Causes of obesity: Looking beyond the hypothalamus

Progress in Neurobiology

Volumn 81, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 61-88

  Peters, A ^a   Pellerin, L ^b   Dallman, M F ^c   Oltmanns, K M ^a   Schweiger, U ^a   Born, J ^a   Fehm, H L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LÜBECK   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LAUSANNE   (Switzerland)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

ATP sensitive potassium channels; Blood brain barrier; Cerebral hemispheres; Glucose; Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal system; Hypothalamus; Ingestive behavior; Insulin; Locomotor behavior; Long term potentiation; Metabolic memory; Obesity; Stress; Sympathetic nervous system

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE;

ADAPTATION; AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; CALORIC INTAKE; ENERGY RESOURCE; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; FOOD INTAKE; FORAGING; HEMISPHERE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS; METABOLIC REGULATION; MOTOR CORTEX; NERVE PROJECTION; NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STRESS;

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE; ANIMALS; APPETITE REGULATION; BRAIN; ENERGY METABOLISM; FEEDBACK, BIOCHEMICAL; HYPOTHALAMUS; LONG-TERM POTENTIATION; METABOLIC NETWORKS AND PATHWAYS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEURAL PATHWAYS; OBESITY;

EID: 33847145082     PISSN: 03010082     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2006.12.004     Document Type: Review

References (240)

1. Abbott N.J. Astrocyte-endothelial interactions and blood-brain barrier permeability. J. Anat. 200 (2002) 629-638
2. Abelson J.L., Liberzon I., Young E.A., and Khan S. Cognitive modulation of the endocrine stress response to a pharmacological challenge in normal and panic disorder subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62 (2005) 668-675
3. Ahima R.S., Prabakaran D., Mantzoros C., Qu D., Lowell B., Maratos Flier E., and Flier J.S. Role of leptin in the neuroendocrine response to fasting. Nature 382 (1996) 250-252
4. Alexander G.E., and Crutcher M.D. Functional architecture of basal ganglia circuits: neural substrates of parallel processing. Trends Neurosci. 13 (1990) 266-271
5. Amoroso S., Schmid-Antomarchi H., Fosset M., and Lazdunski M. Glucose, sulfonylureas, and neurotransmitter release: role of ATP-sensitive K+ channels. Science 247 (1990) 852-854
6. Arana F.S., Parkinson J.A., Hinton E., Holland A.J., Owen A.M., and Roberts A.C. Dissociable contributions of the human amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex to incentive motivation and goal selection. J. Neurosci. 23 (2003) 9632-9638
7. Attwell D., and Gibb A. Neuroenergetics and the kinetic design of excitatory synapses. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6 (2005) 841-849
8. Avital A., Segal M., and Richter-Levin G. Contrasting roles of corticosteroid receptors in hippocampal plasticity. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006) 9130-9134
9. Banks W.A., Farr S.A., and Morley J.E. The effects of high fat diets on the blood-brain barrier transport of leptin: failure or adaptation?. Physiol. Behav. 88 (2006) 244-248
10. Bartanusz V., Aubry J.M., Pagliusi S., Jezova D., Baffi J., and Kiss J.Z. Stress-induced changes in messenger RNA levels of N-methyl-d-aspartate and AMPA receptor subunits in selected regions of the rat hippocampus and hypothalamus. Neuroscience 66 (1995) 247-252
11. Baskin D.G., Breininger J.F., and Schwartz M.W. SOCS-3 expression in leptin-sensitive neurons of the hypothalamus of fed and fasted rats. Regul. Pept. 92 (2000) 9-15
12. Baskin D.G., Figlewicz L.D., Seeley R.J., Woods S.C., Porte Jr. D., and Schwartz M.W. Insulin and leptin: dual adiposity signals to the brain for the regulation of food intake and body weight. Brain Res. 848 (1999) 114-123
13. Bell M.E., Bhatnagar S., Liang J., Soriano L., Nagy T.R., and Dallman M.F. Voluntary sucrose ingestion, like corticosterone replacement, prevents the metabolic deficits of adrenalectomy. J. Neuroendocrinol. 12 (2000) 461-470
14. Bergfors M., Barnekow-Bergkvist M., Kalezic N., Lyskov E., and Eriksson J.W. Short-term effects of repetitive arm work and dynamic exercise on glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity. Acta Physiol. Scand. 183 (2005) 345-356
15. Bergles D.E., and Jahr C.E. Synaptic activation of glutamate transporters in hippocampal astrocytes. Neuron 19 (1997) 1297-1308
16. Berthoud H.R. Mind versus metabolism in the control of food intake and energy balance. Physiol. Behav. 81 (2004) 781-793
17. Bingham E.M., Dunn J.T., Smith D., Sutcliffe-Goulden J., Reed L.J., Marsden P.K., and Amiel S.A. Differential changes in brain glucose metabolism during hypoglycaemia accompany loss of hypoglycaemia awareness in men with type 1 diabetes mellitus. An [(11)C]-3-O-methyl-d-glucose PET study. Diabetologia 48 (2005) 2080-2089
18. Bittar P.G., Charnay Y., Pellerin L., Bouras C., and Magistretti P.J. Selective distribution of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes in neurons and astrocytes of human brain. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 16 (1996) 1079-1089
19. Blakemore C. In celebration of cerebration. Lancet 366 (2005) 2035-2057
20. Bonen A., Luiken J.J., Liu S., Dyck D.J., Kiens B., Kristiansen S., Turcotte L.P., Van Der Vusse G.J., and Glatz J.F. Palmitate transport and fatty acid transporters in red and white muscles. Am. J. Physiol. 275 (1998) E471-E478
21. Bouzier-Sore A.K., Voisin P., Canioni P., Magistretti P.J., and Pellerin L. Lactate is a preferential oxidative energy substrate over glucose for neurons in culture. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 23 (2003) 1298-1306
22. Boyle P.J., Scott J.C., Krentz A.J., Nagy R.J., Comstock E., and Hoffman C. Diminished brain glucose metabolism is a significant determinant for falling rates of systemic glucose utilization during sleep in normal humans. J. Clin. Invest. 93 (1994) 529-535
23. Bray G.A., Inoue S., and Nishizawa Y. Hypothalamic obesity. The autonomic hypothesis and the lateral hypothalamus. Diabetologia 20 Suppl. (1981) 366-377
24. Brooks G.A. Lactate shuttle-between but not within cells?. J. Physiol. 541 (2002) 333-334
