Microbial and dietary factors in the pathogenesis of chronic, immune-mediated intestinal inflammation

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 579, Issue , 2006, Pages 35-54

  Balfour Sartor, R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMALS; CHRONIC DISEASE; COLITIS; DIET; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; INTESTINE, SMALL;

EID: 33947505720     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/0-387-33778-4_4     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Sartor RB. Animal models of imestinal inflammation. In: Sartor RB, Sandborn WJ, eds. Kirsner's Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. 6th ed. Elsevier Publishers, 2004:120-137.
2. Wilson KH. Natural biota of the human gastrointestinal tract. In: Blaser MJ, Smith PD, Ravdin JI et al, eds. Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002:45-56.
3. Sartor RB. Microbial influences in inflammatory bowel disease: Role in pathogenesis and clinical implications. In: Sartor RB, Sandborn WJ, eds. Kirsner's Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. 6th ed. Elsevier Publishers, 2004:138-162.
4. Tannock GW. Molecular assessment of intestinal microflora. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73:410S-414S.
5. Sartor RB. Microbial agents in the pathogenesis, differential diagnosis, and complications of inflammatory bowel diseases. In: Blaser MJ, Smith PD, Ravdin JI et al, eds. Infections of the GI Tract. 2nd ed. New York: Raven Press, 2002:383-413.
6. Sartor RB. Targeting enteric bacteria in treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases: Why, how and when. Current Opinion in Gastroenterology 2003; 19:358-365.
7. Schultz M, Rath HC. The possible role of probiotic therapy in inflammatory bowel disease. In: Tannock GW, ed. Probiotics and Prebiotics: Where are We Going? Wymondham: Caister Academic Press, 2002:175-237.
8. Elson CO, Cong Y. Understanding immune-microbial homeostasis in intestine. Immunol Res 2002; 26:87-94.
9. Elson CO. Genes, microbes, and T cells - New therapeutic targets in Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 2002; 346:614-616.
10. Heller F, Duchmann R. Intestinal flora and mucosal immune responses. Int J Med Microbiol 2003; 293:77-86.
11. Sellon RK, Tonkonogy S, Schultz M et al. Resident enteric bacteria are necessary for development of spontaneous colitis and immune system activation in interleukin-10-deficient mice. Infect Immun 1998; 66:5224-5231.
12. Rath HC, Herfarth HH, Ikeda JS et al. Normal luminal bacteria, especially Bacteroides species, mediate chronic colitis, gastritis, and arthritis in HLA-B27/human beta2 microglobulin transgenic rats. J Clin Invest 1996; 98:945-953.
13. Dianda L, Hanby AM, Wright NA et al. T cell receptor-alpha beta-deficient mice fail to develop colitis in the absence of a microbial environment. Am J Pathol 1997; 150:91-97.
14. Schultz M, Tonkonogy SL, Sellon RK et al. IL-2-deficient mice raised under germfree conditions develop delayed mild focal intestinal inflammation. Am J Physiol 1999; 276:G1461-G1472
15. Contractor NV, Bassiri H, Reya T et al. Lymphoid hyperplasia, autoimmunity, and compromised intestinal intraepithelial lymphocyte development in colitis-free gnotobiotic IL-2-deficient mice. J Immunol 1998; 160:385-394.
16. Veltkamp C, Tonkonogy SL, de Jong YP et al. Continuous stimulation by normal luminal bacteria is essential for the development and perpetuation of colitis in Tg(epsilon26) mice. Gastroenterology 2001; 120:900-913.
17. Taurog JD, Richardson JA, Croft JT et al. The germfree state prevents development of gut and joint inflammatory disease in HLA-B27 transgenic rats. J Exp Med 1994; 180:2359-2364.
18. Kuhn R, Lohler J, Rennick D et al. Interleukin-10-deficient mice develop chronic enterocolitis. Cell 1993; 75:263-274.
