The metabolic syndrome: Recognition and management

Disease Management

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 16-33

  Hall, W Dallas ^a   Watkins, Laurence O ^b   Wright Jr , Jackson T ^c   Wenger, Nanette K ^a   Kumanyika, Shiriki K ^d   Gavin III, James R ^a   Ferdinand, Keith C ^e   Watson, Karol ^f   Clark, Luther T ^g,l   Flack, John M ^h   Reed, James W ⁱ   Horton, Ella W ^j   Saunders, Elijah ^k  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b Healthy Heart Center   (United States)

^c CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^e Heartbeats Life Center   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^g STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^h WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

ⁱ MOREHOUSE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^j UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE COLLEGE OF PHARMACY   (United States)

^k UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^l SUNY DOWNSTATE MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ADIPONECTIN; ALBUMIN; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; DIMETHYLARGININASE; FATTY ACID; FENFLURAMINE; FENOFIBRATE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; FIBRINOGEN; GEMFIBROZIL; GLUCOSE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; INSULIN; INSULIN DERIVATIVE; LEPTIN; METFORMIN; NICOTINIC ACID; PHENTERMINE; PIOGLITAZONE; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR 1; RESISTIN; ROSIGLITAZONE; SIBUTRAMINE; SULFONYLUREA DERIVATIVE; TETRAHYDROLIPSTATIN; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION; BLOATING; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DIARRHEA; DIET THERAPY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DYSLIPIDEMIA; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; FLATULENCE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENDER; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIPOPROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MICROALBUMINURIA; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREDICTION; PREVALENCE; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; WAIST CIRCUMFERENCE; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ADULT; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; MALE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; OBESITY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 33644559347     PISSN: 1093507X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/dis.2006.9.16     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. Clark LT, Ferdinand KC, Flack JM, et al. Coronary heart disease in African Americans. Heart Dis 2001;3:97-108.
2. Hall WD, Clark LT, Wenger NK, et al. The metabolic syndrome in African Americans: a review. Ethn Dis 2003;13:414-428.
3. Smith SC Jr, Clark LT, Cooper RS, et al. AHA Conference Proceedings. Discovering the full spectrum of cardiovascular disease. Minority Health Summit 2003. Report of the Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome, and Hypertension Working Group. Circulation 2005;111:134-139.
4. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome: part I. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2004;33:9-11.
5. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome: part II. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2004:33:11-13.
6. Reaven GM. Banting Lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 1988;37: 1595-1607.
7. ATP III. Executive summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Evaluation Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486-2497.
8. Grundy SM, Brewer HB Jr, Cleeman JI, et al. Definition of metabolic syndrome. Circulation 2004;109: 433-438.
9. WHO Criteria. Metabolic Syndrome. Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes and its Complications. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, Department of Noncommunicable Disease Surveillance, 1999:52.
10. Lansing MC, Williams GH, Carroll JS. Correlation between the glucose clamp technique and the homeostasis model assessment in hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2001;14:51-52.
11. Stern SE, Williams K, Ferrannini E, DeFronzo RA, Bogardus C, Stern MP. Identification of individuals with insulin resistance using routine clinical measurements. Diabetes 2005;54:333-339.
12. Palaniappan L, Carnethon M, Fortmann SP. Association between microalbuminuria and the metabolic syndrome: NHANES III. Am J Hypertens 2003;16: 952-958.
13. Coughlin SR, Mawdsley L, Mugarza JA, Calverley PM, Wilding JP. Obstructive sleep apnoea is independently associated with an increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Eur Heart J 2004;25:735-741.
14. Lobo RA, Carmina E. The importance of diagnosing the polycystic ovary syndrome. Ann Intern Med 2000;132:989-993.
15. Tahtinen TM, Vanhala MJ, Oikarinen JA, Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi SM. Effect of smoking on the prevalence of insulin resistance-associated cardiovascular risk factors among Finnish men in military service. J Cardiovasc Risk 1998;5:319-323.
16. Grundy SM, Hansen B, Smith SC Jr, et al. Clinical management of metabolic syndrome. Report of the AHA/NHLBI/ADA Conference on Scientific Issues Related to Management. Circulation 2004;109:551-556.
17. Liao Y, Kwon S, Shaughnessy S, et al. Critical evaluation of adult treatment panel III criteria in identifying insulin resistance with dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care 2004;27:1011-1012.