25. Bruning J.C., Gautam D., Burks D.J., Gillette J., Schubert M., Orban P.C., Klein R., Krone W., Muller-Wieland D., and Kahn C.R. Role of brain insulin receptor in control of body weight and reproduction. Science 289 (2000) 2122-2125
26. Burdakov D., Jensen L.T., Alexopoulos H., Williams R.H., Fearon I.M., O'Kelly I., Gerasimenko O., Fugger L., and Verkhratsky A. Tandem-pore K+ channels mediate inhibition of orexin neurons by glucose. Neuron 50 (2006) 711-722
27. Cahill Jr. G.F. Starvation in man. N. Engl. J. Med. 282 (1970) 668-675
28. Cai X.J., Widdowson P.S., Harrold J., Wilson S., Buckingham R.E., Arch J.R., Tadayyon M., Clapham J.C., Wilding J., and Williams G. Hypothalamic orexin expression: modulation by blood glucose and feeding. Diabetes 48 (1999) 2132-2137
29. Canteras N.S., Simerly R.B., and Swanson L.W. Organization of projections from the medial nucleus of the amygdala: a PHAL study in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 360 (1995) 213-245
30. Canteras N.S., and Swanson L.W. Projections of the ventral subiculum to the amygdala, septum, and hypothalamus: a PHAL anterograde tract-tracing study in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 324 (1992) 180-194
31. Capaldo B., Napoli R., Guida R., Di Bonito P., Antoniello S., Auletta M., Pardo F., Rendina V., and Sacca L. Forearm muscle insulin resistance during hypoglycemia: role of adrenergic mechanisms and hypoglycemia per se. Am. J. Physiol. 268 (1995) E248-E254
32. Chan S.L., Dunne M.J., Stillings M.R., and Morgan N.G. The alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist efaroxan modulates K+ ATP channels in insulin-secreting cells. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 204 (1991) 41-48
33. Chapman J.C., McClenaghan N.H., Cosgrove K.E., Hashmi M.N., Shepherd R.M., Giesberts A.N., White S.J., Ammala C., Flatt P.R., and Dunne M.J. ATP-sensitive potassium channels and efaroxan-induced insulin release in the electrofusion-derived BRIN-BD11 beta-cell line. Diabetes 48 (1999) 2349-2357
34. Chatton J.Y., Pellerin L., and Magistretti P.J. GABA uptake into astrocytes is not associated with significant metabolic cost: implications for brain imaging of inhibitory transmission. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2003) 12456-12461
35. Choi S., Sparks R., Clay M., and Dallman M.F. Rats with hypothalamic obesity are insensitive to central leptin injections. Endocrinology 140 (1999) 4426-4433
36. Clement K., Vaisse C., Lahlou N., Cabrol S., Pelloux V., Cassuto D., Gourmelen M., Dina C., Chambaz J., Lacorte J.M., Basdevant A., Bougneres P., Lebouc Y., Froguel P., and Guy-Grand B. A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature 392 (1998) 398-401
37. Cohen N., Rossetti L., Shlimovich P., Halberstam M., Hu M., and Shamoon H. Counterregulation of hypoglycemia. Skeletal muscle glycogen metabolism during three hours of physiological hyperinsulinemia in humans. Diabetes 44 (1995) 423-430
38. Collingridge G.L., Isaac J.T., and Wang Y.T. Receptor trafficking and synaptic plasticity. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5 (2004) 952-962
39. Cone R.D. Anatomy and regulation of the central melanocortin system. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 571-578
40. Cox D.J., Gonder-Frederick L.A., Kovatchev B.P., and Clarke W.L. The metabolic demands of driving for drivers with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 18 (2002) 381-385
41. Dallman M.F., Pecoraro N., Akana S.F., la Fleur S.E., Gomez F., Houshyar H., Bell M.E., Bhatnagar S., Laugero K.D., and Manalo S. Chronic stress and obesity: a new view of "comfort food". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100 (2003) 11696-11701
42. Dallman M.F., Pecoraro N.C., and la Fleur S.E. Chronic stress and comfort foods: self-medication and abdominal obesity. Brain Behav. Immun. 19 (2005) 275-280
43. Dalsgaard M.K., Quistorff B., Danielsen E.R., Selmer C., Vogelsang T., and Secher N.H. A reduced cerebral metabolic ratio in exercise reflects metabolism and not accumulation of lactate within the human brain. J. Physiol. 554 (2004) 571-578
44. Daniels W.M., Jaffer A., Engelbrecht A.H., Russell V.A., and Taljaard J.J. The effect of intrahippocampal injection of kainic acid on corticosterone release in rats. Neurochem. Res. 15 (1990) 495-499
45. Davis S.N., Shavers C., Davis B., and Costa F. Prevention of an increase in plasma cortisol during hypoglycemia preserves subsequent conterregulatory responses. J. Clin. Invest. 100 (1997) 429-438
46. de Kloet E.R., Joëls M., and Holsboer F. Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6 (2005) 463-475
47. de Luca C., Kowalski T.J., Zhang Y., Elmquist J.K., Lee C., Kilimann M.W., Ludwig T., Liu S.M., and Chua S.C. Complete rescue of obesity, diabetes, and infertility in db/db mice by neuron-specific LEPR-B transgenes. J. Clin. Invest. 115 (2005) 3484-3493
48. Delparigi A., Chen K., Salbe A.D., Hill J.O., Wing R.R., Reiman E.M., and Tataranni P.A. Successful dieters have increased neural activity in cortical areas involved in the control of behavior. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) (2006) 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803431 [Epub ahead of print]
49. Deniau J.M., Menetrey A., and Charpier S. The lamellar organization of the rat substantia nigra pars reticulata: segregated patterns of striatal afferents and relationship to the topography of corticostriatal projections. Neuroscience 73 (1996) 761-781
50. Dhillon H., Zigman J.M., Ye C., Lee C.E., McGovern R.A., Tang V., Kenny C.D., Christiansen L.M., White R.D., and Edelstein E.A. Leptin directly activates SF1 neurons in the VMH, and this action by leptin is required for normal body-weight homeostasis. Neuron 49 (2006) 191-203
51. Diamond D.M., Bennett M.C., Fleshner M., and Rose G.M. Inverted-U relationship between the level of peripheral corticosterone and the magnitude of hippocampal primed burst potentiation. Hippocampus 2 (1992) 421-430
52. Dodt C., Lonnroth P., Fehm H.L., and Elam M. The subcutaneous lipolytic response to regional neural stimulation is reduced in obese women. Diabetes 49 (2000) 1875-1879
53. Dong H.W., Petrovich G.D., and Swanson L.W. Topography of projections from amygdala to bed nuclei of the stria terminalis. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 38 (2001) 192-246