19. Hoentjen F, Harmsen HJ, Braat H et al. Antibiotics with a selective aerobic or anaerobic spectrum have different therapeutic activities in various regions of the colon in interleukin-10 gene deficient mice. Gut 2003; 52:1721-1727.
20. Rath HC, Schultz M, Freitag R et al. Different subsets of enteric bacteria induce and perpetuate experimental colitis in rats and mice. Infect Immun 2001; 69:2277-2285.
21. Rath HC, Ikeda JS, Linde HJ et al. Varying cecal bacterial loads influences colitis and gastritis in HLA-B27 transgenic rats. Gastroenterology 1999; 116:310-319.
22. Kullberg MC, Ward JM, Gorelick P et al. Helicobacter hepaticus triggers colitis in specific-pathogen-free interleukin-10 (IL-10)-deficient mice through an IL-12 and gamma interferon-dependent mechanism. Infect Immun 1998; 66:5157-5166.
23. Dieleman LA, Arends A, Tonkonogy SL et al. Helicobacter hepaticus does not induce or potentiate colitis in interleukin-10-deficient mice. Infect Immun 2000; 68:5107-5113.
24. Kullberg MC, Jankovic D, Gorelick PL et al. Bacteria-triggered CD4(+) T regulatory cells suppress Helicobacter hepaticus-induced colitis. J Exp Med 2003; 196:505-515.
25. Iqbal N, Oliver JR, Wagner FH et al. T helper 1 and T helper 2 cells are pathogenic in an antigen-specific model of colitis. J Exp Med 2002; 195:71-84.
26. Aranda R, Sydora BC, McAllister PL et al. Analysis of intestinal lymphocytes in mouse colitis mediated by transfer of CD4+, CD45RBhigh T cells to SCID recipients. J Immunol 1997; 158:3464-3473.
27. Onderdonk AB, Franklin ML, Cisneros RL. Production of experimental ulcerative colitis in gnotobiotic guinea pigs with simplified microflora. Infect Immun 1981; 32:225-231.
28. Yamada T, Deitch E, Specian RD et al. Mechanisms of acute and chronic intestinal inflammation induced by indomethacin. Inflammation 1993; 17:641-662.
29. Wood JD, Peck OC, Tefend KS et al. Evidence that colitis is initiated by environmental stress and sustained by fecal factors in the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Dig Dis Sci 2000; 45:385-393.
30. Axelsson LG, Landstrom E, Bylund-Fellenius AC. Experimental colitis induced by dextran sulphate sodium in mice: Beneficial effects of sulphasalazine and olsalazine. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1998; 12:925-934.
31. Hudcovic T, Stepankova R, Cebra J et al. The role of microflora in the development of intestinal inflammation: Acute and chronic colitis induced by dextran sulfate in germ-free and conventionally reared immunocompetent and immunodeficient mice. Folia Microbiol 2001; 46:565-572.
32. Rath HC, Wilson KH, Sartor RB. Differential induction of colitis and gastritis in HLA-B27 transgenic rats selectively colonized with Bacteroides vulgatus and Escherichia coli. Infect Immun 1999; 67:2969-2974.
33. Waidmann M, Bechtold O, Frick JS et al. Bacteroides vulgatus protects against Escherichia coli-induced colitis in gnotobiotic interleukin-2-deficient mice. Gastroenterology 2003; 125:162-177.
34. Kishi D, Takahashi I, Kai Y et al. Alteration of V beta usage and cytokine production of CD4+ TCR beta beta homodimer T cells by elimination of Bacteroides vulgatus prevents colitis in TCR alpha-chain-deficient mice. J Immunol 2000; 165:5891-5899.
35. Higgins LM, Frankel G, Douce G et al. Citrobacter rodentium infection in mice elicits a mucosal Th1 cytokine response and lesions similar to those in murine inflammatory bowel disease. Infect Immun 1999; 67:3031-3039.
36. Higgins LM, Frankel G, Connerton I et al. Role of bacterial intimin in colonic hyperplasia and inflammation. Science 1999; 285:588-591.