18. Cheal KL, Abbasi F, Lamendola C, McLaughlin T, Reaven GM, Ford ES. Relationship to insulin resistance of the adult treatment panel III diagnostic criteria for identification of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes 2004;53:1195-2000.
19. Egan BM, Papademetriou V, Wofford M, et al for the TROPHY sub-study investigative team. Metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance in the TROPHY sub-study: contrasting views in patients with high-normal blood pressure. Am J Hypertens 2005;18: 3-12.
20. Isomaa B, Almgren P, Tuomi T, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2001;24:683-689.
21. Lakka H-M, Laaksonen DE, Lakka TA, et al. The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular mortality in middle-aged men. JAMA 2002;288: 2709-2716.
22. Malik S, Wong ND, Franklin SS, et al. Impact of the metabolic syndrome on mortality from coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, and all causes in United States adults. Circulation 2004;10: 1245-1250.
23. Pi-Sunyer FX. Pathophysiology and long-term management of the metabolic syndrome. Obes Res 2004;12:174S-180S.
24. Hunt KJ, Resendez RG, Williams K, Haffner SM, Stern MP. National Cholesterol Education Program versus World Health Organization metabolic syndrome in relation to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the San Antonio Heart Study. Circulation 2004;110:1251-1257.
25. Ninomiya JK, L'Italien G, Criqui MH, Whyte JL, Gamst A, Chen RS. Association of the metabolic syndrome with history of myocardial infarction and stroke in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Circulation 2004; 109:42-46.
26. Marroquin OC, Kip KE, Kelley DE, et al for the Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation Investigators. Metabolic syndrome modifies the cardiovascular risk associated with angiographic coronary artery disease in women: a report from the Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation. Circulation 2004;109:714-721.
27. Laaksonen DE, Niskanen L, Lakka H-M, Lakka TA, Uusitupa M. Epidemiology and treatment of the metabolic syndrome. Ann Med 2004;36:332-346.
28. Watkins LO. Epidemiology and burden of cardiovascular disease. Clin Cardiol 2004;27:III-2-III-6.
29. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 1998;97:1837-1847.
30. Tenenbaum A, Motro M, Schwammenthal E, Fisman EZ. Macrovascular complications of metabolic syndrome: an early intervention is imperative. Int J Cardiol 2004;97:167-172.
31. Wong ND, Pio JR, Franklin SS, L'Italien GJ, Kamath TV, Williams GR. Preventing coronary events by optimal control of blood pressure and lipids in patients with the metabolic syndrome. Am J Cardiol 2003; 91:1421-1426.
32. Laaksonen DE, Lakka H-M, Niskanen LK, Kaplan GA, Salonen JT, Lakka TA. Metabolic syndrome and development of diabetes mellitus: application and validation of recently suggested definitions of the metabolic syndrome in a prospective cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 2002;156:1070-1077.
33. Stern MP, Williams K, Gonzalez-Villalpando C, Hunt KJ, Haffner SM. Does the metabolic syndrome improve identification of individuals at risk of type 2 diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease? Diabetes Care 2004;27:2676-2681.
34. Isomaa B, Henricsson M, Almgren P, Tuomi T, Taskinen MR, Groop L. The metabolic syndrome influences the risk of chronic complications in patients with type II diabetes. Diabetologia 2001;44:1148-1154.
35. Kendall DM, Harmel AP. The metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease: understanding the role of insulin resistance. Am J Manage Care 2002;8:S635-S653.
36. Moller DE, Kaufman KD. Metabolic syndrome: a clinical and molecular perspective. Annu Rev Med 2005;56:45-62.
37. Wyszynski DF, Waterworth DM, Barter PJ, et al. Relation between atherogenic dyslipidemia and the Adult Treatment Program-III definition of metabolic syndrome (Genetic Epidemiology of Metabolic Syndrome Project). Am J Cardiol 2005;95:194-198.
38. Salmenniemi U, Ruotsalainen E, Pihlajamaki J, et al. Multiple abnormalities in glucose and energy metabolism and coordinated changes in levels of adiponectin, cytokines, and adhesion molecules in subjects with metabolic syndrome. Circulation 2004;110:3842-3848.
39. Grundy SM. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:2595-2600.
40. Reaven G. Metabolic syndrome: pathophysiology and implications for management of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2002;106:286-288.