54. Dong H.W., and Swanson L.W. Organization of axonal projections from the anterolateral area of the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis. J. Comp. Neurol. 468 (2004) 277-298
55. Dong H.W., and Swanson L.W. Projections from bed nuclei of the stria terminalis, posterior division: implications for cerebral hemisphere regulation of defensive and reproductive behaviors. J. Comp. Neurol. 471 (2004) 396-433
56. Drazen D.L., Vahl T.P., D'Alessio D.A., Seeley R.J., and Woods S.C. Effects of a fixed meal pattern on ghrelin secretion: evidence for a learned response independent of nutrient status. Endocrinology 147 (2006) 23-30
57. Dunning B.E., Ahren B., Veith R.C., and Taborsky Jr. G.J. Nonadrenergic sympathetic neural influences on basal pancreatic hormone secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 255 (1988) E785-E792
58. During M.J., Leone P., Davis K.E., Kerr D., and Sherwin R.S. Glucose modulates rat substantia nigra GABA release in vivo via ATP-sensitive potassium channels. J. Clin. Invest. 95 (1995) 2403-2408
59. Ebert D., Haller R.G., and Walton M.E. Energy contribution of octanoate to intact rat brain metabolism measured by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J. Neurosci. 23 (2003) 5928-5935
60. Ekkekakis P., and Lind E. Exercise does not feel the same when you are overweight: the impact of self-selected and imposed intensity on affect and exertion. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) 30 (2006) 652-660
61. Elmquist J.K., Elias C.F., and Saper C.B. From lesions to leptin: hypothalamic control of food intake and body weight. Neuron 22 (1999) 221-232
62. Epel E., Jimenez S., Brownell K., Stroud L., Stoney C., and Niaura R. Are stress eaters at risk for the metabolic syndrome?. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1032 (2004) 208-210
63. Erecinska M., Cherian S., and Silver I.A. Energy metabolism in mammalian brain during development. Prog. Neurobiol. 73 (2004) 397-445
64. Evans M.L., McCrimmon R.J., Flanagan D.E., Keshavarz T., Fan X., McNay E.C., Jacob R.J., and Sherwin R.S. Hypothalamic ATP-sensitive K+ channels play a key role in sensing hypoglycemia and triggering counterregulatory epinephrine and glucagon responses. Diabetes 53 (2004) 2542-2551
65. Fattor J.A., Miller B.F., Jacobs K.A., and Brooks G.A. Catecholamine response is attenuated during moderate-intensity exercise in response to the "lactate clamp". Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 288 (2005) E143-E147
66. Figlewicz D.P., Stein L.J., West D., Porte Jr. D., and Woods S.C. Intracisternal insulin alters sensitivity to CCK-induced meal suppression in baboons. Am. J. Physiol. 250 (1986) R856-R860
67. Fink K., Zentner J., and Gothert M. Increased GABA release in the human brain cortex as a potential pathogenetic basis of hyperosmolar diabetic coma. J. Neurochem. 62 (1994) 1476-1481
68. Fleidervish I.A., Gebhardt C., Astman N., Gutnick M.J., and Heinemann U. Enhanced spontaneous transmitter release is the earliest consequence of neocortical hypoxia that can explain the disruption of normal circuit function. J. Neurosci. 21 (2001) 4600-4608
69. Fruehwald-Schultes B., Kern W., Born J., Fehm H.L., and Peters A. Comparison of the inhibitory effect of insulin and hypoglycemia on insulin secretion in humans. Metabolism 49 (2000) 950-953
70. Fruehwald-Schultes B., Kern W., Deininger E., Wellhoener P., Kerner W., Born J., Fehm H.L., and Peters A. Protective effect of insulin against hypoglycemia-associated counterregulatory failure. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 84 (1999) 1551-1557
71. Fujimura N., Tanaka E., Yamamoto S., Shigemori M., and Higashi H. Contribution of ATP-sensitive potassium channels to hypoxic hyperpolarization in rat hippocampal CA1 neurons in vitro. J. Neurophysiol. 77 (1997) 378-385
72. Fujita S., and Donovan C.M. Celiac-superior mesenteric ganglionectomy, but not vagotomy, suppresses the sympathoadrenal response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Diabetes 54 (2005) 3258-3264
73. Gabr R.W., Birkle D.L., and Azzaro A.J. Stimulation of the amygdala by glutamate facilitates corticotropin-releasing factor release from the median eminence and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in stressed rats. Neuroendocrinology 62 (1995) 333-339
74. Garcia d.A., Franke H., Pissarek M., Nieber K., and Illes P. Neuroprotection by ATP-dependent potassium channels in rat neocortical brain slices during hypoxia. Neurosci. Lett. 273 (1999) 13-16
75. Gautier J.F., Chen K., Salbe A.D., Bandy D., Pratley R.E., Heiman M., Ravussin E., Reiman E.M., and Tataranni P.A. Differential brain responses to satiation in obese and lean men. Diabetes 49 (2000) 838-846
76. Giacca A., Groenewoud Y., Tsui E., McClean P., and Zinman B. Glucose production, utilization, and cycling in response to moderate exercise in obese subjects with type 2 diabetes and mild hyperglycemia. Diabetes 47 (1998) 1763-1770
77. Gladden L.B. Lactate metabolism: a new paradigm for the third millennium. J. Physiol. 558 (2004) 5-30
78. Gloyn A.L., Pearson E.R., Antcliff J.F., Proks P., Bruining G.J., Slingerland A.S., Howard N., Srinivasan S., Silva J.M., Molnes J., Edghill E.L., Frayling T.M., Temple I.K., Mackay D., Shield J.P., Sumnik Z., van Rhijn A., Wales J.K., Clark P., Gorman S., Aisenberg J., Ellard S., Njolstad P.R., Ashcroft F.M., and Hattersley A.T. Activating mutations in the gene encoding the ATP-sensitive potassium-channel subunit Kir6.2 and permanent neonatal diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 350 (2004) 1838-1849
79. Gonzalez-Alonso J., Dalsgaard M.K., Osada T., Volianitis S., Dawson E.A., Yoshiga C.C., and Secher N.H. Brain and central haemodynamics and oxygenation during maximal exercise in humans. J. Physiol. 557 (2004) 331-342
80. Griesemer D., Zawar C., and Neumcke B. Cell-type specific depression of neuronal excitability in rat hippocampus by activation of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. Eur. Biophys. J. 31 (2002) 467-477
81. Grundmann S.J., Pankey E.A., Cook M.M., Wood A.L., Rollins B.L., and King B.M. Combination unilateral amygdaloid and ventromedial hypothalamic lesions: evidence for a feeding pathway. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 288 (2005) R702-R707