37. Mann BA, Kim SC, Sartor RB. Selective induction of experimental colitis by monoassociation of HLA-B27 transgenic rats with various enteric Bacteroides species. Gastroenterology 2003; 124:A322, (abstract).
38. Maggio-Price L, Shows D, Waggie K et al. Helicobacter bilis infection accelerates and H. hepaticus infection delays the development of colitis in multiple drug resistance-deficient (mdr1a-/-) mice. Am J Pathol 2002; 160:739-751.
39. Kim SC, Tonkonogy SL, Albright CA et al. Variable phenotypes of enterocolitis in interleukin 10-deficient mice monoassociated with two different commensal bacteria. Gastroenterology 2005; 128(4):891-906.
40. Kim SC, Tonkongy SL, Bower M et al. Dual-association of gnotobiotic IL-10-/- mice with two nonpathogenic commensal bacterial species accelerates colitis. Gastroenterology 2004; 126:A291.
41. Tsang J, Brown RS, Andersen GL et al. Selective expansion of colitogenic commensal bacterial species in SPF IL-10-/- mice. Gastroenterology 2004; 126LA291.
42. Isaacs KL, Sartor RB. Antibiotics in IBD. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2004; 33:335-345.
43. Gionchetti P, Rizzello F, Venturi A et al. Oral bacteriotherapy as maintenance treatment in patients with chronic pouchitis: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2000; 119:305-309.
44. Kruis W, Schutz E, Fric P et al. Double-blind comparison of an oral Escherichia coli preparation and mesalazine in maintaining remission of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1997; 11:853-858.
45. Harper PH, Lee EC, Kettlewell MG et al. Role of the faecal stream in the maintenance of Crohn's colitis. Gut 1985; 26:279-284.
46. D'Haens GR, Geboes K, Peeters M et al. Early lesions of recurrent Crohn's disease caused by infusion of intestinal contents in excluded ileum. Gastroenterology 1998; 114:262-267.
47. Sandborn WJ. Pouchitis following ileal pouch-anal anastomosis: Definition, pathogenesis, and treatment. Gastroenterology 1994; 107:1856-1860.
48. Dieleman LA, Heizer WD. Nutritional issues in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1998; 27:435-451.
49. Ambrose NS, Johnson M, Burdon DW et al. Incidence of pathogenic bacteria from mesenteric lymph nodes and ileal serosa during Crohn's disease surgery. Br J Surg 1984; 71:623-625.
50. Liu Y, Van Kruiningen HJ, West AB et al. Immunocytochemical evidence of Listeria, Escherichia coli, and Streptococcus antigens in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 1995; 108:1396-1404.
51. Sutton CL, Kim J, Yamane A et al. Identification of a novel bacterial sequence associated with Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 2000; 119:23-31.
52. Wei B, Huang T, Dalwadi HN et al. Pseudomonas fluorescens encodes the Crohn's disease-associated 12 sequence and T-cell superantigen. Infect Immun 2002; 70:6567-6575.
53. Meddings JB. Review article: Intestinal permeability in Crohn's disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1997; 11(Suppl):47-53.
54. Thjodleifsson B, Sigthorsson G, Cariglia N et al. Subclinical intestinal inflammation: An inherited abnormality in Crohn's disease relatives? Gastroenterology 2003; 124:1728-1737.
55. Swidsinski A, Ladhoff A, Pernthaler A et al. Mucosal flora in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2002; 122:44-54.
56. Kleessen B, Kroesen AJ, Buhr HJ et al. Mucosal and invading bacteria in patients with inflammatory bowel disease compared with controls. Scand J Gastroenterol 2002; 37:1034-1041.
57. Wehkamp J, Harder J, Weichenthal M et al. Inducible and constitutive beta-defensins are differentially expressed in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2003; 9:215-223.
58. Lala S, Ogura Y, Osborne C et al. Crohn's disease and the NOD2 gene: A role for paneth cells. Gastroenterology 2003; 125:47-57.
59. Darfeuille-Michaud A, Neut C, Barnich N et al. Presence of adherent Escherichia coli strains in ileal mucosa of patients with Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 1998; 115:1405-1413.
