani E., Ronco A.L., Boffetta P., Deneo-Pellegrini H., Acosta G., et al. Legume intake and the risk of cancer: a multisite case-control study in Uruguay. Cancer Causes Control 2009, 20:1605-1615.
69. Toniolo P., Riboli E., Shore R.E., Pasternack B.S. Consumption of meat, animal products protein, and fat and risk of breast cancer - a prospective cohort study in New York. Epidemiol 1994, 5:391-397.
70. Snyderwine E.G. Some perspectives on the nutritional aspects of breast cancer research: food-derived heterocyclic amines as etiologic agents in human mammary cancer. Cancer 1994, 74:1070-1077.
71. Missmer S.A., Smith-Warner S.A., Spiegelman D., Yaun S.S., Adami H.O., Beeson W.L., et al. Meat and dairy food consumption and breast cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol 2002, 31:78-85.
72. Kim J., Lim S.Y., Shin A., Sung M., Ro J., Kang H., et al. Fatty fish and fish omega-3 fatty acid intakes decrease the breast cancer risk: a case-control study. BMC Cancer 2009, 9:216.
73. Terry P., Rohan T.E., Wolk A., Maehle-Schmidt M., Magnusson C. Fish consumption and breast cancer risk. Nutr Cancer 2002, 44:1-6.
74. Lund E., Engeset D., Alsaker E., Skeie G., Hjartaker A., Lundebye A.K., et al. Cancer risk and salmon intake. Science 2004, 305:477-478.
75. Wakai K., Tamakoshi K., Date C., Fukui M., Suzuki S., Lin Y., et al. Dietary intakes of fat and fatty acids and risk of breast cancer: a prospective study in Japan. Cancer Sci 2005, 96:590-599.
76. Rose D.P., Rayburn J., Hatala M.A., Connolly J.M. Effects of dietary fish oil on fatty acids and eicosanoids in metastasizing human breast cancer cells. Nutr Cancer 1994, 22:131-141.
77. Parodi P.W. Dairy product consumption and the risk of breast cancer. J Am Coll Nutr 2005, 24:556S-568S.
78. Thiébaut A.C., Kipnis V., Chang S.C., Subar A., Thompson F.E., Rosenberg P.S., et al. Dietary fat and postmenopausal invasive breast cancer in the National Institutes of Health - AARP diet and health study cohort. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007, 99:451-462.
79. Schulz M., Hoffmann K., Weikert C., Nöthlings U., Schulze M.B., Boeing H. Identification of a dietary pattern characterized by high-fat food choices associated with increased risk of breast cancer: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC)-potsdam study. Br J Nutr 2008, 100:942-946.
80. Sieri S., Krogh V., Ferrari P., Pala V., Thiebaut A., et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 2008, 88:1304-1312.
81. Löf M., Sandin S., Lagiou P., Hilakivi-Clarke L., Trichopoulos D., Adami H.O., et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk in the Swedish women's lifestyle and health cohort. Br J Cancer 2007, 97:1570-1576.
82. Chajès V., Hultén K., Van Kappel A.L., Winkvist A., Kaaks R., Hallmans G., et al. Fatty-acid composition in serum phospholipids and risk of breast cancer: an incident case-control study in Sweden. Int J Cancer 1999, 83:585-590.
83. Evans L.M., Toline E.C., Desmond R., Siegal G.P., Hashim A.I., Hardy R.W. Dietary stearate reduces human breast cancer metastasis burden in athymic nude mice. Clin Exp Metastasis 2009, 26:415-424.
84. Willett W.C. Dietary fat and breast cancer. Toxicol Sci 1999, 52(Suppl.):127-146.
85. Menendez J.A., Lupu R. Mediterranean dietary traditions for the molecular treatment of human cancer: anti-oncogenic actions of the main olive oil's monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid (18:1n-9). Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2006, 7:495-502.
86. Menendez J.A., Papadimitropoulou A., Vellon L., Lupu R. A genomic explanation connecting ″ Mediterranean diet″ , olive oil and cancer: oleic acid, the main monounsaturated fatty acid of olive oil, induces formation of inhibitory ″ PEA3 transcription factor-PEA3 DNA binding site″ complexes at the Her-2/neu (erbB-2) oncogene promoter in breast, ovarian and stomach cancer cells. Eur J Cancer 2006, 42:2425-2432.
