Children's naming and word-finding difficulties: Descriptions and explanations

Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 309-324

  Messer, David ^a   Dockrell, Julie E ^b  

^a OPEN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Lexicon; Phonology; Semantics; Word finding difficulties

Indexed keywords

AUTOMATION; COGNITION; DYSLEXIA; HUMAN; LEARNING DISORDER; PARAMETER; PHONETICS; REVIEW; SEMANTICS; SPEECH ARTICULATION; VELOCITY; VERBAL MEMORY; WORD FINDING DIFFICULTY; WORD RECOGNITION; CHILD; LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT; LANGUAGE DISABILITY; LANGUAGE TEST; LINGUISTICS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

CHILD; CHILD LANGUAGE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT DISORDERS; LANGUAGE TESTS; PHONETICS; SEMANTICS; VOCABULARY;

EID: 33747849626     PISSN: 10924388     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2006/025)     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Ackerman, P. T., Holloway, C. A., Youngdahl, P. L., & Dykman, R. A. (2001). The double-deficit theory of reading does not fit all. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16, 152-160.
2. Anderson, J. D. (1965). Initiatory delay in congenital aphasoid conditions. Cerebral Palsy Journal, 26, 9-12.
3. Baddeley, A., Gathercole, S., & Papagno, C. (1998). The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological Review, 105, 158-173.
4. Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., & Alsdorf, B. J. (1997). Lexical- and sentence-level processes in comprehension of written sentences. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 9, 135-162.
5. Bertollini, U., & Leonard, L. (2000). Phonology and children with specific language impairment: Status of structural constraints in two languages. Journal of Communicative Disorders, 33, 131-150.
6. Bishop, D. V. M. (1983). Test of Reception of Grammar. Manchester, England: Age and Cognitive Performance Research Centre, University of Manchester.
7. Bishop, D. V. M. (1997). Uncommon understanding. Hove, United Kingdom: Psychology Press.
8. Bishop, D. V. M., & Norbury, C. (2002). Exploring the borderlands of autistic disorder and specific language impairment: A study using standardised diagnostic instruments. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 917-930.
9. Bishop, D. V. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2004). Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: Same or different? Psychological Bulletin, 130, 858-886.
10. Blanken, G., Dittman, J., & Wallesch, C. W. (2002). Parallel or serial activation of word forms in speech production? Neurolinguistic evidence from an aphasic patient. Neuroscience Letters, 325, 72-74.
11. Braisby, N., & Dockrell, J. E. (1999). Why is colour naming difficult? Journal of Child Language, 26, 23-47.
12. Cardoso-Martins, C., & Pennington, B. F. (2004). The relation between phoneme awareness and rapid serial naming skills and literacy acquisition: The role of developmental period and reading ability. Scientific Studies of Reading, 8, 27-52.
13. Catts, H., Gillespie, M., Leonard, L., Kail, R., & Miller, C. (2002). The role of speed of processing, rapid naming, and phonological awareness in reading achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 509-524.
14. Clark, E. V. (2002). First language acquisition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
15. Compton, D. L., DeFries, J. C., & Olson, R. K. (2001). Are RAN and phonological awareness deficits additive in children with reading disabilities? Dyslexia, 7, 125-149.
16. Constable, A., Stackhouse, J., & Wells, B. (1997). Developmental word-finding difficulties and phonological processing: The case of the missing handcuffs. Applied Psycholinguistics, 18, 507-536.
17. Conti-Ramsden, G., & Botting, N. (1999). Classification of children with specific language impairment: Longitudinal considerations. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1195-1204.
18. Crosbie, S. L., Howard, D., & Dodd, B. J. (2004). Auditory lexical decisions in children with specific language impairment. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22, 103-121.
19. Dapretto, M., & Bjork, E. L. (2000). The development of word retrieval abilities in the second year and its relation to early vocabulary growth. Child Development, 71, 633-646.
20. Dell, G. S., Burger, L. K., & Svec, W. R. (2002). Language production and serial order: A functional analysis and a model. In T. A. Polk (Ed.), Cognitive modelling (pp. 749-794). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
21. Denckla, M., & Rudel, R. (1974). Rapid 'automatized' naming of pictured objects, colors, letters, and numbers by normal children. Cortex, 10, 186-202.