60. Glasser AL, Boudeau J, Barnich N et al. Adherent invasive Escherichia coli strains from patients with Crohn's disease survive and replicate within macrophages without inducing host cell death. Infect Immun 2001; 69:5529-5537.
61. Rayment N, Mylonaki M, Rampton D et al. Colocalisation of E. coli with macrophages in lamina propria in patients with active inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Gut 2003; in press,(abst).
62. Hisamatsu T, Suzuki M, Reinecker HC et al. CARD15/NOD2 functions as an anti-bacterial factor in human intestinal epithelial cells. Gastroenterology 2003; 124:993-1000.
63. Korzenik JR, Dieckgraefe BK. Is Crohn's disease an immunodeficiency? A hypothesis suggesting possible early events in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease. Dig Dis Sci 2000; 45:1121-1129.
64. Dieckgraefe BK, Korzenik JR. Treatment of active Crohn's disease with recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Lancet 2002; 360:1478-1480.
65. Takeda K, Takeuchi O, Akira S. Recognition of lipopeptides by Toll-like receptors. J Endotoxin Res 2002; 8:459-463.
66. Tapping RI, Tobias PS. Mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan mediates physical interactions between TLR1 and TLR2 to induce signaling. J Endotoxin Res 2003; 9:264-268.
67. Haller D, Jobin C. Interaction between resident luminal bacteria and the host: Can a healthy relationship turn sour? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2004; 38:123-136.
68. Sartor RB, Hoentjen F. Proinflammatory cytokines and signaling pathways in intestinal innate immune cells. In: Mestecky MS, ed. Mucosal Immunol. 3rd ed. 2004: in press,
69. Uhlig HH, Powrie F. Dendritic cells and the intestinal bacterial flora: A role for localized mucosal immune responses. J Clin Invest 2003; 112:648-651.
70. Stagg AJ, Hart AL, Knight SC et al. The dendritic cell: Its role in intestinal inflammation and relationship with gut bacteria. Gut 2003; 52:1522-1529.
71. Werling D, Jungi TW. TOLL-like receptors linking innate and adaptive immune response. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2003; 91:1-12.
72. Akira S, Hemmi H. Recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by TLR family. Immunol Lett 2003; 85:85-95.
73. Girardin SE, Boneca IG, Viala J et al. Nod2 is a general sensor of peptidoglycan through muramyl dipeptide (MDP) detection. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:8869-8872.
74. Bonen DK, Ogura Y, Nicolae DL et al. Crohn's disease-associated NOD2 variants share a signaling defect in response to lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan. Gastroenterology 2003; 124:140-146.
75. Girardin SE, Boneca IG, Carneiro LA et al. Nod1 detects a unique muropeptide from gram-negative bacterial peptidoglycan. Science 2003; 300:1584-1587.
76. Harton JA, Linhoff MW, Zhang J et al. Cutting edge: CATERPILLER: A large family of mammalian genes containing CARD, pyrin, nucleotide-binding, and leucine-rich repeat domains. J Immunol 2002; 169:4088-4093.
77. Mahida YR. The key role of macrophages in the immunopathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2000; 6:21-33.
78. Haller D, Russo MP, Sartor RB, Jobin C. IKKbeta and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt participate in nonpathogenic Gram-negative enteric bacteria-induced RelA phosphorylation and NF-kappa B activation in both primary and intestinal epithelial cell lines. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:38168-38178.
79. Haller D, Holt L, Schwabe RF et al. Transforming growth factor-{beta}1 inhibits nonpathogenic Gramnegative bacteria-induced NF-{kappa}B recruitment to the interleukin-6 gene promoter in intestinal epithelial cells through modulation of histone acetylation. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:23851-23860.
80. Becker C, Wirtz S, Blessing M et al. Constitutive p40 promoter activation and IL-23 production in the terminal ileum mediated by dendritic cells. J Clin Invest 2003; 112:693-706.
