Pharmacologic therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus

Annals of Internal Medicine

Volumn 131, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 281-303

  DeFronzo, Ralph A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACARBOSE; INSULIN; METFORMIN; REPAGLINIDE; SULFONYLUREA DERIVATIVE; TROGLITAZONE;

CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDUCED DISEASE; DRUG SAFETY; GLUCONEOGENESIS; GLUCOSE TRANSPORT; HORMONE ACTION; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERINSULINEMIA; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN TREATMENT; KIDNEY DISEASE; NEUROPATHY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; RETINOPATHY; REVIEW;

EID: 0033578476     PISSN: 00034819     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-131-4-199908170-00008     Document Type: Review

References (175)

1. Harris MI, Flegal KM, Cowie CC, Eberhardt MS, Goldstein DE, Little RR, et al. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance in U.S. adults. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:518-26.
2. Stern MP, Gonzalez C, Mitchell BD, Villalpando E, Haffner SM, Hazuda HP. Genetic and environmental determination of type II diabetes in Mexico City and San Antonio. Diabetes. 1992;41:484-92.
3. Klein R. Hyperglycemia and microvascular and macrovascular disease in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:258-68.
4. Teutsch S, Newman J, Eggers P. The problem of diabetic renal failure in the United States: an overview. Am J Kidney Dis. 1989;13:11-3.
5. Kannel WB, McGee DL. Diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors: the Framingham Study. Circulation. 1979;59:8-13.
6. Rubin RJ, Altman WM, Mendelson DN. Health care expenditures for people with diabetes mellitus, 1992. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;78: 809A-809F.
7. DeFronzo RA. Pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes: metabolic and molecular implications for identifying diabetes genes. Diabetes Rev. 1997;5:177-269.
8. DeFronzo RA, Ferrannini E, Simonson DC. Fasting hyperglycemia in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: contributions of excessive hepatic glucose production and impaired tissue glucose uptake. Metabolism. 1989; 38:387-95.
9. Groop LC, Bonadonna RC, Del Prato S, Ratheiser K, Zyck K, DeFronzo RA. Glucose and free fatty acid metabolism in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Evidence for multiple sites of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 1989;84:205-13.
10. 13C nuclear magnetic resonance study. J Clin Invest. 1992;90:1323-7.
11. Bonadonna RC, Del Prato S, Bonora E, Saccomani MP, Gulli G, Natali A, et al. Roles of glucose transport and glucose phosphorylation in muscle insulin resistance of NIDDM. Diabetes. 1996;45:915-25.
12. Mitrakou A, Kelley D, Veneman T, Jensen T, Pangbum T, Reilly J, et al. Contribution of abnormal muscle and liver glucose metabolism to post-prandial hyperglycemia in NIDDM. Diabetes. 1990;39:1381-90.
13. Ferrannini E, Simonson DC Katz LD, Reichard G Jr, Bevilacqua S, Barrett EJ, et al. The disposal of an oral glucose load in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Metabolism. 1988;37:79-85.
14. Jeppesen J. Zhou MY, Chen YD, Reaven GM. Effect of metformin on postprandial lipemia in patients with fairly to poorly controlled NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:1093-9.
15. Polonsky KS. Lilly Lecture 1994. The β-cell in diabetes: from molecular genetics to clinical research. Diabetes. 1995;44:705-17.
16. Saad MF, Knowler WC, Pettitt DJ, Nelson RG, Mott DM, Bennett PH. Sequential changes in serum insulin concentration during development of non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Lancet 1989;1:1356-9.
17. DeFronzo RA. Lilly Lecture 1987. The triumvirate: beta-cell, muscle, liver. A collusion responsible for NIDDM. Diabetes. 1988;37:667-87.
18. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:977-86.
19. The absence of a glycemic threshold for the development of long-term complications: the perspective of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes. 1996;45:1289-98.
20. Parving HH, Gall MA, Skott MA, Jorgensen HE, Lokkegaard H, Jorgensen F, et al. Prevalence and causes of albuminuria in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Kidney Int. 1992;41:758-62.