82. Haberly L.B., and Price J.L. Association and commissural fiber systems of the olfactory cortex of the rat. II. Systems originating in the olfactory peduncle. J. Comp. Neurol. 181 (1978) 781-807
83. Hamann J.J., Kelley K.M., and Gladden L.B. Effect of epinephrine on net lactate uptake by contracting skeletal muscle. J. Appl. Physiol. 91 (2001) 2635-2641
84. Hand G.A., Hewitt C.B., Fulk L.J., Stock H.S., Carson J.A., Davis J.M., and Wilson M.A. Differential release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in the amygdala during different types of stressors. Brain Res. 949 (2002) 122-130
85. Hicks G.A., Hudson A.L., and Henderson G. Localization of high affinity [3H]glibenclamide binding sites within the substantia nigra zona reticulata of the rat brain. Neuroscience 61 (1994) 285-292
86. Hill J.O., and Peters J.C. Environmental contributions to the obesity epidemic. Science 280 (1998) 1371-1374
87. Hinsey J.C., Ranson S.W., and McNattin R.F. The role of the hypothalamus and mesencephalon in locomotion. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatr. 23 (1930) 1-43
88. Holland P.C., Petrovich G.D., and Gallagher M. The effects of amygdala lesions on conditioned stimulus-potentiated eating in rats. Physiol. Behav. 76 (2002) 117-129
89. Horvath T.L. The hardship of obesity: a soft-wired hypothalamus. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 561-565
90. Huszar D., Lynch C.A., Fairchild-Huntress V., Dunmore J.H., Fang Q., Berkemeier L.R., Gu W., Kesterson R.A., Boston B.A., Cone R.D., Smith F.J., Campfield L.A., Burn P., and Lee F. Targeted disruption of the melanocortin-4 receptor results in obesity in mice. Cell 88 (1997) 131-141
91. Ide K., Schmalbruch I.K., Quistorff B., Horn A., and Secher N.H. Lactate, glucose and O2 uptake in human brain during recovery from maximal exercise. J. Physiol. 522 Pt 1 (2000) 159-164
92. Ide K., and Secher N.H. Cerebral blood flow and metabolism during exercise. Prog. Neurobiol. 61 (2000) 397-414
93. James J.H., Wagner K.R., King J.K., Leffler R.E., Upputuri R.K., Balasubramaniam A., Friend L.A., Shelly D.A., Paul R.J., and Fischer J.E. Stimulation of both aerobic glycolysis and Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity in skeletal muscle by epinephrine or amylin. Am. J. Physiol. 277 (1999) E176-E186
94. Jansen A.S., Hoffman J.L., and Loewy A.D. CNS sites involved in sympathetic and parasympathetic control of the pancreas: a viral tracing study. Brain Res. 766 (1997) 29-38
95. Jensen F.E., Wang C., Stafstrom C.E., Liu Z., Geary C., and Stevens M.C. Acute and chronic increases in excitability in rat hippocampal slices after perinatal hypoxia in vivo. J. Neurophysiol. 79 (1998) 73-81
96. Jezova D., Tokarev D., and Rusnak M. Endogenous excitatory amino acids are involved in stress-induced adrenocorticotropin and catecholamine release. Neuroendocrinology 62 (1995) 326-332
97. Jiang C., and Haddad G.G. Modulation of K+ channels by intracellular ATP in human neocortical neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 77 (1997) 93-102
98. Johnson B.A., Devous Sr. M.D., Ruiz P., and it-Daoud N. Treatment advances for cocaine-induced ischemic stroke: focus on dihydropyridine-class calcium channel antagonists. Am. J. Psychiatry 158 (2001) 1191-1198
99. Kang L., Routh V.H., Kuzhikandathil E.V., Gaspers L.D., and Levin B.E. Physiological and molecular characteristics of rat hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus glucosensing neurons. Diabetes 53 (2004) 549-559
100. Kemppainen J., Aalto S., Fujimoto T., Kalliokoski K.K., Langsjo J., Oikonen V., Rinne J., Nuutila P., and Knuuti J. High intensity exercise decreases global brain glucose uptake in humans. J. Physiol. 568 (2005) 323-332
101. Kilpatrick I.C., Collingridge G.L., and Starr M.S. Evidence for the participation of nigrotectal gamma-aminobutyrate-containing neurones in striatal and nigral-derived circling in the rat. Neuroscience 7 (1982) 207-222
102. Kim J.J., and Diamond D.M. The stressed hippocampus, synaptic plasticity and lost memories. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3 (2002) 453-462
103. Kim S.K., and Rulifson E.J. Conserved mechanisms of glucose sensing and regulation by Drosophila corpora cardiaca cells. Nature 431 (2004) 316-320
104. King B.M., Cook J.T., and Dallman M.F. Hyperinsulinemia in rats with obesity-inducing amygdaloid lesions. Am. J. Physiol. 271 (1996) R1156-R1159
105. King B.M., Cook J.T., Rossiter K.N., and Rollins B.L. Obesity-inducing amygdala lesions: examination of anterograde degeneration and retrograde transport. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 284 (2003) R965-R982
106. Kishi T., Tsumori T., Ono K., Yokota S., Ishino H., and Yasui Y. Topographical organization of projections from the subiculum to the hypothalamus in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 419 (2000) 205-222
107. Kitano H., Tanibuchi I., and Jinnai K. The distribution of neurons in the substantia nigra pars reticulata with input from the motor, premotor and prefrontal areas of the cerebral cortex in monkeys. Brain Res. 784 (1998) 228-238
108. Koinig H., Vornik V., Rueda C., and Zornow M.H. Lubeluzole inhibits accumulation of extracellular glutamate in the hippocampus during transient global cerebral ischemia. Brain Res. 898 (2001) 297-302
109. Korz V., and Frey J.U. Stress-related modulation of hippocampal long-term potentiation in rats: involvement of adrenal steroid receptors. J. Neurosci. 23 (2003) 7281-7287
110. Kreier F., Kap Y.S., Mettenleiter T.C., van H.C., Van d.V., Kalsbeek A., Sauerwein H.P., Fliers E., Romijn J.A., and Buijs R.M. Tracing from fat tissue, liver, and pancreas: a neuroanatomical framework for the role of the brain in type 2 diabetes. Endocrinology 147 (2006) 1140-1147
111. la Fleur S.E., Houshyar H., Roy M., and Dallman M.F. Choice of lard, but not total lard calories, damps adrenocorticotropin responses to restraint. Endocrinology 146 (2005) 2193-2199
112. Lam T.K., Gutierrez-Juarez R., Pocai A., and Rossetti L. Regulation of blood glucose by hypothalamic pyruvate metabolism. Science 309 (2005) 943-947
113. Lam T.K., Schwartz G.J., and Rossetti L. Hypothalamic sensing of fatty acids. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 579-584