81. Rescigno M, Urbano M, Valzasina B et al. Dendritic cells express tight junction proteins and penetrate gut epithelial monolayers to sample bacteria. Nature Immunol 2001; 2:361-367.
82. Oshitani N, Hato F, Kitagawa S et al. Analysis of intestinal HLA-DR bound peptides and dysregulated immune responses to enteric flora in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Int J Mol Med 2003; 11:99-104.
83. Jobin C, Sartor RB. The I kappa B/NF-kappa B system: A key determinant of mucosal inflammation and protection. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2000; 278:C451-C462.
84. Sartor RB, De La Cadena RA, Green KD et al. Selective kallikrein-kinin system activation in inbred rats differentially susceptible to granulomatous enterocolitis. Gastroenterology 1996; 110:1467-1481.
85. Sogawa M, Matsumoto T, Yamagami H et al. A murine model of granulomatous colitis with mesenteric lymphadenitis induced by mycobacterial cord factor. Virchows Arch 2003; 442:151-158.
86. Robert A, Asano T. Resistance of germfree rats to indomethacin-induced intestinal lesions. Prostaglandins 1977; 14:333-341.
87. Videla S, Vilaseca J, Guarner F et al. Role of intestinal microflora in chronic inflammation and ulceration of the rat colon. Gut 1994; 35:1090-1097.
88. Rachmilewitz D, Karmeli F, Takabayashi K et al. Immunostimulatory DNA ameliorates experimental and spontaneous murine colitis. Gastroenterology 2002; 122:1428-1441.
89. Rachmilewitz D, Katakara K, Karmeli F et al. Toll-like receptor 9 signaling mediates the anti-inflammatory effects of probiotics in murine experimental colitis. Gastroenterology 2004; 126:520-528
90. Jijon H, Backer J, Diaz H et al. DNA from probiotic bacteria modulates murine and human epithelial and immune frinction. Gastroenterology 2004; 126:1358-1373.
91. Cender CJ, Haller D, Walters C et al. VSL #3 alters cytokine production of unfractionated splenocytes upon stimulation with cecal bacterial lysate: Immunomodulation by this probiotic combination. Gastroenterology 2002; 122:A145, (abst).
92. Ulisse S, Gionchetti P, D'Alo S et al. Expression of cytokines, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and matrix metalloproteinases in pouchitis: Effects of probiotic treatment. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96:2691-2699.
93. Kim SC, Tonkonogy SL, Sartor RB. Role of endogenous IL-10 in downregulating proinflammatory cytokine expression. Gastroenterology 2001; 120:A183, (abst).
94. Albright C, Tonkonogy SL, Sartor RB. Endogenous IL-10 inhibits APC stimulation of T lymphocyte responses to luminal bacteria. Gastroenterology 2002; 122:A270, (abst).
95. Albright C, Tonkonogy SL, Frelinger JA et al. Adoptive transfer of E. faecalis-pulsed dendritic cells accelerates colitis in IL-10 deficient mice. Gastroenterology 2003; 124:A73, (abst).
96. Dubuquoy L, Jansson EA, Deeb S et al. Impaired expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 2003; 124:1265-1276.
97. Kojima K, Musch MW, Ren H et al. Enteric flora and lymphocyte-derived cytokines determine expression of heat shock proteins in mouse colonic epithelial cells. Gastroenterology 2003; 124:1395-1407.
98. Tomczak MF, Erdman SE, Poutahidis T et al. NF-kappa B is required within the innate immune system to inhibit microflora-induced colitis and expression of IL-12 p40. J Immunol 2003; 171:1484-1492.
99. Russo MP, Boudreau F, Li F et al. NFkappaB blockade exacerbates experimental colitis in transgenic mice expressing an intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) specific IkappaB super-repressor. Gastroenterology 2001; 120:A70, (abst).
100. Panwala CM, Jones JC, Viney JL. A novel model of inflammatory bowel disease: Mice deficient for the multiple drug resistance gene, mdr1a, spontaneously develop colitis. J Immunol 1998; 161:5733-5744.