87. Karmali R.A. Eicosanoids in neoplasia. Prev Med 1987, 16:483-502.
88. Menéndez J.A., Vázquez-Martín A., Ropero S., Colomer R., Lupu R. HER2 (erbB-2)-targeted effects of the omega-3 polyunsaturated. Fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3n-3) in breast cancer cells: the " fat features" of the " Mediterranean diet" as an " anti-HER2 cocktail" Clin Transl Oncol 2006, 8:812-820.
89. Jakovljevic J., Touillaud M.S., Bondy M.L., Singletary S.E., Pillow P.C., Chang S. Dietary intake of selected fatty acids, cholesterol and carotenoids and estrogen receptor status in premenopausal breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2002, 75:5-14.
90. Gaudet M.M., Britton J.A., Kabat G.C., Steck-Scott S., Eng S.M., Teitelbaum S.L., et al. Fruits, vegetables, and micronutrients in relation to breast cancer modified by menopause and hormone receptor status. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004, 13:1485-1494.
91. Mignone L.I., Giovannucci E., Newcomb P.A., Titus-Ernstoff L., Trentham-Dietz A., Hampton J., et al. Dietary carotenoids and the risk of invasive breast cancer. Int J Cancer 2009, 124:2929-2937.
92. Huang J.P., Zhang M., Holman C.D., Xie X. Dietary carotenoids and risk of breast cancer in Chinese women. Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr 2007, 16:437-442.
93. Garland M., Willett W.C., Manson J.E., Hunter D.J. Antioxidant micronutrients and breast cancer. J Am Coll Nutr 1993, 12:400-411.
94. Wang C., Baumgartner R.N., Yang D., Slattery M., Murtaugh M., Byers T., et al. No evidence of association between breast cancer risk and dietary carotenoids, retinols, vitamin C and tocopherols in Southwestern Hispanic and non-Hispanic White women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2009, 114:137-145.
95. Sesso H.D., Buring J.E., Zhang S.M., Norkus E.P., Gaziano J.M. Dietary and plasma lycopene and the risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005, 14:1074-1081.
96. Howe G.R., Hirohata T., Hislop T.G., Iscovich J., Yuan J.M., Katsouyanni K., et al. Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case-control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990, 82:561-569.
97. Garland C., Garland F., Gorham E. Epidemiology of cancer risk and vitamin D. Vitamin D: molecular biology, physiology, and applications 1999, 375-409. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. M. Holick (Ed.).
98. John E.M., Schwartz G.G., Dreon D.M., Koo J. Vitamin D and breast cancer risk: the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971-1975 to 1992. National health and nutrition examination survey. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1999, 8:399-406.
99. Zhang S.M. Role of vitamins in the risk, prevention, and treatment of breast cancer. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2004, 16:19-25.
100. Welsh J. Vitamin D and breast cancer: insights from animal models. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 80:1721S-1724S.
101. Arunabh S., Pollack S., Yeh J., Aloia J.F. Body fat content and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in healthy women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88:157-161.
102. Mendoza B., Ronco A.L. Importance of vitamin D3 serum levels. Tendencias en Medicina 2001, IX:97-101. [in Spanish].
103. Mendoza B, Ronco AL, Mintegui G, Belzarena MC. Serum vitamin D status among postmenopausal Uruguayan women. International Osteoporosis Foundation World Congress; June 2-6, 2006, Toronto, Canada. Abstract p704su, p. S208.
104. Macinnis R.J., English D.R., Gertig D.M., Hopper J.L., Giles G.G. Body size and composition and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004, 13:2117-2225.
105. Lahmann P.H., Hoffmann K., Allen N., van Gils C., Khaw K., Tehard B., et al. Body size and breast cancer risk: findings from the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC). Int J Cancer 2004, 111:762-771.
106. Lahmann P.H., Schulz M., Hoffmann K., Boeing H., Tjonneland A., Olsen A., et al. Long-term weight change and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC). Br J Cancer 2005, 93:582-589.
107. Shu X.O., Jin F., Dai Q., Shi J.R., Potter J.D., Brinton L.A., et al. Association of body size and fat distribution with risk of breast cancer among Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2001, 94:449-455.