41. Einhorn D, Reaven GM, Cobin RH, et al. American College of Endocrinology position statement on the insulin resistance syndrome. Endocr Pract 2003;9: 237-252.
42. Natali A, Ferrannini F. Hypertension, insulin resistance, and the metabolic syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2004;33:417-429.
43. Sowers JR, Frohlich ED. Insulin and insulin resistance: impact on blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. Med Clin North Am 2004;88:63-82.
44. Carr DB, Utzschneider KM, Hull RL, et al. Intra-abdominal fat is a major determinant of the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria for the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes 2004;53:2087-2094.
45. Perticone F, Ceravolo R, Candiglota M, et al. Obesity and body fat distribution induce endothelial dysfunction by oxidative stress: protective effect of vitamin C. Diabetes 2001;50:159-165.
46. Janand-Delenne B, Chagnaud C, Raccah D, Alessi MC, Juhan-Vague I, Vague P. Visceral fat as a main determinant of plasminogen activator 1 level in women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1998;22: 312-317.
47. Alessi MC, Morange P, Juhan-Vague L. Fat cell function and fibrinolysis. Horm Metab Res 2000;32: 504-508.
48. Sakkinen PA, Wahl P, Cushman M, Lewis MR, Tracy RP. Clustering of procoagulation, inflammation, and fibrinolysis variables with metabolic factors in insulin resistance syndrome. Am J Epidemiol 2000; 152:897-907.
49. Arcaro G, Zamboni M, Rossi L, et al. Body fat distribution predicts the degree of endothelial dysfunction in uncomplicated obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999;23:936-942.
50. Arcaro G, Cretti A, Balzano S, et al. Insulin causes endothelial dysfunction in humans: sites and mechanisms. Circulation 2002;105:576-582.
51. Stuhlinger MC, Abbasi F, Chu JW, et al. Relationship between insulin resistance and an endogenous nitric oxide synthase inhibitor. JAMA 2002;287:1451-1452.
52. Lu T-M, Ding Y-A, Charng M-J, Lin S-J. Asymmetrical dimethylarginine: a novel risk factor for coronary heart disease. Clin Cardiol 2003;26:458-464.
53. Ridker PM, Buring JE, Cook NR, Rifai N. C-reactive protein, the metabolic syndrome, and the risk of incident cardiovascular events. An 8-year follow-up of 14,719 initially healthy American women. Circulation 2003;107:391-397.
54. Ridker PM, Wilson PW, Grundy SM. Should C-reactive protein be added to metabolic syndrome and to assessment of global cardiovascular risk? Circulation 2004;109:2818-2825.
55. Weyer C, Funahashi T, Tanaka S, et al. Hypoadiponectinemia in obesity and type 2 diabetes: close association with insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1930-1935.
56. Adamczak M, Wiecek A, Funahashi T, Chudek J, Kokot F, Matsuzawa Y. Decreased plasma adiponectin concentration in patients with essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2003;16:72-75.
57. Zamboni M, Zoico E, Fantin F, et al. Relation between leptin and the metabolic syndrome in elderly women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2004;59: 396-400.
58. Shirai K. Obesity as the core of the metabolic syndrome and the management of coronary heart disease. Curr Med Res Opin 2004;20:295-304.
59. Sonnenberg GE, Krakower GR, Kissebah AH. A novel pathway to the manifestations of metabolic syndrome. Obes Res 2004;12:180-186.
60. Robinson LE, Graham TE. Metabolic syndrome, a cardiovascular disease risk factor: role of adipocytokines and impact of diet and physical activity. Can J Appl Physiol 2004;29:808-829.
61. Dandona P, Aljada A, Chaudhuri A, Mohanty P, Garg R. Metabolic syndrome: a comprehensive perspective based on interactions between obesity, diabetes, and inflammation. Circulation 2005;111: 1448-1454.
62. Ford ES, Giles WH, Mokdad AH, Ajani UA. Microalbuminuria and concentrations of antioxidants among US adults. Am J Kidney Dis 2005;45:248-255.
63. Ford ES, Giles WH, Mokdad AH. Increasing prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2444-2449.
64. Ford ES, Giles WH. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 2002;287:356-359.
65. Mugo M, Sowers JR. Metabolic syndrome: implications of race and ethnicity. Ethn Dis 2002;14:26-31.
66. Okosun IS, Liao Y, Rotimi CN, Prewitt TE, Cooper RS. Abdominal adiposity and clustering of multiple metabolic syndrome in White, Black and Hispanic Americans. Ann Epidemiol 2000;10:263-270.
