The emergence of spin electronics in data storage

Nature Materials

Volumn 6, Issue 11, 2007, Pages 813-823

  Chappert, Claude ^a,b   Fert, Albert ^a,b   Van Dau, Frédéric Nguyen ^a,b  

^a CNRS   (France)

^b UNIVERSITÉ PARIS SACLAY   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DATA STORAGE EQUIPMENT; ELECTRIC FIELD EFFECTS; INFORMATION MANAGEMENT; MAGNETIC RECORDING; MAGNETORESISTANCE;

DISK RECORDING; NANOSTRUCTURED ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS; SPIN ELECTRONICS;

MAGNETOELECTRONICS;

EID: 35748965560     PISSN: 14761122     EISSN: 14764660     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nmat2024     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Moser, A. et al. Magnetic recording: advancing into the future. J. Phys. D 35, R157-R167 (2002).
2. Mott, N. Electrons in transition metals. Adv. Phys. 13, 325-422 (1964).
3. Fert, A. & Campbell, I. A. Two-current conduction In nickel. Phys. Rev. Lett. 21, 1190-1192 (1968).
4. Fert, A. & Campbell, I. Electrical resistivity of ferromagnetic nickel and iron based alloys. J. Phys. F 6, 849-871 (1976).
5. Fert, A., Duvail, J. & Valet, T. Spin relaxation effects in the perpendicular magnetoresistance of magnetic multilayers. Phys. Rev. B 52, 6513-6521 (1995).
6. Baibich, M. N. et al. Giant magnetoresistance of (001)Fe/(001)Cr magnetic superlattices. Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 2472-2475 (1988).
7. Binasch, G., Grünberg, P., Saurenbach, E & Zinn, W Enhanced inagnetoresistance in layered magnetic structures with antiferromagnetic interlayer exchange. Phys. Rev. B 39, 4828-4830 (1989).
8. Levy, P. M. & Mertig, I. in Spin Dependent Transport in Magnetic Nanostructures (eds Maekawa, S. & Shinjo, T.) Ch. 2, 47-112 (CRC, Boca Raton, 2002).
9. Fert, A., Barthélémy, A. & Petroff, F. in Nanomagnetism: Ultrathin Films, Multilayers and Nanostructures (eds Mills, D. M. & Bland, J. A. C.) Ch. 6 (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006).
10. Grünberg, P. Magnetic field sensor with ferromagnetic thin layers having magnetically antiparallel polarized components. US patent 4,949,039 (1990).
11. Dieny, B. et al. Magnetoresistive sensor based on the spin valve effect. US patent 5,206,590 (1993).
12. Dieny, B. et al. Giant magnetoresistance in soft ferromagnetic multilayers. Phys. Rev. B 43, 1297-1300 (1991).
13. Daughton, J. M. Magnetic tunneling applied to memory. J. Appl. Phys. 81, 3758-3763 (1997).
14. Valet, T. & Fert, A. Theory of the perpendicular magnetoresistance in magnetic multilayers. Phys. Rev. B 48, 7099-7113 (1993).
15. Schmidt, G., Perrand, D., Molenkamp, L. W., Filip, A. T. & van Wees, B. J. Fundamental obstacle for electrical spin injection from a ferromagnetic metal into a diffusive semiconductor. Phys. Rev. B 62, R4790-R4793 (2000).
16. Fert, A. & Jaffrès, H. Conditions for efficient spin injection from a, ferromagnetic metal into a semiconductor. Phys. Rev. B 64, 184420 (2001).
17. Jedema, F. J., Filip, A. T. & van Wees, B. J. Electrical, spin, injection and accumulation, at room temperature in an all-metal mesoscopic spin valve. Nature 410, 345-348 (2001).
18. Datta, S. & Das, B. Electronic analog of the electro-optic modulator. Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 665-667 (1990).
19. Gijs, M. A. M., Lenczowski, S. K. J. & Giesbers, J. B. Perpendicular giant magnetoresistance of microstructured Fe/Cr magnetic multilayers from 4.2 to 300 K. Phys. Rev. Lett. 70, 3343-3346 (1993).