114. Laugero K.D., Bell M.E., Bhatnagar S., Soriano L., and Dallman M.F. Sucrose ingestion normalizes central expression of corticotropin-releasing-factor messenger ribonucleic acid and energy balance in adrenalectomized rats: a glucocorticoid-metabolic-brain axis?. Endocrinology 142 (2001) 2796-2804
115. Laugero K.D., Gomez F., Manalo S., and Dallman M.F. Corticosterone infused intracerebroventricularly inhibits energy storage and stimulates the hypothalamo-pituitary axis in adrenalectomized rats drinking sucrose. Endocrinology 143 (2002) 4552-4562
116. Lee G., and Park J.H. Hemolymph sugar homeostasis and starvation-induced hyperactivity affected by genetic manipulations of the adipokinetic hormone-encoding gene in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 167 (2004) 311-323
117. Lee H.J., Groshek F., Petrovich G.D., Cantalini J.P., Gallagher M., and Holland P.C. Role of amygdalo-nigral circuitry in conditioning of a visual stimulus paired with food. J. Neurosci. 25 (2005) 3881-3888
118. Lee K., Dixon A.K., Rowe I.C., Ashford M.L., and Richardson P.J. Direct demonstration of sulphonylurea-sensitive KATP channels on nerve terminals of the rat motor cortex. Br. J. Pharmacol. 115 (1995) 385-387
119. Lee K., Dixon A.K., Rowe I.C., Ashford M.L., and Richardson P.J. The high-affinity sulphonylurea receptor regulates KATP channels in nerve terminals of the rat motor cortex. J. Neurochem. 66 (1996) 2562-2571
120. Lembo G., Capaldo B., Rendina V., Iaccarino G., Napoli R., Guida R., Trimarco B., and Sacca L. Acute noradrenergic activation induces insulin resistance in human skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 266 (1994) E242-E247
121. Levesque M., Charara A., Gagnon S., Parent A., and Deschenes M. Corticostriatal projections from layer V cells in rat are collaterals of long-range corticofugal axons. Brain Res. 709 (1996) 311-315
122. Levesque M., Gagnon S., Parent A., and Deschenes M. Axonal arborizations of corticostriatal and corticothalamic fibers arising from the second somatosensory area in the rat. Cereb. Cortex. 6 (1996) 759-770
123. Levine J.A., Lanningham-Foster L.M., McCrady S.K., Krizan A.C., Olson L.R., Kane P.H., Jensen M.D., and Clark M.M. Interindividual variation in posture allocation: possible role in human obesity. Science 307 (2005) 584-586
124. Luhmann H.J., and Heinemann U. Hypoxia-induced functional alterations in adult rat neocortex. J. Neurophysiol. 67 (1992) 798-811
125. Luhmann H.J., Kral T., and Heinemann U. Influence of hypoxia on excitation and GABAergic inhibition in mature and developing rat neocortex. Exp. Brain Res. 97 (1993) 209-224
126. Luskin M.B., and Price J.L. The topographic organization of associational fibers of the olfactory system in the rat, including centrifugal fibers to the olfactory bulb. J. Comp. Neurol. 216 (1983) 264-291
127. Madsen P.L., Hasselbalch S.G., Hagemann L.P., Olsen K.S., Bulow J., Holm S., Wildschiodtz G., Paulson O.B., and Lassen N.A. Persistent resetting of the cerebral oxygen/glucose uptake ratio by brain activation: evidence obtained with the Kety-Schmidt technique. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 15 (1995) 485-491
128. Magistretti P.J., Pellerin L., Rothman D.L., and Shulman R.G. Energy on demand. Science 283 (1999) 496-497
129. Majdic G., Young M., Gomez-Sanchez E., Anderson P., Szczepaniak L.S., Dobbins R.L., McGarry J.D., and Parker K.L. Knockout mice lacking steroidogenic factor 1 are a novel genetic model of hypothalamic obesity. Endocrinology 143 (2002) 607-614
130. Malinow R., and Malenka R.C. AMPA receptor trafficking and synaptic plasticity. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 25 (2002) 103-126
131. Mandelbrot B.B. The Fractal Geometry of Nature (1983), W.H. Freeman and Co., New York
132. Maquet P. The role of sleep in learning and memory. Science 294 (2001) 1048-1052
133. Maquet P., Dive D., Salmon E., Sadzot B., Franco G., Poirrier R., von F.R., and Franck G. Cerebral glucose utilization during sleep-wake cycle in man determined by positron emission tomography and [18F]2-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose method. Brain Res. 513 (1990) 136-143
134. Masaki T., Yoshimichi G., Chiba S., Yasuda T., Noguchi H., Kakuma T., Sakata T., and Yoshimatsu H. Corticotropin-releasing hormone-mediated pathway of leptin to regulate feeding, adiposity, and uncoupling protein expression in mice. Endocrinology 144 (2003) 3547-3554
135. Matsumoto N., Komiyama S., and Akaike N. Pre- and postsynaptic ATP-sensitive potassium channels during metabolic inhibition of rat hippocampal CA1 neurons. J. Physiol. 541 (2002) 511-520
136. McClure S.M., Li J., Tomlin D., Cypert K.S., Montague L.M., and Montague P.R. Neural correlates of behavioral preference for culturally familiar drinks. Neuron 44 (2004) 379-387
137. McCrimmon R.J., Evans M.L., Fan X., McNay E.C., Chan O., Ding Y., Zhu W., Gram D.X., and Sherwin R.S. Activation of ATP-sensitive K+ channels in the ventromedial hypothalamus amplifies counterregulatory hormone responses to hypoglycemia in normal and recurrently hypoglycemic rats. Diabetes 54 (2005) 3169-3174
138. McDonald A.J. Cortical pathways to the mammalian amygdala. Prog. Neurobiol. 55 (1998) 257-332
139. McDonald A.J., Shammah-Lagnado S.J., Shi C., and Davis M. Cortical afferents to the extended amygdala. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 877 (1999) 309-338
140. McEwen B.S., and Reagan L.P. Glucose transporter expression in the central nervous system: relationship to synaptic function. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 490 (2004) 13-24
141. Mery F., and Kawecki T.J. A cost of long-term memory in Drosophila. Science 308 (2005) 1148
142. Meyer C., Saar P., Soydan N., Eckhard M., Bretzel R.G., Gerich J., and Linn T. A potential important role of skeletal muscle in human counterregulation of hypoglycemia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90 (2005) 6244-6250
143. Miki T., Liss B., Minami K., Shiuchi T., Saraya A., Kashima Y., Horiuchi M., Ashcroft F., Minokoshi Y., Roeper J., and Seino S. ATP-sensitive K+ channels in the hypothalamus are essential for the maintenance of glucose homeostasis. Nat. Neurosci. 4 (2001) 507-512
144. Minami K., Miki T., Kadowaki T., and Seino S. Roles of ATP-sensitive K+ channels as metabolic sensors: studies of Kir6.x null mice. Diabetes 53 Suppl. 3 (2004) S176-S180