108. Chow L.W., Lui K.L., Chan J.C., Chan T.C., Ho P.K., Lee W.Y., et al. Association between body mass index and risk of formation of breast cancer in Chinese women. Asian J Surg 2005, 28:179-184.
109. Hirose K., Tajima K., Hamajima N., Takezaki T., Inoue M., Kuroishi T., et al. Association of family history and other risk factors with breast cancer risk among Japanese premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Cancer Causes Control 2001, 12:349-358.
110. Hall I.J., Newman B., Millikan R.C., Moorman P.G. Body size and breast cancer risk in black women and white women: the Carolina breast cancer study. Am J Epidemiol 2000, 151:754-764.
111. Okobia M.N., Bunker C.H., Zmuda J.M., Osime U., Ezeome E.R., Anyanwu S.N., et al. Anthropometry and breast cancer risk in Nigerian women. Breast J 2006, 12:462-466.
112. Wu A.H., Yu M.C., Tseng C.C., Pike M.C. Body size, hormone therapy and risk of breast cancer in Asian-American women. Int J Cancer 2007, 120:844-852.
113. Campbell K.L., Westerlind K.C., Harber V.J., Friedenreich C.M., Courneya K.S. Associations between aerobic fitness and estrogen metabolites in premenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005, 37:585-592.
114. Campbell K.L., Westerlind K.C., Harber V.J., Bell G.J., Mackey J.R., Courneya K.S. Effects of aerobic exercise training on estrogen metabolism in premenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007, 16:731-739.
115. Westerlind K.C., Williams N.I. Effect of energy deficiency on estrogen metabolism in premenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007, 39:1090-1097.
116. Pedersen B.K., Akerström T.C., Nielsen A.R., Fischer C.P. Role of myokines in exerc and metab. J Appl Physiol 2007, 103:1093-1098.
117. Pedersen B.K., Fischer C.P. Physiological roles of muscle-derived interleukin-6 in response to exercise. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2007, 10:265-271.
118. Pedersen B.K. IL-6 signalling in exercise and disease. Biochem Soc Trans 2007, 35:1295-1297.
119. Quinn L.S., Anderson B.G., Drivdahl R.H., Alvarez B., Argilés J.M. Overexpression of interleukin-15 induces skeletal muscle hypertrophy in vitro: implications for treatment of muscle wasting disorders. Exp Cell Res 2002, 280:55-63.
120. Burton J.D., Bamford R.N., Peters C., Grant A.J., Kurys G., Goldman C.K., et al. A lymphokine, provisionally designated interleukin T and produced by a human adult T cell leukemia line, stimulates T cell proliferation and the induction of lymphokine-activated killer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994, 91:4935-4939.
121. Carson W.E., Giri J.G., Lindemann M.J., Linett M.L., Ahdieh M., Paxton R., et al. Interleukin (IL) 15 is a novel cytokine that activates human natural killer cells via components of the IL-2 receptor. J Exp Med 1994, 180:1395-1403.
122. Akbar A.N., Borthwick N.J., Wickremasinghe R.J., Panayiotidis P., Pilling D., Bofill M., et al. IL-2 receptor common gamma-chain signaling cytokines regulate activated T-cell apoptosis in response to growth factor withdrawal: Selective induction of anti-apoptotic (bcl-2, bcl-xL) but not pro-apoptotic (bax, bcl-xS) gene expression. Eur J Immunol 1996, 26:294-299.
123. Girard D., Paquet M.E., Paquin R., Beaulieu A.D. Differential effects of interleukin-15 (IL-15) and IL-2 on human neutrophils: modulation of phagocytosis, cytoskeleton rearrangement, gene expression and apoptosis by IL-15. Blood 1996, 88:3176-3184.
124. Alvarez B., Carbó N., López-Soriano J., Drivdahl R., Busquets S., López-Soriano F., et al. Effects of interleukin-15 (IL-15) on adipose tissue mass in rodent obesity models: evidence for direct IL-15 action on adipose tissue. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002, 1570:33-37.
125. Darmaun D., Matthews D.E., Bier D.M. Glutamine and glutamate kinetics in humans. Am J Physiol 1986, 251:E117-E126.
126. Newsholme P. Why is l-glutamine metabolism important to cells of the immune system in health, postinjury, surgery or infection?. J Nutr 2001, 131:2515S-2522S.