22. Denckla, M., & Rudel, R. (1976). Rapid 'automatized' naming (RAN): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471-479.
23. Denckla, M. B., & Cutting, L. E. (1999). History and significance of rapid automatized naming. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 29-42.
24. Dockrell, J. E., & Campbell, R. N. (1986). Lexical acquisition strategies. In S. Kuczaj & M. Barrett (Eds.), Semantic development (pp. 121-154). New York: Springer-Verlag.
25. Dockrell, J. E., & Messer, D. (2004). Lexical acquisition in the school years. In R. Berman (Ed.), Language development: Psycholinguistic and typological perspectives (pp. 35-52). New York: John Benjamins.
26. Dockrell, J. E., Messer, D., & George, R. (1999). Accuracy and errors in naming objects in children with word finding difficulties. In M. Beers, G. Bol, B. v.d. Bogaerde, J. de Jong, & C. Rooijmans (Eds.), From sound to sentence - Studies on first language acquisition (pp. 13-29). The Hague, The Netherlands: Holland Academic Graphics.
27. Dockrell, J. E., Messer, D., & George, R. (2001). Patterns of naming objects and actions in children with word finding difficulties. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16, 261-286.
28. Dockrell, J. E., Messer, D., George, R., & Ralli, A. (2003). Beyond naming patterns in children with WFDs-Definitions for nouns and verbs. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 16, 191-211.
29. Dockrell, J. E., Messer, D., George, R., & Wilson, G. (1998). Children with word-finding difficulties - Prevalence, presentation and naming problems. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 33, 445-454.
30. Dollaghan, C. A. (1987). Fast mapping in normal and language impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 52, 218-222.
31. Edwards, J., & Lahey, M. (1996). Auditory lexical decision of children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1263-1273.
32. Faust, M., Dimitrovsky, L., & Davidi, S. (1997). Naming difficulties in language disabled children: Preliminary findings with the application of the tip of the tongue paradigm. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 1026-1036.
33. Felton, R. H., Naylor, C. E., & Wood, F. B. (1990). Neuropsychological profile of adult dyslexics. Brain and Language, 39, 485-497.
34. Frederickson, N., Frith, U., & Reason, R. (1997). The Phonological Assessment Battery: Standardisation edition. Windsor, England: NFER-Nelson.
35. Fried-Oken, M. (1984). The development of word finding abilities in language deficient children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University.
36. Fromkin, V. A. (1988). Grammatical aspects of speech errors. In F. J. Newmeyer (Ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge survey, Volume II (pp. 117-138). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
37. Funnell, E., Hughes, D., & Woodcock, J. (in press). Age of acquisition for naming and knowing: A new hypothesis. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology.
38. Garrett, M. F. (1988). Processes in language production. In F. J. Newmeyer (Ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge survey, Volume III (pp. 69-96). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
39. Gaskell, N. G., & Dumay, N. (2003). Lexical competition and the acquisition of novel words. Cognition, 89, 105-132.
40. German, D. J. (1979). Word finding skills in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 176-181.
41. German, D. J. (1982). Word finding substitutions in children with learning disabilities. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 13, 223-230.
42. German, D. J. (1985). The use of specific semantic word categories in the diagnosis of dysnomic learning-disabled children. British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 20, 143-154.
43. German, D. J. (1986). National College of Education, Test of Word Finding (TWF). Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.
44. German, D. J. (1987). Spontaneous language profiles of children with word-finding problems. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18, 217-230.
45. German, D. J. (1989). A diagnostic model and a test to assess word-finding skills in children. British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 24, 21-39.
46. German, D. J. (1990). National College of Education, Test of Adolescent/Adult Word Finding. Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.
47. German, D. J. (1991). National College of Education, Test of Word-Finding in Discourse (TWF-D). Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.
48. German, D. J. (1992). A word-finding intervention in children and adolescents. Topics in Language Disorders, 13, 33-50.
49. German, D. J. (1998, February). Prevalence estimates for word finding difficulties in LD students: Implications for assessment/instructional accommodations. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Learning Disabilities Association, Washington, D.C.
50. German, D. J. (2000). Test of Word Finding (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: ProEd.
51. German, D. J. (2002). A phonologically based strategy to improve word-finding abilities in children. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 23, 179-192.