67. Sundquist J, Winkleby MA, Pudaric S. Cardiovascular disease risk factors among older black, Mexican-American, and white women and men: an analysis of NHANES III, 1988-1994. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001; 49:109-116.
68. Sharma S, Malarcher AM, Giles WH, Myers G. Racial, ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in the clustering of cardiovascular disease risk factors. Ethn Dis 2004;14:43-48.
69. Gupta R, Deedwania PC, Gupta A, et al. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in an Indian urban population. Int J Cardiol 2004;97:257-261.
70. Rakugi H, Ogihara T. The metabolic syndrome in the Asian population. Curr Hypertens Rep 2005;7: 103-109.
71. Harris MI, Flegal KM, Cowie CC, et al. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance in U.S. adults. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Diabetes Care 1998;21:518-524.
72. Ostir GV, Markides KS, Freeman DH Jr, Goodwin JS. Obesity and health conditions in elderly Mexican-Americans: the Hispanic EPESE. Ethn Dis 2000;10:31-38.
73. Resnick HE, Jones K, Ruotolo G, et al. Insulin resistance, the metabolic syndrome, and the risk of incident cardiovascular disease in nondiabetic American Indians: the Strong Heart Study. Diabetes Care 2003;26:861-867.
74. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Table 67. Hypertension among persons 20 years of age and over, according to sex, age, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, 1988-94 and 1999-2002. Health, United States, 2004:238. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ nchs/hus/htm. Accessed June 1, 2005.
75. Thomson D, Edelsberg J, Colditz GA, Bird AP, Oster G. Lifetime health and economic consequences of obesity. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2177-2183.
76. Geiss LS, Rolka DB, Engelgau MM. Elevated blood pressure among U.S. adults with diabetes, 1988-1994. Am J Prev Med 2002;22:42-48.
77. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al., for the NHBPEP Coordinating Committee. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of Hypertension. JAMA 2003;289:2560-2572.
78. Godley PJ, Maue SK, Farrelly EW, Frech F. The need for improved medical management of patients with concomitant hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Manage Care 2005;11:206-210.
79. Shih SC, Bost JE, Pawlson LG. Standardized health plan reporting in four areas of preventive health care. Am J Prev Med 2003;24:293-300.
80. US Department Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010: Understanding and Improving Health. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000.
81. Hedley AA, Ogden CL, Johnson CL, et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among US children, adolescents, and adults, 1999-2002. JAMA 2004;291: 2847-2850.
82. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Table 69. Obesity among persons 20 years of age and over, according to sex, age, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, 1960-62, 1971-74, 1976-80, 1988-94, and 1999-2002. Health, United States, 2004:242. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ nchs/hus/htm. Accessed June 1, 2005.
83. Grundy SM. What is the contribution of obesity to the metabolic syndrome? Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2004;33:267-282.
84. Mensah GA, Mokdad AH, Ford E, et al. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes: emerging epidemics and their cardiovascular implications. Cardiol Clin 2004;22:485-504.
85. Ogden CL, Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Johnson CL. Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. JAMA 2002; 288:1728-1732.
86. Duncan GE, Li SM, Zhou XH. Prevalence and trends of a metabolic syndrome phenotype among U.S. adolescents, 1999-2000. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2438-2443.
87. Boney CM, Verma A, Tucker R, Vohr BR. Metabolic syndrome in childhood: association with birth weight, maternal obesity, and gestational diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics 2005;115:290-296.
88. Nesbitt SD, Ashaye MO, Stettler N, et al. Overweight as a risk factor in children: a focus on ethnicity. Ethn Dis 2003;14:94-110.
89. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Table 70. Overweight children and adolescents 6-19 years of age, according to sex, age, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, selected years 1963-65 through 1999-2002. Health, United States, 2004:245. Available at: www. cdc.gov/nchs/hus/htm. Accessed June 1, 2005.
90. American Diabetes Association. Screening for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003;26:S21-S24.
91. Munter P, He J, Chen J, Fonseca V, Whelton PK. Prevalence of non-traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors among persons with impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome: analysis of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Ann Epidemiol 2004;14:686-695.