127. Crawford J., Cohen H.J. The essential role of glutamine in lymphocyte differentiation in vitro. J Cell Physiol 1995, 124:275-282.
128. Brunning P.F., Bonfrer J.M.G., van Noord P.A.H., Hart A.A., de Jong-Bakker M., Nooijen W.J. Insulin resistance and breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer 1992, 52:511-516.
129. Lorincz A.M., Sukumar S. Molecular links between obesity and breast cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2006, 13:279-292.
130. Vona-Davis L., Howard-McNatt M., Rose D.P. Adiposity, type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome in breast cancer. Obes Rev 2007, 8:395-408.
131. Bruning P.F. Endogenous estrogens and breast cancer a possible relationship between body fat distribution and estrogen availability. J Steroid Biochem 1987, 27:487-492.
132. Killinger D.W., Perel E., Daniilescu D., Kharlip L., Lindsay W.R. The relationship between aromatase activity and body fat distribution. Steroids 1987, 50:61-72.
133. Rock C.L., Demark-Wahnefried W. Nutrition and survival after the diagnosis of breast cancer: a review of the evidence. J Clin Oncol 2002, 20:3302-3316.
134. Berrino F., Villarini A., De Petris M., Raimondi M., Pasanisi P. Adjuvant diet to improve hormonal and metabolic factors affecting breast cancer prognosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006, 1089:110-118.
135. Kroenke C.H., Chen W.Y., Rosner B., Holmes M.D. Weight, weight gain, and survival after breast cancer diagnosis. J Clin Oncol 2005, 23:1370-1378.
136. Holmes M.D., Chen W.Y., Feskanich D., Kroenke C.H., Colditz G.A. Physical activity and survival after breast cancer diagnosis. JAMA 2005, 293:2479-2486.
137. Fink B.N., Gaudet M.M., Britton J., Abrahamson P.E., Teitelbaum S., Jacobson J., et al. Fruits, vegetables, and micronutrient intake in relation to breast cancer survival. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2006, 98:199-208.
138. McEligot A.J., Largent J., Ziogas A., Peel D., Anton-Culver H. Dietary fat, fiber, vegetable, and micronutrients are associated with overall survival in postmenopausal women diagnosed with breast cancer. Nutr Cancer 2006, 55:132-140.
139. Skeie G., Hjartaker A., Lund E. Diet among breast cancer survivors and healthy women. The Norwegian women and cancer study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2006, 60:1046-1054.
140. Kushi L.H., Kwan M.L., Lee M.M., Ambrosone C.B. Lifestyle factors and survival in women with breast cancer. J Nutr 2007, 137:236S-242S.
141. Berquin I.M., Edwards I.J., Chen Y.Q. Multi-targeted therapy of cancer by omega-3 fatty acids. Cancer Lett 2008, 269:363-377.
142. De Assis S., Hilakivi-Clarke L. Timing of dietary estrogenic exposures and breast cancer risk. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006, 1089:14-35.
143. Cabanes A., Wang M., Olivo S., De Assis S., Gustafsson J., Khan G., et al. Prepubertal estradiol and genistein exposures up-regulate BRCA1 mRNA and reduce mammary tumorigenesis. Carcinogenesis 2004, 25:741-748.
144. Hilakivi-Clarke L., Clarke R., Onojafe I., Raygada M., Cho E., Lippman M. A maternal diet high in n-6 polyunsaturated fats alters mammary gland development, puberty onset, and breast cancer risk among female rat offspring. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:9372-9377.
145. Hilakivi-Clarke L., Cho E., Cabanes A., De Assis S., Olivo S., Helferich W., et al. Dietary modulation of pregnancy estrogen levels and breast cancer risk among female rat offspring. Clin Cancer Res 2002, 8:3601-3610.
146. Hilakivi-Clarke L. Nutritional modulation of terminal end buds: its relevance to breast cancer prevention. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2007, 7:465-474.
147. Forman M.R. Changes in dietary fat and fiber and serum hormone concentrations: nutritional strategies for breast cancer prevention over the life course. J Nutr 2007, 137:170S-174S.
148. Mahoney M.C., Bevers T., Linos E., Willett W. Opportunities and strategies for breast cancer prevention through risk reduction. CA Cancer J Clin 2008, 58:347-371.