20. Bass, J. & Pratt, W. P. Current-perpendicular (CPP) magnetoresistance in magnetic metallic multilayers. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 200, 274-289 (1999).
21. Fert, A. & Piraux, L. Magnetic nanowires. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 200, 338-358 (1999).
22. Takagishi, M. et al. The applicability of CPP-GMR heads for magnetic recording. IEEE Trans. Magn. 38, 2277-2282 (2002).
23. Childress, J. et al. Fabrication and recording study of all-metal dual-spin-valve CPP read heads. IEEE Trans. Magn. 42, 2444-2446 (2006).
24. Jullière, M. Tunneling between ferromagnetic films. Phys. Lett. A 54, 225-226 (1975).
25. Moodera, J. S., Kinder, L. R., Wong, T. M. & Meservey, R. Large magnetoresistance at room temperature in ferromagnetic: thin film tunnel junctions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 3273-3276 (1995).
26. 3/Fe Junction. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 139, L231-L234 (1995).
27. Parkin, S. S. P. et al. Giant tunnelling magnetoresistance at room temperature with MgO (100) tunnel barriers. Nature Mater. 3, 862-867 (2004).
28. Yuasa, S., Nagahama, T., Fukushima, A., Suzuki, Y. & Ando, K. Giant room-temperature magnetoresistance in single-crystal Fe/MgO/Fe magnetic tunnel junctions. Nature Mater. 3, 868-871 (2004).
29. Butler, W. H., Zhang, X., Schulthess, T. C. & MacLaren, J. M. Spin-dependent tunneling conductance of Fe/MgO/Fe sandwiches. Phys. Rev. B 63, 054416 (2001).
30. Mathon, J. & Umerski, A. Theory of tunneling magnetoresistance of an epitaxial Fe/MgO/Fe(001) Junction. Phys. Rev. B 63, 220403 (2001).
31. Lee, Y. M., Hayakawa, J., Ikeda, S., Matsukura, F. & Ohno, H. Effect of electrode composition on the tunnel magnetoresistance of pseudo-spin valve magnetic tunnel junction with a MgO tunnel barrier. Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 212507 (2007).
32. 2. IEEE Trans. Magn. 42, 97-102 (2006).
33. Engel, B. et al. A 4-Mb toggle MRAM based on a novel bit and switching method. IEEE Trans. Magn. 41, 132-136 (2005).
34. DeBrosse, J. et al. A high-speed 128-kb MRAM core for future universal memory applications. IEEE J. Solid-State Circ. 39, 678-683 (2004).
35. Brown, W. F. Thermal fluctuations of a single-domain particle. Phys. Rev. 130, 1677-1686 (1963).
36. Néel, L. Anisotropie superficielle et surstructures d'orientation magnétique. J. Phys. Rad. 15, 225-239 (1954).
37. Gradmann, U. & Müller, J. Flat ferromagnetic, epitaxial 48Ni/52Fe(111) films of few atomic layers. Phys. Status Solidi B 27, 313-324 (1968).
38. Carda, P. F. Meinhaldt, A. D. & Suna, A. Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy In Pd/Co thin film, layered structures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 178-180 (1985).
39. Chappert, C., Renard, D., Beauvillain, P. & Renard, J. Ferromagnetism of very thin films of nickel and cobalt. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 54-57, 795-796 (1986).
40. Daalderop, G. H. O., Kelly, P. J. & den Broeder, F. J. A., Prediction and confirmation of perpendicular magnetic anisotropy in Co/Ni multilayers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 68, 682-685 (1992).
41. Meiklejohn, W. H. & Bean, C. P. New magnetic anisotropy. Phys. Rev. 102, 1413-1414 (1956).
42. Nogues, J. et al. Exchange bias in nanostructures. Phys. Rep. 422, 65-117 (2005).
43. Prejbeanu, I. et al. Thermally assisted switching in exchange-biased storage layer magnetic tunnel junctions. IEEE Trans. Magn. 40, 2625-2627 (2004).