92. Hanefeld M, Koehler C, Schaper F, Fuecker K, Henkel E, Temelkova-Kurktschiev T. Postprandial plasma glucose is an independent risk factor for increased intima-media thickness in non-diabetic individuals. Atherosclerosis 1999;144:229-235.
93. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, et al. Diabetes trends in the U.S.: 1990-1998. Diabetes Care 2000;23:1278-1283.
94. Pinhas-Hamiel O, Zeitler P. Type 2 diabetes in adolescents, no longer rare. Pediatr Rev 1998;19:434-435.
95. Illane-Parikka P, Eriksson JG, Lindstrom J, et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its components: findings from a Finnish general population sample and the Diabetes Prevention Study cohort. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2135-2140.
96. Mooradian AD. Cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Current management guidelines. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:33-40.
97. Haffner SM, Lebto S, Ronnemaa T, Pyorala K, Laakso M. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in non-diabetic subjects with and without prior history of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1998;339:229-234.
98. Austin MA, Hokason JE, Edwards KL. Hypertriglyceridemia as a cardiovascular risk factor. Am J Cardiol 1998;81:7B-12B.
99. Resnick HE, Harris MI, Brock DB, Harris TB. American Diabetes Association diabetes diagnostic criteria, advancing age, and cardiovascular risk profiles: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Diabetes Care 2000;23: 176-180.
100. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN, et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;44:720-732.
101. Ferdinand KC. The importance of aggressive lipid management in patients at risk: evidence from recent clinical trials. Clin Cardiol 2004;27:III-12-III- 15.
102. Wilson PWF, Grundy SM. The metabolic syndrome. Practical guide to origins and treatment: Part I. Circulation 2003;108:1422-1424.
103. Wilson PWF, Grundy SM. The metabolic syndrome. A practical guide to origins and treatment: Part II. Circulation 2003;108:1537-1540.
104. Daskalopoulou SS, Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf M. Prevention and treatment of the metabolic syndrome. Angiology 2004;55:589-612.
105. NHLBI Obesity Education Initiative Expert Panel. The Practical Guide. Identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. NIH pub. no. 00-4084, October 2000. Available at: www.nhlbi.nih.gov. Accessed January 19, 2006.
106. Klein S, Burke LE, Bray GA, et al. AHA Scientific Statement. Clinical implications of obesity with specific focus on cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2004;110:2952-2967.
107. Dansinger ML, Gleason JA, Griffith JL, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction. JAMA 2005;293:43-53.
108. Stern L, Iqbal N, Seshadri P, et al. The effects of low-carbohydrate versus conventional weight loss diets in severely obese adults: one-year follow up of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2004;140: 778-785.
109. Foster GD, Wyatt HR, Hill JO, et al. A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity. N Engl J Med 2003;348:2082-2090.
110. Klein S, Fontana L, Young VL, et al. Absence of an effect of liposuction on insulin action and risk factors for coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 2004;350:2549-2557.
111. Buchwald H, Avidor Y, Braunwald E, et al. Bariatric surgery. A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2004;292:1724-1737.
112. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for obesity in adults: recommendations and rationale. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:930-932.
113. Reaven GM. Diet and Syndrome X. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2000;2:503-507.
114. Riccardi G, Rivellese AA. Dietary treatment of the metabolic syndrome-the optimal diet. Br J Nutr 2000;83:S143-S148.
115. Grundy SM, Abate N, Chandalia M. Diet composition and the metabolic syndrome: what is the optimal fat intake? Am J Med 2002;113:25S-29S.
116. McLaughlin T, Abbasi F, Lamendola C, Yeni-Komshian H, Reaven G. Carbohydrate-induced hypertriglyceridemia: an insight into the link between plasma insulin and triglyceride concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:3085-3088.
117. Douglas JG, Bakris GL, Epstein M, et al. Management of high blood pressure in African Americans: Consensus Statement of the Hypertension in African Americans Working Group of the International Society on Hypertension in Blacks. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:525-541.
118. Touyz RM, Campbell N, Logan A, et al. The 2004 Canadian recommendations for the management of hypertension. Part III, Lifestyle modifications to prevent and control hypertension. Can J Cardiol 2004;20:55-59.
119. Obarzanek E, Sacks FM, Volkner WM, et al. Effects on blood lipids of a blood pressure-lowering diet: the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:80-89.