52. German, D. J., & Gellar, M. (2003, November). The impact of word-finding difficulties on oral reading assessment. Abstract presented at the annual meeting of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, Chicago.
53. German, D. J., & Newman, R. S. (2004). The impact of lexical factors on children's word finding errors. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 624-636.
54. German, D. J., & Simon, E. (1991). Analysis of children's word-finding skills in discourse. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34, 309-316.
55. Hughes, D., Woodcock, J., & Funnell, E. (2005). Conceptions of objects across categories: Childhood patterns resemble those of adults. British Journal of Psychology, 96, 1-20.
56. Jacobson, J. M., Nielsen, N. P., Minthon, L., Warkentin, S., & Wiig, E. H. (2004). Perceptual and Motor Skills, 98, 739-753.
57. Johnson, D., & Mykleburst, H. (1967). Learning disabilities. Educational principles and practices. New York: Grune & Stratton.
58. Johnson, D. J. (1968). The language contribution. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 18, 1-11.
59. Johnson, C. J., Paivio, A., & Clark, J. M. (1996). Cognitive components of picture naming. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 113-139.
60. Jorm, A., Share, D., MacLean, R., & Matthews, R. (1986). Cognitive factors at school entry predictive of specific reading retardation and general reading backwardness: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 45-54.
61. Kail, R. (1994). A method for studying the generalized slowing hypothesis of children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37, 418-421.
62. Kail, R., Hale, C. A., Leonard, L. B., & Nippold, M. A. (1984). Lexical storage and retrieval in language impaired children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 5, 37-49.
63. Kail, R., & Leonard, L. B. (1986). Word-finding abilities in language-impaired children. ASHA Monographs, 25.
64. Kaplan, E., Goodglass, H., & Weintraub, S. (1976). Boston Naming Test. Boston: Boston University School of Medicine.
65. Kiernan, B., & Gray, S. (1998). Word learning in a supported-learning context by preschool children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 161-171.
66. Lahey, M., & Edwards, J. (1996). Why do children with specific language impairments name pictures more slowly than their peers? Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1081-1098.
67. Lahey, M., & Edwards, J. (1999). Naming error of children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 195-205.
68. Leonard, L. (1998). Children with specific language impairment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
69. Leonard, L. B., Nippold, M. A., Kail, R., & Hale, C. A. (1983). Picture naming in language-impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 26, 609-615.
70. Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
71. Levelt, W. J. M. (2001). Spoken word production: A theory of lexical access. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 98, 13464-13471. Retrieved 2005 from http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/23/ 13464
72. Levelt, W. J. M., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. S. (1999). A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 22, 1-38.
73. Lindsay, G., Dockrell, J. E., Mackie, C., & Letchford, B. (2005). Local educational authorities' approaches to provision for children with specific speech and language difficulties in England and Wales. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 20, 329-345.
74. Manis, F. R., Doi, L. M., & Bhada, B. (2000). Naming speed, phonological awareness, and orthographic knowledge in second graders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 325-333.
75. McArthur, G. M., Hogben, J. H., Edwards, V. T., Heath, S. M., & Mengler, E. D. (2000). On the 'specifics' of specific reading disability and specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 869-874.
76. McGregor, K. (1994). Use of phonological information in a word-finding treatment for children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 37, 1381-1393.
77. McGregor, K. (1997). The nature of word-finding errors of pre-schoolers with and without word-finding deficits. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 1232-1244.
78. McGregor, K., & Appel, A. (2002). On the relationship between mental representations and naming in a child with specific language impairment. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 16, 1-20.
79. McGregor, K., Friedman, R. M., Reilly, R. M., & Newman, R. M. (2002). Semantic representations in young children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 332-346.
80. McGregor, K., & Leonard, L. (1989). Facilitating word-finding skills of language impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54, 141-147.
81. McGregor, K., & Leonard, L. (1995). Intervention for wordfinding deficits in children. In M. Fey, J. Windsor, & J. S. F. Warren (Eds.), Language interventions: Pre-school through the elementary years (pp. 85-103). Baltimore: Brookes.