145. Mittendorfer B., Fields D.A., and Klein S. Excess body fat in men decreases plasma fatty acid availability and oxidation during endurance exercise. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 286 (2004) E354-E362
146. Mobbs C.V., Kow L.M., and Yang X.J. Brain glucose-sensing mechanisms: ubiquitous silencing by aglycemia vs. hypothalamic neuroendocrine responses. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 281 (2001) E649-E654
147. Molina P.E., and Abumrad N.N. Contribution of excitatory amino acids to hypoglycemic counter-regulation. Brain Res. 899 (2001) 201-208
148. Molina P.E., Eltayeb K., Hourani H., Okamura K., Nanney L.B., Williams P., and Abumrad N.N. Hormonal and metabolic effects of neuroglucopenia. Brain Res. 614 (1993) 99-108
149. Molina P.E., Tepper P.G., Yousef K.A., Abumrad N.N., and Lang C.H. Central NMDA enhances hepatic glucose output and non-insulin-mediated glucose uptake by a nonadrenergic mechanism. Brain Res. 634 (1994) 41-48
150. Montague C.T., Farooqi I.S., Whitehead J.P., Soos M.A., Rau H., Wareham N.J., Sewter C.P., Digby J.E., Mohammed S.N., Hurst J.A., Cheetham C.H., Earley A.R., Barnett A.H., Prins J.B., and O'Rahilly S. Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature 387 (1997) 903-908
151. Moriguchi T., Sakurai T., Nambu T., Yanagisawa M., and Goto K. Neurons containing orexin in the lateral hypothalamic area of the adult rat brain are activated by insulin-induced acute hypoglycemia. Neurosci. Lett. 264 (1999) 101-104
152. Morton G.J., Cummings D.E., Baskin D.G., Barsh G.S., and Schwartz M.W. Central nervous system control of food intake and body weight. Nature 443 (2006) 289-295
153. Mourre C., Ben Ari Y., Bernardi H., Fosset M., and Lazdunski M. Antidiabetic sulfonylureas: localization of binding sites in the brain and effects on the hyperpolarization induced by anoxia in hippocampal slices. Brain Res. 486 (1989) 159-164
154. Mourre C., Widmann C., and Lazdunski M. Specific hippocampal lesions indicate the presence of sulfonylurea binding sites associated to ATP-sensitive K+ channels both post-synaptically and on mossy fibers. Brain Res. 540 (1991) 340-344
155. Muller H.L., Emser A., Faldum A., Bruhnken G., Etavard-Gorris N., Gebhardt U., Oeverink R., Kolb R., and Sorensen N. Longitudinal study on growth and body mass index before and after diagnosis of childhood craniopharyngioma. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (2004) 3298-3305
156. Munzberg H., and Myers Jr. M.G. Molecular and anatomical determinants of central leptin resistance. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 566-570
157. Naito A., and Kita H. The cortico-nigral projection in the rat: an anterograde tracing study with biotinylated dextran amine. Brain Res. 637 (1994) 317-322
158. Nybo L., and Secher N.H. Cerebral perturbations provoked by prolonged exercise. Prog. Neurobiol. 72 (2004) 223-261
159. O'Connor A.D., Rusyniak D.E., and Bruno A. Cerebrovascular and cardiovascular complications of alcohol and sympathomimetic drug abuse. Med. Clin. North Am. 89 (2005) 1343-1358
160. Odeleye O.E., de Court, Pettitt D.J., and Ravussin E. Fasting hyperinsulinemia is a predictor of increased body weight gain and obesity in Pima Indian children. Diabetes 46 (1997) 1341-1345
161. Ohno-Shosaku T., Sawada S., and Yamamoto C. ATP-sensitive K+ channel activators suppress the GABAergic inhibitory transmission by acting on both presynaptic and postsynaptic sites in rat cultured hippocampal neurons. Neurosci. Lett. 159 (1993) 139-142
162. Ohno-Shosaku T., and Yamamoto C. Identification of an ATP-sensitive K+ channel in rat cultured cortical neurons. Pflugers Arch. 422 (1992) 260-266
163. Oltmanns K.M., Melchert U.H., Scholand-Engler H.G., Guenther C., Schultes B., Petersen D., Schweiger U., Born J., Fehm H.L., and Peters A. The selfish brain: energy shift during hypoglycemia. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 113 (2005) 494
164. Oppert J.M., Nadeau A., Tremblay A., Despres J.P., Theriault G., and Bouchard C. Negative energy balance with exercise in identical twins: plasma glucose and insulin responses. Am. J. Physiol. 272 (1997) E248-E254
165. Owen O.E., Morgan A.P., Kemp H.G., Sullivan J.M., Herrera M.G., and Cahill Jr. G.F. Brain metabolism during fasting. J. Clin. Invest. 46 (1967) 1589-1595
166. Parent A., and Cicchetti F. The current model of basal ganglia organization under scrutiny. Mov. Disord. 13 (1998) 199-202
167. Parolin M.L., Chesley A., Matsos M.P., Spriet L.L., Jones N.L., and Heigenhauser G.J. Regulation of skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase and PDH during maximal intermittent exercise. Am. J. Physiol. 277 (1999) E890-E900
168. Pavlides C., and McEwen B.S. Effects of mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors on long-term potentiation in the CA3 hippocampal field. Brain Res. 851 (1999) 204-214
169. Pavlides C., Ogawa S., Kimura A., and McEwen B.S. Role of adrenal steroid mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors in long-term potentiation in the CA1 field of hippocampal slices. Brain Res. 738 (1996) 229-235
170. Pavlides C., Watanabe Y., Magarinos A.M., and McEwen B.S. Opposing roles of type I and type II adrenal steroid receptors in hippocampal long-term potentiation. Neuroscience 68 (1995) 387-394
171. Pedersen B.K., Steensberg A., and Schjerling P. Muscle-derived interleukin-6: possible biological effects. J. Physiol. 536 (2001) 329-337
172. Pellerin L., and Magistretti P.J. Glutamate uptake into astrocytes stimulates aerobic glycolysis: a mechanism coupling neuronal activity to glucose utilization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91 (1994) 10625-10629
173. Pellerin L., and Magistretti P.J. Glutamate uptake stimulates Na+, K+-ATPase activity in astrocytes via activation of a distinct subunit highly sensitive to ouabain. J. Neurochem. 69 (1997) 2132-2137
174. Peters A. The self-similarity of the melanocortin system. Endocrinology 146 (2005) 529-531
175. Peters A., Schweiger U., Fruhwald-Schultes B., Born J., and Fehm H.L. The neuroendocrine control of glucose allocation. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 110 (2002) 199-211
176. Peters A., Schweiger U., Pellerin L., Hubold C., Oltmanns K.M., Conrad M., Schultes B., Born J., and Fehm H.L. The selfish brain: competition for energy resources. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 28 (2004) 143-180