120. Pi-Sunyer FX. Glycemic index and disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:290S-298S.
121. Ludwig DS. Dietary glycemic index and the regulation of body weight. Lipids 2003;38:117-121.
122. Brand-Miller J. Glycemic index and body weight. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:722-723.
123. Willett W, Manson J, Liu S. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:274S-280S.
124. Leeds AR. Glycemic index and heart disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:286S-289S.
125. Pereira MA, Swain J, Goldfine AB, Rifai N, Ludwig DS. Effects of a low-glycemic load diet on resting energy expenditure and heart disease risk factors during weight loss. JAMA 2004;292:2482-2490.
126. Hall JE, Jones DW. What can we do about the "epidemic" of obesity? Am J Hypertens 2002;15:657-659.
127. Pritchett AM, Foreyt JP, Mann DL. Treatment of the metabolic syndrome: the impact of lifestyle modification. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2005;7:95-102.
128. Foster GD, Wadden TA, Makris AP, et al. Primary care physicians' attitudes about obesity and its treatment. Obes Res 2003;11:1168-1177.
129. Poston WS, Haddock CK, Dill PL, et al. Lifestyle treatments in randomized clinical trials of pharmacotherapies of obesity. Obes Res 2001;9:552-563.
130. Jakicic JM, Clark K, Coleman E, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Appropriate intervention strategies for weight loss and prevention of weight regain for adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33:2145-2156.
131. Halbert JA, Silagy CA, Finucane P, Withers RT, Hamdorf PA. Exercise training and blood lipids in hyperlipemic and normolipemic adults: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Eur J Clin Nutr 1999;53:514-522.
132. Leon AS, Rice T, Mandel S, et al. Blood lipid response to 20 weeks of supervised exercise in a large biracial population: the HERITAGE family study. Metabo ism 2000;49:513-520.
133. Carroll S, Dudfield M. What is the relationship between exercise and metabolic abnormalities? A review of the metabolic syndrome. Sports Med 2004;34:371-418.
134. Whelton SP, Chin A, Xin X, He J. Effect of aerobic exercise on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136:493-503.
135. Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson G, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1343-1350.
136. Knowler WC, Barrett-Conner E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002;346:393-403.
137. Steyn NP, Mann J, Bennett PH, et al. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of type 2 diabetes. Public Health Nutr 2004;7:147-165.
138. Orchard TJ, Temprosa M, Goldberg R, et al. The effect of metformin and intensive lifestyle intervention on the metabolic syndrome: the Diabetes Prevention Program Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med 2005; 142:611-619.
139. Kraus WE, Houmard JA, Duscha BD, et al. Effects of the amount and intensity of exercise on plasma lipoproteins. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1483-1492.
140. Whaley MH, Kampert JB, Kohl HW III, Blair SN. Physical fitness and clustering of risk factors associated with the metabolic syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999;31:287-293.
141. Laaksonen DE, Lakka HM, Salonen JT, Niskanen LK, Rauramaa R, Lakka TA. Low levels of leisure-time physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness predict development of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1612-1618.
142. Thompson PD, Buchner D, Pina IL, et al. Exercise and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology (Subcommittee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention) and the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Subcommittee on Physical Activity). Circulation 2003;107: 3109-3116.
143. Whitt MC, Kumanyika SK. Tailoring counseling on physical activity and inactivity for African-American women. Ethn Dis 2002;12:S62-S71.
144. Suminski RR, Poston WS, Petosa RL, Katzenmoyer LM. Features of the neighborhood environment and walking by U.S. adults. Am J Prev Med 2005;28: 149-155.
145. Wagh A, Stone NJ. Treatment of metabolic syndrome. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2004;2:213-228.
146. Rosenson RS, Reasner CA. Therapeutic approaches in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in metabolic syndrome and in patients with type 2 diabetes. Curr Opin Cardiol 2004;19:480-487.
147. Pearson TA, Blair SN, Daniels SR, et al. AHA guidelines for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke: 2002 update. Consensus panel guide to comprehensive risk reduction for adult patients without coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Circulation 2002;106:388-391.
148. Mosca L, Appel LJ, Benjamin EJ, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:900-921.
149. Ridker PM, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al. A randomized trial of low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1293-1304.
150. Parisi AF. Diet-drug debacle [Editorial]. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:903-905.
151. O'Meara S, Riemsma R, Shirran L, Mather L, ter Reit G. A systematic review of the clinical effectiveness of orlistat used for the management of obesity. Obes Rev 2004;5:51-68.