101. Duchmann R, Schmitt E, Knolle P et al. Tolerance towards resident intestinal flora in mice is abrogated in experimental colitis and restored by treatment with interleukin-10 or antibodies to interleukin-12. Eur J Immunol 1996; 26:934-938.
102. Cong Y, Brandwein SL, McCabe RP et al. CD4+ T cells reactive to enteric bacterial antigens in spontaneously colitic C3H/HeJBir mice: Increased T helper cell type 1 response and ability to transfer disease. J Exp Med 1998; 187:855-864.
103. Cohavy O, Harth G, Horwitz M et al. Identification of a novel mycobacterial histone H1 homologue (HupB) as an antigenic target of pANCA monoclonal antibody and serum immunoglobulin A from patients with Crohn's disease. Infect Immun 1999; 67:6510-6517.
104. Qian B-F, Hoentjen F, Dieleman LA et al. Dysregulated luminal bacterial antigen-specific T cell responses and antigen presenting cell function in HLA-B27 transgenic rats with chronic colitis. Gastroenterology 2003; 124:A487, (abst).
105. Kullberg MC, Andersen JF, Gorelick PL et al. Induction of colitis by a CD4+ T cell clone specific for a bacterial epitope. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100:15830-15835.
106. Brimnes J, Reimann J, Nissen M et al. Enteric bacterial antigens activate CD4(+) T cells from scid mice with inflammatory bowel disease. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31:23-31.
107. Cong Y, Weaver CT, Lazenby A et al. Colitis induced by enteric bacterial antigen-specific CD4+ T cells requires CD40-CD40 Hgand interactions for a sustained increase in mucosal IL-12. J Immunol 2000; 165:2173-2182.
108. Yoshida M, Shirai Y, Watanabe T et al. Differential localization of colitogenic TH1 and TH2 cells monospecific to a micro flora-associated antigen in mice. Gastroenterology 2002; 123:1949-1961.
109. Brown J, Haddad W, Balish E et al. Defining the TCR repertoire in interleukin-10 deficient mouse colitis induced by monoassociation with E. faecalis. Gastroenterology 2002; 122:A262, (abst).
110. Takahashi I, Matsuda J, Gapin L et al. Colitis-related public T cells are selected in the colonic lamina propria of IL-10-deficient mice. Clin Immunol 2002; 102:237-248.
111. Sydora BC, Tavernini MM, Jewell LD et al. Effect of bacterial monoassociation on tolerance and intestinal inflammation in IL-10 gene-deficient mice. Gastroenterology 2001; 120:A517, (abst).
112. Cong Y, Weaver CT, Lazenby A et al. Bacterial-reactive T regulatory cells inhibit pathogenic immune responses to the enteric flora. J Immunol 2002; 169:6112-6119.
113. Gad M, Brimnes J, Claesson MH. CD4+ T regulatory cells from the colonic lamina propria of normal mice inhibit proliferation of enterobacteria-reactive, disease-inducing Th1-cells from scid mice with colitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 131:34-40.
114. Waidmann M, Allemand Y, Lehmann J et al. Microflora reactive IL-10 producing regulatory T cells are present in the colon of IL-2 deficient mice but lack efficacious inhibition of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha production. Gut 2002; 50:170-179.
115. Asseman C, Read S, Powrie F. Colitogenic Th1 cells are present in the antigen-experienced T cell pool in normal mice: Control by CD4+ regulatory T cells and IL-10. J Immunol 2003; 171:971-978.
116. Konrad A, Mahler M, Flogerzi B et al. Amelioration of murine colitis by feeding a solution of lysed Escherichia coli. Scand J Gastroenterol 2003; 38:172-179.
117. Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E, Chiba C et al. Role of appendix in the development of inflammatory bowel disease in TCR-alpha mutant mice. J Exp Med 1996; 184:707-715.
118. Brandwein SL, McCabe RP, Cong Y et al. Spontaneously colitic C3H/HeJBir mice demonstrate selective antibody reactivity to antigens of the enteric bacterial flora. J Immunol 1997; 159:44-52.