177. Petrovich G.D., Canteras N.S., and Swanson L.W. Combinatorial amygdalar inputs to hippocampal domains and hypothalamic behavior systems. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 38 (2001) 247-289
178. Petrovich G.D., and Gallagher M. Amygdala subsystems and control of feeding behavior by learned cues. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 985 (2003) 251-262
179. Petrovich G.D., Holland P.C., and Gallagher M. Amygdalar and prefrontal pathways to the lateral hypothalamus are activated by a learned cue that stimulates eating. J. Neurosci. 25 (2005) 8295-8302
180. Petrovich G.D., Risold P.Y., and Swanson L.W. Organization of projections from the basomedial nucleus of the amygdala: a PHAL study in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 374 (1996) 387-420
181. Petrovich G.D., Setlow B., Holland P.C., and Gallagher M. Amygdalo-hypothalamic circuit allows learned cues to override satiety and promote eating. J. Neurosci. 22 (2002) 8748-8753
182. Pirke K.M., Broocks A., Wilckens T., Marquard R., and Schweiger U. Starvation-induced hyperactivity in the rat: the role of endocrine and neurotransmitter changes. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 17 (1993) 287-294
183. Pistovcakova J., Makatsori A., Sulcova A., and Jezova D. Felbamate reduces hormone release and locomotor hypoactivity induced by repeated stress of social defeat in mice. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 15 (2005) 153-158
184. Plum L., Ma X., Hampel B., Balthasar N., Coppari R., Munzberg H., Shanabrough M., Burdakov D., Rother E., Janoschek R., Alber J., Belgardt B.F., Koch L., Seibler J., Schwenk F., Fekete C., Suzuki A., Mak T.W., Krone W., Horvath T.L., Ashcroft F.M., and Bruning J.C. Enhanced PIP3 signaling in POMC neurons causes KATP channel activation and leads to diet-sensitive obesity. J. Clin. Invest. 116 (2006) 1886-1901
185. Potteiger J.A., Jacobsen D.J., Donnelly J.E., and Hill J.O. Glucose and insulin responses following 16 months of exercise training in overweight adults: the Midwest Exercise Trial. Metabolism 52 (2003) 1175-1181
186. Price J.L., Slotnick B.M., and Revial M.F. Olfactory projections to the hypothalamus. J. Comp. Neurol. 306 (1991) 447-461
187. Prichard J.W., Alger J.R., Behar K.L., Petroff O.A., and Shulman R.G. Cerebral metabolic studies in vivo by 31P NMR. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80 (1983) 2748-2751
188. Reul J.M., and de Kloet E.R. Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology 117 (1985) 2505-2511
189. Risold P.Y., and Swanson L.W. Structural evidence for functional domains in the rat hippocampus. Science 272 (1996) 1484-1486
190. Risold P.Y., and Swanson L.W. Connections of the rat lateral septal complex. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 24 (1997) 115-195
191. Rollins B.L., and King B.M. Amygdala-lesion obesity: what is the role of the various amygdaloid nuclei?. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 279 (2000) R1348-R1356
192. Rumpel S., LeDoux J., Zador A., and Malinow R. Postsynaptic receptor trafficking underlying a form of associative learning. Science 308 (2005) 83-88
193. Sandberg M., Butcher S.P., and Hagberg H. Extracellular overflow of neuroactive amino acids during severe insulin-induced hypoglycemia: in vivo dialysis of the rat hippocampus. J. Neurochem. 47 (1986) 178-184
194. Schultes B., Peters A., Hallschmid M., Benedict C., Merl V., Oltmanns K.M., Born J., Fehm H.L., and Kern W. Modulation of food intake by glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 28 (2005) 2884-2889
195. Schultes B., Peters A., Kern W., Gais S., Oltmanns K.M., Fehm H.L., and Born J. Processing of food stimuli is selectively enhanced during insulin-induced hypoglycemia in healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 (2005) 496-504
196. Schurr A., Miller J.J., Payne R.S., and Rigor B.M. An increase in lactate output by brain tissue serves to meet the energy needs of glutamate-activated neurons. J. Neurosci. 19 (1999) 34-39
197. Schwartz M.W., and Porte Jr. D. Diabetes, obesity, and the brain. Science 307 (2005) 375-379
198. Seeley R.J., and Woods S.C. Monitoring of stored and available fuel by the CNS: implications for obesity. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4 (2003) 901-909
199. Shepherd P.R., and Kahn B.B. Glucose transporters and insulin action-implications for insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 341 (1999) 248-257
200. Sigal R.J., el Hashimy M., Martin B.C., Soeldner J.S., Krolewski A.S., and Warram J.H. Acute postchallenge hyperinsulinemia predicts weight gain: a prospective study. Diabetes 46 (1997) 1025-1029
201. Silver I.A., and Erecinska M. Glucose-induced intracellular ion changes in sugar-sensitive hypothalamic neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 79 (1998) 1733-1745
202. Slack N., Chambers S., and Johnston R. Operations Management (2004), FT Prentice Hall, Harlow
203. Smith D., Pernet A., Hallett W.A., Bingham E., Marsden P.K., and Amiel S.A. Lactate: a preferred fuel for human brain metabolism in vivo. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 23 (2003) 658-664
204. Smith Y., and Bolam J.P. The output neurones and the dopaminergic neurones of the substantia nigra receive a GABA-containing input from the globus pallidus in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 296 (1990) 47-64
205. Smith Y., and Bolam J.P. Convergence of synaptic inputs from the striatum and the globus pallidus onto identified nigrocollicular cells in the rat: a double anterograde labelling study. Neuroscience 44 (1991) 45-73
206. Song Z., and Routh V.H. Differential effects of glucose and lactate on glucosensing neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus. Diabetes 54 (2005) 15-22
207. Spanswick D., Smith M.A., Groppi V.E., Logan S.D., and Ashford M.L. Leptin inhibits hypothalamic neurons by activation of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. Nature 390 (1997) 521-525
208. Spath-Schwalbe E., Hansen K., Schmidt F., Schrezenmeier H., Marshall L., Burger K., Fehm H.L., and Born J. Acute effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 on endocrine and central nervous sleep functions in healthy men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 83 (1998) 1573-1579