44. Skumryev, V. et al. Beating the superparamagnetic limit with exchange bias. Nature 423, 850-853 (2003).
45. Grünberg, P., Schreiber, R., Pang, Y., Brodsky, M. B. & Sowers, H. Layered magnetic structures: evidence for antiferromagnetic coupling of Fe layers across Cr interlayers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 2442-2445 (1986).
46. Majkrzak, C. F. et al. Observation of a magnetic antiphase domain structure with long-range order In a synthetic Gd-Y superlattice. Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 2700-2703 (1986).
47. Parkin, S. S. P., More, N. & Roche, K. P. Oscillations in exchange coupling and magnetoresistance in metallic superlattice structures: Co/Ru, Co/Cr, and Fe/Cr. Phys. Rev. Lett. 64, 2304-2307 (1990).
48. Bruno, P. & Chappert, C. Oscillatory coupling between ferromagnetic layers separated by a nonmagnetic metal spacer. Phys. Rev. Lett. 67, 1602-1605(1991).
49. Bruno, P. Theory of Interlayer magnetic coupling. Phys. Rev. B 52, 411-439 (1995).
50. Margulies, D. T., Berger, A., Moser, A., Schabes, M. E. & Fullerton, E. E. The energy barriers in antiferromagneticaHy coupled media. Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 3701-3703 (2003).
51. Savchenko, L., Engel, B. N., Rizzo, N. D., Deherrera, M. F. & Janesky J. A. Method of writing to scalable magnetoresistance random, access memory element. US patent 6,545,906B1 (2003).
52. 2. IEEE Trans. Magn. 36, 1015 (2000).
53. Durlam, M. et al. Low power 1 Mbit MRAM based on 1TIMTJ bit cell integrated with copper interconnects. Symp. VLSI Techn. Dig, 158-161 (2002).
54. Worledge, D. C. Spin flop switching for magnetic random access memory. Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4559-4561 (2004).
55. Daughton, J. M., & Pohm, A., V. Design of Curie point written magnetoresistance random, access memory cells. J. Appl. Phys. 93, 7304-7306 (2003).
56. Rizzo, N. D. & Engel, B. N. MRAM write apparatus and method. US patent 6,351,409 (2002).
57. Thirion, C., Wernsdorfer, W. & Mailly, D. Switching of magnetization by nonlinear resonance studied in single nanoparticles. Nature Mater. 2, 524-527 (2003).
58. 19 ellipsoid. Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 062503 (2007).
59. Slonczewski, J. Current-driven excitation of magnetic multilayers. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 159, L1-L7 (1996).
60. Berger, L. Emission of spin waves by a magnetic multilayer traversed by a current. Phys. Rev. B 54, 9353-9358 (1996).
61. Albert, F. J., Katine, J. A., Buhrman, R. A. & Ralph, D. C. Spin-polarized current switching of a Co thin film nanomagnet. Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 3809-3811 (2000).
62. Berger, L. Prediction of a domain-drag effect in uniaxial, non-compensated, ferromagnetic metals. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 35, 947-956 (1974).
63. Freitas, P. P. & Berger, L. Observation of s-d exchange force between domain walls and electric current in very thin Permalloy films. J. Appl. Phys. 57, 1266-1269 (1985).
64. Slonczewski, J. C. Conductance and exchange coupling of two ferromagnets separated by a tunneling barrier. Phys. Rev. B 39, 6995-7002 (1989).
65. Stiles, M. & Miltat, J. in Spin Dynamics in Confined Magnetic Structures III (eds Hillebrands, B. & Thiaville, A.) (Springer, Berlin, 2006)
66. Sun, J. Z. Spin-current interaction with a monodomain magnetic body: a model study. Phys. Rev. B 62, 570-578 (2000).
67. Ralph, D. & Buhrman, R., in Concepts in Spintronics (ed. Maekawa, S.) (Oxford Univ. Press, 2006)
68. Huai, Y., Albert, P., Nguyen, P., Pakala, M. & Valet, T. Observation of spin-transfer switching in deep submicron-sized and low-resstance magnetic tunnel junctions. Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3118-3120 (2004).