152. Hutton B, Fergusson D. Changes in body weight and serum lipid profile in obese patients treated with orlistat in addition to a hypocaloric diet: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1461-1468.
153. Didangelos TP, Thanopoulou AR, Bousboulas SH, et al. The orlistat and cardiovascular risk profile in patients with metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes (ORLICARDIA) study. Curr Med Res Opin 2004; 20:1393-1401.
154. Bakris G, Calhoun D, Egan B, et al. Orlistat improves blood pressure control in obese subjects with treated but inadequately controlled hypertension. J Hypertens 2002;20:2257-2267.
155. Derosa G, Cicero AF, Murdolo G, et al. Efficacy and safety comparative evaluation of orlistat and sibutramine treatment in hypertensive obese patients. Diab Obes Metab 2005;7:47-55.
156. Poston WS, Foreyt JP. Sibutramine and the management of obesity. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2004; 5:633-642.
157. Conti CR. Another pill for weight reduction. Clin Cardiol 2005;28:59-60.
158. Turnbull F for the Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialist's Collaboration. Effects of different blood-pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events: results of prospectively-designed overviews of randomized trials. Lancet 2003;362: 1527-1535.
159. Williams B. Recent hypertension trials. Implications and controversies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;45: 813-827.
160. Volpe M, Alderman MH, Furberg CD, et al. Beyond hypertension. Toward guidelines for cardiovascular risk reduction. Am J Hypertens 2004;17:1068-1074.
161. Wright JT Jr, Dunn JK, Cutler JA, et al for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Outcomes in hypertensive blacks and nonblacks treated with chlorthalidone, amlodipine, and lisinopril. JAMA 2005;293:1595-1600.
162. Bakris GL, Fonseca V, Katholi RE, et al for the GEMINI Investigators. Metabolic effects of carvedilol vs metoprolol in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2004;292:2227-2236.
163. Raij L. Recommendations for the management of special populations: renal disease in diabetics. Am J Hypertens 2003;16:46S-49S.
164. Jamerson KA. Preventing chronic kidney disease in special populations. Am J Hypertens 2005;18:106S-111S.
165. Bakris GL. Protecting renal function in the hypertensive patient: clinical guidelines. Am J Hypertens 2005;18:112S-119S.
166. Verdecchia P, Reboldi G, Angeli F, et al. Adverse prognostic significance of new diabetes in treated hypertensive subjects. Hypertension 2004;43:963-969.
167. Kostis JB, Wilson AC, Freudenberger RS, Cosgrove NM, Pressel SL, Davis BR, for the SHEP Collaborative Research Group. Long-term effect of diuretic-based therapy on fatal outcomes in subjects with isolated systolic hypertension with and without diabetes. Am J Cardiol 2005;95:29-35.
168. Bittner V. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol: an alternate target for lipid-lowering therapy. Prev Cardiol 2004;7:122-126.
169. Hendrix KH, Riehle JE, Egan BM. Ethnic, gender, and age-related differences in treatment and control of dyslipidemia in hypertensive patients. Ethn Dis 2005;15:11-16.
170. Avorn J, Monette J, Lacour A, et al. Persistence of use of lipid-lowering medications. A cross-national study. JAMA 1998;279:1458-1462.
171. Ky B, Radar DJ. The effects of statin therapy on plasma markers of inflammation in patients without vascular disease. Clin Cardiol 2005;28:67-70.
172. Pasternak RC, Smith SC, Bairey-Merz CN, et al. ACC/AHA/NHLBI clinical advisory on the use and safety of statins. Circulation 2002;106:1024-1028.
173. Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D, et al. Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. N Engl J Med 1999;341: 410-418.
174. Grundy SM, Vega GL, McGovern ME, et al. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of once-daily niacin for the treatment of dyslipidemia associated with type 2 diabetes: results of the assessment of diabetes control and evaluation of niaspan trial. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1568-1576.
175. Brown WV. Cholesterol absorption inhibitors: defining new options in lipid management. Clin Cardiol 2003;26:259-264.
176. Stein EA. An investigative look: selective cholesterol absorption inhibitors-embarking on a new standard of care. Am J Manage Care 2002;8:S36-S39.
177. Farnier M, Freeman MW, Macdonell G, et al. Efficacy and safety of the coadministration of ezetimibe with fenofibrate in patients with mixed hyperlipidaemia. Eur Heart J 2005;26:897-905.
178. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2003;26:S33-S50.
179. Krentz AJ, Bailey CJ. Oral antidiabetic agents: current role in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs 2005; 65:385-411.
180. Dominguez LJ, Sowers JR. Metabolic syndrome therapy: prevention of vascular injury by antidiabetic agents. Curr Hypertens Rep 2005;7:110-116.
181. Nuovo J, Balsbaugh T, Barton S, et al. Development of a diabetes care management curriculum in a family practice residency program. Dis Manage 2004;7:314-324.
182. DeFronzo RA. Pharmacological therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1999;131:281-303.
183. Snow V, Weiss KB, Mottur-Pilson C, et al for the American College of Physicians. The evidence base for tight blood pressure control in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:587-592.
184. Harris R, Donahue K, Rathore SS, Frame P, Woolf SH, Lohr KN. Screening adults for type 2 diabetes: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2003;138: 215-229.
185. UK Prospective Diabetes Study. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet 1998;352:854-865.
186. Prisant LM. Clinical trials and lipid guidelines for type II diabetes. J Clin Pharmacol 2004;44: 423-430.
187. nd ed. St Louis, MO: National Pharmacy Cardiovascular Council, 2001:215-225.
188. Buse JB, Tan MH, Prince MJ, Erickson PP. The effects of oral anti-hyperglycaemic medications on serum lipid profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2004;6:133-156.
189. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M. Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: the STOP-NIDDM randomized trial. Lancet 2002;359:2072-2077.
190. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M. Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: the STOP-NIDDM trial. JAMA 2003;290:486-494.
191. Hanefeld M, Chiasson JL, Koehler C, Henkel E, Schaper F, Temelkova-Kurktschiev T. Acarbose slows progression of intima-media thickness of the carotid arteries in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Stroke 2004;35:1073-1078.
192. Kaiser T, Sawicki PT. Acarbose for prevention of diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular events? A critical analysis of the STOP-NIDDM data. Diabetologia 2004;47:575-580.
193. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M. Acarbose for the prevention of Type 2 diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance; facts and interpretations concerning the critical analysis of the STOP-NIDDM trial data. Diabetologia 2004;47:969-975.
194. Kirpichnikow D, McFarlane SI, Sowers JR. Metformin: an update. Ann Intern Med 2002;137:25-33.
195. Aviles-Santa L, Sinding J, Raskin P. Effects of metformin in patients with poorly controlled, insulin-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1999;131:182-188.
196. Akiyama TE, Meinke PT, Berger JP. PPAR ligands: potential therapies for metabolic syndrome. Curr Diab Rep 2005;5:45-52.
197. Tenenbaum A, Fisman EZ, Motro M. Metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus: focus on peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPAR). Cardiovasc Diabetol 2003;2:4-8.
198. Edelman SV. The role of the thiazolidinediones in the practical management of patients with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors. Rev Cardiovasc Med 2003;4:S29-S37.
199. Mudaliar S, Henry RR. New oral therapies for type 2 diabetes mellitus: the glitazones or insulin sensitizers. Annu Rev Med 2001;52:239-257.
200. Parulkar AA, Pendergrass ML, Granda-Ayala R, Lee TR, Fonseca V. Nonhypoglycemic effects of thiazolidinediones. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:61-71.
201. Lester JW, Fernandes AW. Pioglitazone in a subgroup of patients with type 2 diabetes meeting the criteria for metabolic syndrome. Int J Clin Pract 2005;59:134-142.
202. Nesto RW, Bell D, Bonow RO, et al. Thiazolidinedione use, fluid retention, and congestive heart failure: a consensus statement from the American Heart Association and American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2004;27:256-263.
203. Rosenstock J, Hassman DR, Madder RD, et al. Repaglinide versus nateglinide monotherapy: a randomized, multicenter study. Diabetes Care 2004;27:1265-1270.
204. Plosker GL, Figgitt DP. Repaglinide: a pharmacoeconomic review of its use in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmacoeconomics 2004;22:389-411.
205. Sjoholm A, Nystrom T. Inflammation and the etiology of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2006;22:4-10.
206. Baron AD. Insulin and the vasculature-old actors, new roles. J Invest Med 1996;44:406-412.
207. Raskin P, Allen E, Hollander L, et al. Initiating insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes: a comparison of biphasic and basal insulin analogs. Diabetes Care 2005;28:260-265.