21. Sima AA, Nathaniel V, Bril V, McEwen TA, Greene DA. Histopathological heterogeneity of neuropathy in insulin-dependent and non-insulin-dependent diabetes, and demonstration of axo-glial dysfunction in human diabetic neuropathy. J Clin Invest. 1988;81349-64.
22. McCance DR, Hanson RL, Charias MA, Jacobsson LT, Pettitt DJ, Bennett PH, et al. Comparison of tests for glycated haemoglobin and fasting and two hour plasma glucose concentrations as diagnostic methods for diabetes. BMJ. 1996;308:1323-8.
23. 1c levels for diagnosing diabetes: diagnostic criteria and performance revisited. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:985-91.
24. Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:1183-97.
25. Gregersen G. Variations in motor conduction velocity produced by acute changes of the metabolic state in diabetic patients. Diabetologia. 1968;4:273-7.
26. Vora JP, Dolben J, Williams JD, Peters JR, Owens DR. Impact of initial treatment on renal function in newly-diagnosed type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1993;36:734-40.
27. Nathan DM. Inferences and implications. Do results from the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial apply in NIDDM? Diabetes Care. 1995;18: 251-7.
28. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Lancet. 1998; 352:837-53.
29. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). UK Prospective Diabetes Study. Lancet. 1998;352:854-65.
30. Ohkubo Y, Kishikawa H, Araki E, Miyata T, Isami S, Motoyoshi S, et at. Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a randomized prospective 6-year study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1995;28:103-17.
31. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 1998;21(Suppl 1):S23-31.
32. Ferrannini E, Haffner SM, Mitchell BO, Stern MP. Hyperinsulinaemia: the key feature of a cardiovascular and metabolic syndrome. Diabetologia. 1991;34:416-22.
33. Reaven GM, Laws A. Insulin resistance, compensatory hyperinsulinemia, and coronary heart disease. Diabetologia. 1994;37:948-52
34. Lento S, Ronnemaa T, Haffner SM, Pyorala K, Kallio V, Laakso M. Dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia predict coronary heart disease events in middle-aged patients with NIDDM. Diabetes. 1997;46:1354-9.
35. Assmann G, Schulte H. The Prospective Cardiovascular Munster (PROCAM) study: prevalence of hyperlipidemia in persons with hypertension and/or diabetes mellitus and the relationship to coronary heart disease. Am Heart J. 1988;116(6 Pt 2):1713-24.
36. Curb JD, Pressel SL, Cutler JA, Savage PJ, Applegate WB, Black H, et al. Effect of diuretic-based antihypertensive treatment on cardiovascular disease risk in older diabetic patients with isolated systolic hypertension. Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program Cooperative Research Group. JAMA. 1996;276:1886-92.
37. Pyorala K, Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, Faergeman O, Olsson AG, Thorgeirsson G. Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary heart disease. A subgroup analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (45) Group. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:614-20.
38. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study. BMJ. 1998;317:703-13.
39. Kelley DE. Effects of weight loss on glucose homeostasis in NIDDM. Diabetes Rev. 1995;3:366-77.
40. Schneider SH, Morgado A. Effects of fitness and physical training on carbohydrate metabolism and associated cardiovascular risk factors in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Rev, 1995;3:378-407.
41. Klimt CR, Knatterud GL, Meinert CL, Prout TE. A study of the effect of hypoglycemic agents on vascular complications in patients with adult-onset diabetes. I. Design, methods and baseline characteristics. The University Group Diabetes Program. Diabetes. 1970;19 Suppl:747-88.
42. Meinert CL, Knatterud GL, Prout TE, Klimt CR. A study of the effects of hypoglycemic agents on vascular complications in patients with adult-onset diabetes. II. Mortality results. Diabetes. 1970:19 Suppl:789-830.
43. Edelman SV, Henry RR. Insulin therapy for normalizing glycosylated hemoglobin in type II diabetes. Application, benefits, and risks. Diabetes Rev. 1995;3:308-34.