82. McGregor, K., & Waxman, S. (1998). Object naming at multiple hierarchical levels: A comparison of preschoolers with and without word-finding deficits. Journal of Child Language, 25, 419-430.
83. McGregor, K., & Windsor, J. (1996). Effects of priming on the naming accuracy of pre-schoolers with word-finding deficits. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1048-1058.
84. Menyuk, P. (1975). The language-impaired child: Linguistic or cognitive impairment? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 263, 59-69.
85. Messer, D., Dockrell, J. E., & Murphy, N. (2004). The relationship between naming and literacy in children with word-finding difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 462-470.
86. Metsala, J. L. (1997). An examination of word frequency and neighborhood density in the development of spoken-word recognition. Memory and Cognition, 25, 47-56.
87. Meyer, M. S., Wood, F. B., Hart, L. A., & Felton, R. H. (1998). Longitudinal course of rapid naming in disabled and nondisabled readers. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 91-114.
88. Miller, C. A., Kail, R., Leonard, L. B., & Tomblin, J. B. (2001). Speed of processing in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 416-433.
89. Miller, G., & Fellbaum, C. (1991). Semantic networks in English. Cognition, 41, 197-229
90. Montgomery, J. W. (2002). Examining the nature of lexical processing in children with specific language impairment: Temporal processing or processing capacity deficit? Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 447-470
91. Murphy, V. A., Messer, D. J., & Dockrell, J. E. (2003). Lexical representation in children with word finding difficulties (grant report to Economic and Social Research Council, Swinton, United Kingdom).
92. Nation, K., Marshall, C. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2001). Phonological and semantic contributions to children's picture naming skill: Evidence from children with developmental reading disorders. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16, 241-259
93. Nation, K., & Snowling, M. J. (1998). Individual differences in contextual facilitation: Evidence from dyslexia and poor reading comprehension. Child Development, 69, 996-1011
94. Nation, K., & Snowling, M. J. (1999). Developmental differences in sensitivity to semantic relations among good and poor comprehenders: Evidence from semantic priming. Cognition, 70, 1-13
95. Newman, R. S., & German, D. (2002). Effects of lexical factors on lexical access among typical language learning children and children with word-finding difficulties. Language and Speech, 45, 285-317
96. Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1999). Developmental dyslexia: The role of the cerebellum. Dyslexia, 5, 155-177
97. Rapin, I., & Wilson, B. (1978). Children with developmental language disability. Neurological aspects and assessment. In M. Wyke (Ed.), Developmental dysphasia (pp. 13-41). New York: Academic Press
98. Rubin, H., & Liberman, I. Y. (1983). Exploring the oral and written language errors made by language disabled children. Annals of Dyslexia, 33, 111-120
99. Rubin, H., Zimmerman, S., & Katz, R. B. (1989). Phonological knowledge and naming ability in children with reading disability. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1, 393-404
100. Schatschneider, C., Carlson, C. D., Francis, D. J., Foorman, B. R., & Fletcher, J. M. (2002). Relationships of rapid automatized naming and phonological awareness in early reading development: Implications for the double deficit hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 245-256.
101. Semel, E., Wiig, E. H., & Secord, W. A. (2003). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals - Fourth Edition (CELF-4). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation
102. Share, D. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151-218
103. Simmonds, E. (2004). Word finding difficulties (WFDs) and lexical processes in children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, London South Bank University, London.
104. Snowling, M. (2000). Dyslexia. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
105. Snowling, M., Bishop, D. V. M., & Stothard, S. E. (2000). Is preschool language impairment a risk factor for dyslexia in adolescence? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 587-600.
106. Snowling, M., van Wagtendonk, B., & Stafford, C. (1988). Object naming deficits in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading, 11, 67-85.
107. Snyder, L. S., & Godley, D. (1992). Assessment of word-finding disorders in children and adolescents. Topics in Language Disorders, 13, 15-32.
108. Stackhouse, J., & Wells, B. (1997). Children's speech and literacy difficulties: A psycholinguistic framework. London: Whurr.
109. Swan, D., & Goswami, U. (1997). Phonological awareness deficits in developmental dyslexia and the phonological representations hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 66, 18-41.
110. Szekely, A., D'Amico, S., Dvescovi, A., Federmeier, K., Herron, D., Iyer, G., Jacobsen, T., Arévalo, A., Vargha, A., & Bates, E. (2005). Timed action and object naming. Cortex, 41, 7-25.