69. Hayakawa, J. et al. Current-induced magnetization switching in MgO barrier based magnetic tunnel junctions with CoFeB/Ru/CoFeB synthetic ferrimagnetic free layer. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 45, 11057-11060 (2006).
70. Hosomi, M. et al. Novel nonvolatile memory with spin torque transfer magnetization switching; spin-ram. IEDM Tech. Dig. 459-462 (2005).
71. Kawahara, T. et al. 2Mb spin-transfer torque RAM (SPRAM) with bit-by-bit bidirectional current write and parallelizing-direction current read. ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers, 480-481 (2007).
72. Jung, S. et al. Three dimensionally stacked NAND Flash memory technology using stacking single crystal Si layers on ILD and TANOS structure for beyond 30 nm node. IEDM Tech. Dig., 1-4 (2006).
73. Ito, K., Devolder, T., Chappert, C., Carey, M. J. & Katine, J. A. Micromagnetic simulation of spin transfer torque switching combined with processional motion from a hard axis magnetic field. Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 252509 (2006).
74. Devolder, T., Chappert, C. & Ito, K. Sub-ns spin-transfer switching: compared benefits of free layer biasing and pinned layer biasing. Phys. Rev. B 75, 224430 (2007).
75. Sakimura, N. et al. A 512 kb cross-point cell, MRAM. ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers, 278-279 (2003).
76. Tanizaki, H. et al. A high-density and nigh-speed 1T-4MTJ MRAM with voltage offset self-reference sensing scheme. Asian Solid State Circuits Conf. Dig. Tech. Papers, 303-306 (2006).
77. Leuschner, R. et al. Thermal select MRAM with a 2-bit cell capability for beyond 65 nm technology node. IEDM Tech. Dig., 1-4 (2006).
78. 3 from, tunnelling experiments. Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 233-235 (2003).
79. 2MnSi thin film and a MgO tunnel barrier. Appl. Phys. Lett: 89, 192505 (2006).
80. 0.4Al thin film. Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 262503 (2006).
81. Chiba, D., Sato, Y., Kita, T., Matsukura, F. & Olmo, H. Current-driven magnetization reversal in a ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As/GaAs/(Ga,Mn)As tunnel junction. Phys. Rev. Lett. 93, 216602 (2004).
82. Elsen, M. Spin transfer experiments on (Ga,Mn,)As/(In,Ga)As/(Ga,Mn,)As tunnel, junctions. Phys. Rev. B 73, 035303 (2006).
83. Gould, C. Tunneling anisotropic magnetoresistance: a spin-valve-like tunnel magnetoresistance using a single magnetic layer. Phys. Rev. Lett. 93, 117203 (2004).
84. Gould, C., Schmidt, G. & Molenkamp, L. W. Tunneling anisotropic magneto resistance-based devices. IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. 54, 977-983 (2007).
85. Enaya, H., Semenov, Y. G., Kim, K. W. & Zavada, J. M. Electrical, manipulation, of nonvolatile spin cell based on diluted magnetic semiconductor quantum dots. IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. 54, 1032-1039 (2007).
86. LeClair, P. et al. Large magnetoresistance using hybrid spin, filter devices. Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 625-627 (2002).
87. Monsma, D. J., Lodder, J. C., Popma, T. J. A. & Dleny, B. Perpendicular hot electron spin-valve effect in a new magnetic field sensor: the spin-valve transistor. Phys. Rev. Lett: 74, 5260-5263 (1995).
88. van Dijken, S., Jiang, X. & Parkin, S. S. P. Room temperature operation of a high output current magnetic tunnel transistor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 3364-3366 (2002).
89. Hehn, M., Montaigne, F. & Schuhl, A. Hot-electron three-terminal devices based on magnetic tunnel junction stacks. Phys. Rev. B 66, 144411 (2002).