119. Mann BA, Rocha ER, Smith CJ et al. Determining the role of heat shock protein 60 of Bacteroides vulgatus in the induction of colitis in the HLA B27 transgenic rat model. Abst Am Soc Microbiol 2003; B-285, (abst).
120. Seibold F, Brandwein S, Simpson S et al. pANCA represents a cross-reactivity to enteric bacterial antigens. J Clin Immunol 1998; 18:153-160.
121. Leung FW, Heng MC, Allen S et al. Involvement of luminal bacteria, heat shock protein 60, macrophages and gammadelta T cells in dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in rats. Dig Dis Sci 2000; 45:1472-1479.
122. Uhlig HH, Hultgren HE, Ohman BL et al. Antibody response to dietary and autoantigens in G alpha i2-deficient mice. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001; 13:1421-1429.
123. Ma A, Datta M, Margosian E et al. T cells, but not B cells, are required for bowel inflammation in interleukin 2-deficient mice. J Exp Med 1995; 182:1567-1572.
124. Davidson NJ, Leach MW, Fort MM et al. T helper cell 1-type CD4+ T cells, but not B cells, mediate colitis in interleukin 10-deficient mice. J Exp Med 1996; 184:241-251.
125. Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E, Smith RN et al. Suppressive role of B cells in chronic colitis of T cell receptor alpha mutant mice. J Exp Med 1997; 186:1749-1756.
126. Dalwadi H, Wei B, Schrage M et al. B cell developmental requirement for the G alpha i2 gene. J Immunol 2003; 170:1707-1715.
127. Simmons CP, Clare S, Ghaem-Maghami M et al. Central role for B lymphocytes and CD4+ T cells in immunity to infection by the attaching and effacing pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. Infect Immun 2003; 71:5077-5086.
128. Duchmann R, Kaiser I, Hermann E et al. Tolerance exists towards resident intestinal flora but is broken in active inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Clin Exp Immunol 1995; 102:448-455.
129. Duchmann R, Marker-Hermann E, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH. Bacteria-specific T-cell clones are selective in their reactivity towards different enterobacteria or H. pylori and increased in inflammatory bowel disease. Scand J Immunol. 1996; 44:71-79.
130. Duchmann R, May E, Heike M et al. T cell specificity and cross reactivity towards Enterobacteria, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, and antigens from resident intestinal flora in humans. Gut 1999; 44:812-818.
131. van den Bogaerde J, Kamm MA, Knight SC. Immune sensitization to food, yeast and bacteria in Crohn's disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001; 15:1647-1653.
132. Van Den Bogaerde J, Cahill J, Emmanuel AV et al. Gut mucosal response to food antigens in Crohn's disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002; 16:1903-1915.
133. Macpherson A, Khoo UY, Forgacs I et al. Mucosal antibodies in inflammatory bowel disease are directed against intestinal bacteria. Gut 1996; 38:365-375.
134. Auer IO, Roder A, Wensinck F et al. Selected bacterial antibodies in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1983; 18:217-223.
135. Tabaqchali S, O'Donoghue DP, Bettelheim KA. Escherichia coli antibodies in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 1978; 19:108-113.
136. Cohavy O, Bruckner D, Gordon LK et al. Colonic bacteria express an ulcerative colitis pANCA-related protein epitope. Infect Immun 2000; 68:1542-1548.
137. Landers CJ, Cohavy O, Misra R et al. Selected loss of tolerance evidenced by Crohn's disease-associated immune responses to auto- and microbial antigens. Gastroenterology 2002; 123:689-699.
138. Mow WS, Vasiliauskas EA, Lin YC et al. Association of antibody responses to microbial antigens and complications of small bowel Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 2004; 126;414-424.
139. Lodes MJ, Cong Y, Elson CO et al. Bacterial flagellin is a dominant antigen in Crohn's disease. J Clin Invest 2004; 113:1296-1306.