111. Tager-Flusberg, H., & Cooper, J. (1999). Present and future possibilities for defining a phenotype for specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1275-1279.
112. Thomas, M. S. C. (2003). Multiple causality in developmental disorders: Methodological implications from computational modelling. Developmental Science, 6, 537-556.
113. Thomas, M. S. C. (2005). Characterising compensation. Cortex, 41, 434-442.
114. Thomas, M. S. C., Dockrell, J. E., Messer, D., Parmigiani, C., Ansari, D., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (in press). Speeded naming, frequency and the development of the lexicon in Williams syndrome. Language and Cognitive Processes.
115. Thomas, M. S. C., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2002). Are developmental disorders like cases of adult brain damage? Implications for connectionist modelling. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 25, 727-788.
116. Thomas, M. S. C., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2005). Can developmental disorders reveal the component parts of the human language faculty? Language Learning and Development, 1, 65-92.
117. Tingley, S. J., Kyte, C. S., & Johnson, C. J. (2003). Single-word and conversational measures of word-finding proficiency. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 12, 359-368.
118. Ullman, M. T. (2004). Contributions of memory circuits to language: The declarative/procedural model. Cognition, 92, 231-270.
119. van den Bos, K. (1998). IQ, phonological awareness, and continuous-naming speed related to Dutch children's poor decoding performance on two word identification tests. Dyslexia, 4, 73-89.
120. van der Lely, H. K. J., & Ullman, M. T. (2001). Past tense morphology in specifically language impaired and normally developing children. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16, 177-217.
121. Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2-40.
122. Walley, A. C. (1993). The role of vocabulary development in children's spoken word recognition and segmentation ability. Developmental Review, 13, 286-350.
123. Weigel-Crump, C. A., & Dennis, M. D. (1986). Development of word finding. Brain and Language, 27, 1-23.
124. Wiig, E. H., & Semel, E. M. (1975). Productive language abilities in learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 45-53.
125. Wiig, E., Semel, E., & Nystrom, L. (1982). Comparison of rapid naming abilities in language-learning-disabled and academically achieving eight-year-olds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 13, 11-23.
126. Wiig, E. H., Nielsen, N. P., Minthon, L., & Warkentin, S. (2002). Alzheimer's Quick Test: Assessment of parietal function. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
127. Wiig, E. H., Zureich, P., & Chan, H. H. (2000). A clinical rationale for assessing rapid automatized naming in children with language disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 359-374.
128. Wimmer, H. (1993). Characteristics of developmental dyslexia in a regular writing system. Applied Psycholinguistics, 14, 1-34.
129. Windsor, J., & Hwang, M. (1999). Testing the generalized slowing hypothesis in specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1205-1219.
130. Windsor, J. W. (2002). Contrasting general and process-specific slowing in language impairment. Topics in Language Disorders, 22, 49-61.
131. Wing, C. S. (1990). A preliminary investigation of generalisation to untrained words following two treatments of children's word finding problems. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 21, 151-156.
132. Wolf, M. (1986). Rapid alternating stimulus naming in the developmental dyslexias. Brain and Language, 27, 360-379.
133. Wolf, M. (1999). What time may tell: Toward a new conceptualization of developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 3-28.
134. Wolf, M., Bally, H., & Morris, R. (1986). Automaticity, retrieval processes, and reading: A longitudinal study in average and impaired readers. Child Development, 57, 988-1000.
135. Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415-438.
136. Wolf, M., Bowers, P. G., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 387-407.
137. Wolf, M., & Goodlass, H. (1986). Dyslexia, dysnomia, and lexical retrieval. Brain and Language, 27, 360-379.
138. Wolf, M., Pfeil, C., Lotz, R., & Biddle, K. (1994). Towards a more universal understanding of developmental dyslexia: The contribution of orthographic factors. In V. W. Berninger (Ed.), The varieties of orthographic knowledge: I. Theoretical ad developmental issues (pp. 137-171). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
139. Wolf, M., & Segal, D. (1992). Word finding and reading in the developmental dyslexias. Topics in Language Disorders, 13, 51-65.