90. Hubert, A. & Schäfer, R. Magnetic Domains (Springer, Berlin, 1998).
91. Allwood, D. A. et al. Submicrometer ferromagnetic NOT gate and shift register. Science 296, 2003-2006 (2002).
92. Allwood, D. A. et al. Magnetic domain-wall logic. Science 309, 1688-1692 (2005).
93. Cowburn, R. P. & Allwood, D. A. Multiple layer magnetic logic memory device. UK patent GB2, 430, 318A (2007).
94. Parkin, S. S. P. Shiftable magnetic shift register and method using the same. US patent 6,834,005B1. (2004).
95. Cros, V., Grollier, J., Munoz Sanchez, M., Fert, A. & Nguyen Van Dau, E Spin electronics device. Patent WO 2006/064022 (2006).
96. Tatara, G. & Kohno, H. Theory of current-driven domain wall motion: spin transfer versus momentum transfer. Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 086601 (2004).
97. Li, Z. & Zhang, S. Domain-wall dynamics and spin-wave excitations with spin-transfer torques. Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 207203 (2004).
98. Grollier, J. et al. Switching a spin valve back and forth by current-induced domain wall motion. Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 509 (2003).
99. Yamaguchi, A. et al. Real-space observation of current- driven domain wall motion in submicron magnetic wires. Phys. Rev. Lett: 92, 077205 (2004).
100. Ravelosona, D., Lacour, D., Katine, J. A., Terris, B. D. & Chappert, C. Nanometer scale observation of high efficiency thermally assisted current-driven domain, wall depinning. Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 117203 (2005).
101. Yamanouchi, M., Chiba, D., Matsukura, F. & Ohno, H. Current-induced domain-wall switching in a ferromagnetic semiconductor structure. Nature 428, 539-542 (2004).
102. Thiaville, A., Nakatani, Y., Miltat, J. & Suzuki, Y. Micro magnetic understanding of current-driven, domain wall, motion in patterned nanowires. Europhys. Lett. 69, 990-996 (2005).
103. Piechon, F. & Thiaville, A. Spin transfer torque in continuous textures: Semiclassical Boltzmann approach. Phys. Rev. B 75, 174414 (2007).
104. Himeno, A. et al. Dynamics of a magnetic domain, wall in magnetic wires with an artificial, neck. J. Appl. Phys. 93, 8430-8432 (2003).
105. Hayashi, M. et al. Dependence of current and field driven depinning of domain walls on their structure and chirality in permalloy nanowires. Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 207205 (2006).
106. Allwood, D. A., Xiong, G. & Cowburn, R. P. Domain wall diodes in ferromagnetic planar nanowires. Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 2848-2853 (2004).
107. 19 wires. J. Appl. Phys. 95, 6717-6719 (2004).
108. Klaui, M. et al. Direct observation of domain-wall configurations transformed by spin currents. Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 026601 (2005).
109. Klaui, M., et al. Current-induced vortex nucleation and annihilation in vortex domain walls. Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 232507 (2006).
110. He, J., Li, Z. & Zhang, S. Current-driven vortex domain wall dynamics by micro magnetic simulations. Phys. Rev. B 73, 184408 (2006).
111. Saitoh, E., Miyajima, H., Yamaoka, T. & Tatara, G. Current-induced resonance and mass determination of a single magnetic domain wall Nature 432, 203-206 (2004).
112. Thomas, L. et al. Oscillatory dependence of current-driven, magnetic domain wall motion on current pulse length. Nature 443, 197-200 (2006).
113. Thomas, L. et al. Resonant amplification of magnetic domain-wall motion by a train of current pulses. Science 315, 1553-1556 (2007).
114. Nakatani, Y., Thiaville, A. & Miltat, J. Faster magnetic walls in rough wires. Nature Mater. 2, 521-523 (2003).
115. Liro, C. K. et al. Domain, wall displacement induced by subnanosecond pulsed current. Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2820-2822 (2004).
116. Hayashi, M. et al. Current driven domain wall velocities exceeding the spin angular momentum transfer rate in permalloy nanowires. Phys. Rev. Lett: 98, 037204. (2007).