209. Staines W.A., and Fibiger H.C. Collateral projections of neurons of the rat globus pallidus to the striatum and substantia nigra. Exp. Brain Res. 56 (1984) 217-220
210. Stanford I.M., and Lacey M.G. Electrophysiological investigation of adenosine trisphosphate-sensitive potassium channels in the rat substantia nigra pars reticulata. Neuroscience 74 (1996) 499-509
211. Steinkamp M., Li T., Fuellgraf H., and Moser A. K(ATP)-dependent neurotransmitter release in the neuronal network of the rat caudate nucleus. Neurochem. Int. 50 (2007) 159-163
212. Swanson L.W. Cerebral hemisphere regulation of motivated behavior. Brain Res. 886 (2000) 113-164
213. Swanson L.W., and Cowan W.M. Hippocampo-hypothalamic connections: origin in subicular cortex, not ammon's horn. Science 189 (1975) 303-304
214. Swanson L.W., and Cowan W.M. The connections of the septal region in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 186 (1979) 621-655
215. Swinburn B.A., Nyomba B.L., Saad M.F., Zurlo F., Raz I., Knowler W.C., Lillioja S., Bogardus C., and Ravussin E. Insulin resistance associated with lower rates of weight gain in Pima Indians. J. Clin. Invest. 88 (1991) 168-173
216. Takahashi S., Driscoll B.F., Law M.J., and Sokoloff L. Role of sodium and potassium ions in regulation of glucose metabolism in cultured astroglia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 (1995) 4616-4620
217. Tang X.D., Santarelli L.C., Heinemann S.H., and Hoshi T. Metabolic regulation of potassium channels. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 66 (2004) 131-159
218. Tataranni P.A., Gautier J.F., Chen K., Uecker A., Bandy D., Salbe A.D., Pratley R.E., Lawson M., Reiman E.M., and Ravussin E. Neuroanatomical correlates of hunger and satiation in humans using positron emission tomography. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 (1999) 4569-4574
219. van den Pol A.N., Wuarin J.P., and Dudek F.E. Glutamate, the dominant excitatory transmitter in neuroendocrine regulation. Science 250 (1990) 1276-1278
220. van Praag H., Christie B.R., Sejnowski T.J., and Gage F.H. Running enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 (1999) 13427-13431
221. van Praag H., Kempermann G., and Gage F.H. Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus. Nat. Neurosci. 2 (1999) 266-270
222. Vellucci S.V., Parrott R.F., and Mimmack M.L. Chronic dexamethasone-treatment alters mineralocorticoid receptor, truncated trkB and selected glutamate receptor subunit mRNA expression in the porcine hippocampus. Neuropeptides 36 (2002) 291-298
223. Vissing J., Andersen M., and Diemer N.H. Exercise-induced changes in local cerebral glucose utilization in the rat. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 16 (1996) 729-736
224. Volkow N.D., and Wise R.A. How can drug addiction help us understand obesity?. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 555-560
225. Wagner U., Degirmenci M., Drosopoulos S., Perras B., and Born J. Effects of cortisol suppression on sleep-associated consolidation of neutral and emotional memory. Biol. Psychiatry 58 (2005) 885-893
226. Wallenius V., Wallenius K., Ahren B., Rudling M., Carlsten H., Dickson S.L., Ohlsson C., and Jansson J.O. Interleukin-6-deficient mice develop mature-onset obesity. Nat. Med. 8 (2002) 75-79
227. Weidenfeld J., Newman M.E., Itzik A., and Feldman S. Adrenocortical axis responses to adrenergic and glutamate stimulation are regulated by the amygdala. Neuroreport 16 (2005) 1245-1249
228. Williamson J.W., McColl R., and Mathews D. Evidence for central command activation of the human insular cortex during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 94 (2003) 1726-1734
229. Williamson J.W., Nobrega A.C., McColl R., Mathews D., Winchester P., Friberg L., and Mitchell J.H. Activation of the insular cortex during dynamic exercise in humans. J. Physiol. 503 Pt 2 (1997) 277-283
230. Woods S.C., Stein L.J., McKay L.D., and Porte Jr. D. Suppression of food intake by intravenous nutrients and insulin in the baboon. Am. J. Physiol. 247 (1984) R393-R401
231. Yamada K., Ji J.J., Yuan H., Miki T., Sato S., Horimoto N., Shimizu T., Seino S., and Inagaki N. Protective role of ATP-sensitive potassium channels in hypoxia-induced generalized seizure. Science 292 (2001) 1543-1546
232. Yamanaka A., Beuckmann C.T., Willie J.T., Hara J., Tsujino N., Mieda M., Tominaga M., Yagami K., Sugiyama F., Goto K., Yanagisawa M., and Sakurai T. Hypothalamic orexin neurons regulate arousal according to energy balance in mice. Neuron 38 (2003) 701-713
233. Yang Y., Li Q., Miyashita H., Yang T., and Shuaib A. Different dynamic patterns of extracellular glutamate release in rat hippocampus after permanent or 30-min transient cerebral ischemia and histological correlation. Neuropathology 21 (2001) 181-187
234. Yeo G.S., Connie Hung C.C., Rochford J., Keogh J., Gray J., Sivaramakrishnan S., O'Rahilly S., and Farooqi I.S. A de novo mutation affecting human TrkB associated with severe obesity and developmental delay. Nat. Neurosci. 7 (2004) 1187-1189
235. Yousef K.A., Tepper P.G., Molina P.E., Abumrad N.N., and Lang C.H. Differential control of glucoregulatory hormone response and glucose metabolism by NMDA and kainate. Brain Res. 634 (1994) 131-140
236. Zawar C., Plant T.D., Schirra C., Konnerth A., and Neumcke B. Cell-type specific expression of ATP-sensitive potassium channels in the rat hippocampus. J. Physiol. 514 Pt 2 (1999) 327-341
237. Zelena D., Mergl Z., and Makara G.B. Glutamate agonists activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis through hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus but not through vasopressinerg neurons. Brain Res. 1031 (2005) 185-193
238. Zhang J.V., Ren P.G., vsian-Kretchmer O., Luo C.W., Rauch R., Klein C., and Hsueh A.J. Obestatin, a peptide encoded by the ghrelin gene, opposes ghrelin's effects on food intake. Science 310 (2005) 996-999
239. Zhang Y., and Scarpace P.J. The role of leptin in leptin resistance and obesity. Physiol. Behav. 88 (2006) 249-256
240. Zorzano A., Palacin M., and Guma A. Mechanisms regulating GLUT4 glucose transporter expression and glucose transport in skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol. Scand. 183 (2005) 43-58