117. Yamanouchi, M., Chiba, D., Matsukura, E, Dietl, T. & Ohno, H. Velocity of domain-wall, motion, induced by electrical, current in the ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As. Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 096601, (2006).
118. Kasai, S., Nakatani, Y., Kobayashi, K., Kolmo, H. & Ono, T. Current-driven resonant excitation of magnetic vortices. Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 107204 (2006).
119. Cowburn, R. P. & Weiland, M. E. Room, temperature magnetic quantum cellular automata. Science 287, 1466-1468 (2000).
120. Imre, A. et al. Majority logic gate for magnetic quantum-dot cellular automata. Science 311, 205-208 (2006).
121. Ney, A., Pampuch, C., Koch, R. & Ploog, K. H. Programmable computing with a single magnetoresistive element. Nature 425, 485-487 (2003).
122. Black, W. C. J. & Das, B. Programmable logic using giant-magnetoresistance and spin-dependent tunneling devices. J. Appl. Phys. 87, 6674-6679 (2000).
123. Zhao, W. et al. Integration of Spin-RAM technology in FPGA circuits. Proc. ICSICT 799-802 (2006).
124. Min, B., Motohashi, K., Lodder, C. & Jansen, R. Tunable spin-tunnel contacts to silicon using low-work-function ferromagnets. Nature Mater. 5, 817-822 (2006).
125. Hall, K. C., Lau, W. H., Gundogdu, K., Flatte, M. E. & Boggess, T. F. Nonmagnetic semiconductor spin transistor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 2937-2939 (2003).
126. Hall, K. C. & Flatte, M. E. Performance of a spin-based insulated gate field effect transistor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 162503 (2006).
127. Tanaka, M. & Sugahara, S. MOS-based spin devices for reconfigurable logic. IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. 54, 961-976 (2007).
128. Pasupathy, A. N. et al. The Kondo effect in the presence of ferromagnetism. Science 306, 86-89 (2004).
129. Sahoo, S., Kontos, T., Schonenberger, C. & Surgers, C. Electrical spin injection in multiwall carbon nanotubes with transparent ferromagnetic contacts. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 112109 (2005).
130. Hueso, L. E. et al. Transformation of spin information into large electrical signals using carbon nanotubes. Nature 445, 41, 0-413 (2007).
131. Romeike, C., Wegewijs, M. R., Ruben, M., Wenzel, W. & Schoeller, H. Charge-switchable molecular magnet and spin blockade of tunneling. Phys. Rev. B 75, 064404 (2007).
132. Eert, A., George, J., Jaffres, H. & Mattana, R Semiconductors between, spin-polarized sources and drains. IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. 54, 921-932 (2007).
133. Kimura, T., Hamrle, J. & Otani, Y. Estimation of spin-diffusion length from, the magnitude of spin-current absorption: multiterminal ferromagnetic/nonferromagnetic hybrid structures. Phys. Rev. B 72, 014461 (2005).
134. Dery, H., Dalai, P., Cywinski, L. & Sham, L. J. Spin-based logic in semiconductors for reconfigurable large-scale circuits. Nature 447, 573-576 (2007).
135. Khomskli, D. Multiferroics: Different ways to combine magnetism and ferroelectricity. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 306, 1-8 (2006).
136. Zavaliche, F. et al. Electric field-induced magnetization switching in epitaxial columnar nanostructures. Nano Lett: 5, 1793-1796 (2005).
137. 3 films at room temperature. Nature Mater. 5, 823-829 (2006).
138. Chiba, D., Matsukura, F. & Ohno, H. Electric-field control of ferromagnetism. in (Ga,Mn)As. Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 162505 (2006).
139. Wunderlich, J. et al. Coulomb blockade anisotropic magnetoresistance effect in a (Ga,Mn)As single-electron transistor. Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 077201 (2006).
140. Kimura, T., Otani, Y. & Hamrle, J. Switching magnetization of a nanoscale ferromagnetic particle using nonlocal spin injection. Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 037201. (2006).