44. Abraira C, Colwell JA, Nuttall FQ, Sawin CT, Nagel NJ, Comstock JP, et al. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study on glycemic control and complications in type II diabetes (VA CSDM). Results of the feasibility trial. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study in Type II Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:1113-23.
45. Henry RR, Gumbiner B, Ditzler T, Wallace P, Lyon R, Glauber HS. Intensive conventional insulin therapy for type II diabetes. Metabolic effects during a 6-mo outpatient trial. Diabetes Care. 1993;16:21-31.
46. Hayward RA, Manning WG, Kaplan SH, Wagner EH, Greenfield S. Starting insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes: effectiveness, complications, and resource utilization. JAMA. 1997;278:1663-9.
47. Harris MI. Medical care for patients with diabetes. Epidemiologic aspects. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124(1 Pt 2):117-22.
48. 1c, body weight and lipids in type 2 diabetic patients with secondary-failure to sulfonylureas. A five year follow-up study. Horm Metab Res. 1992;24:478-83.
49. Sinha A, Formica C, Tsalamandris C, Panagiotopoulos S, Hendrich E, DeLuise M, et al. Effect of insulin on body composition in patients with insulin-dependent and non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabet Med. 1996; 13:40-6.
50. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study 24: a 6-year, randomized, controlled trial comparing sulfonylurea, insulin, and metformin therapy in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes that could not be controlled with diet therapy. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:165-75.
51. Yki-Järvinen H, Ryysy L, Kauppila M, Kujansuu E, Lahti J, Marjanen T, et al. Effect of obesity on the response to insulin therapy in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:4037-43.
52. DeFronzo RA, Soman V, Sherwin RS, Hendler R, Felig P. Insulin binding to monocytes and insulin action in human obesity, starvation, and refeeding. J Clin Invest. 1978;62:204-13.
53. Pi-Sunyer FX. Medical hazards of obesity. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:655-60.
54. Rossetti L Glucose toxicitv: the implications of hyperalycemia in the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus. Clin Invest Med. 1995;18:255-60.
55. Ilkova H, Glaser B, Tunckale A, Bagriacik N, Cerasi E. Induction of long-term glycemic control in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients by transient intensive insulin treatment. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:1353-6.
56. Kayashima T, Yamaguchi K, Konno Y, Nanimatsu H, Aragaki S, Shichiri M. Effects of early introduction of intensive insulin therapy on the clinical course in non-obese NIDDM patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1995; 28:119-25.
57. Colwell JA. Should we use intensive insulin therapy after oral agent failure in type II diabetes? Diabetes Care. 1996;19:896-8.
58. Lebovitz HE. Stepwise and combination drug therapy for the treatment of NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:1542-4.
59. UKPDS 28: a randomized trial of efficacy of early addition of metformin in sulfonylurea-treated type 2 diabetes. U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:87-92.
60. The pharmacologic treatment of hyperglycemia in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1996;19(Suppl 1):553-61.
61. Genuth S. Insulin use in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1990;13:1240-64.
62. Siconolfi-Baez L, Banerje MA, Lebovitz HE. Characterization and significance of sulfonylurea receptors. Diabetes Care. 1990;13 Suppl:2-8.
63. Rorsman P. The pancreatic beta-cell as a fuel sensor: an electrophysiologist's viewpoint. Diabetologia. 1997;40:487-95.
64. Simonson D, Ferrannini E, Bevilacqua S, Smith D, Barrett E, Carlson R, et al. Mechanism of improvement in glucose metabolism after chronic glyburide therapy. Diabetes. 1984;33:838-45.
65. Best JD, Judzewitsch RG, Pfeifer MA, Beard JC, Halter JB, Porte D Jr. The effect of chronic sulfonylurea therapy on hepatic glucose production in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabetes. 1982;31(4 Pt 1):333-8.
66. Beck-Nielsen H, Hother-Nieben O, Pedersen O. Mechanism of action of sulfonylureas with special reference to the extrapancreatic effect: an overview. Diabet Med. 1988;5:613-20.
67. Simonson DC, Kourides IA, Feinglos M, Shamoon H, Fischette CT. Efficacy, safety, and dose-response characteristics of glipizide gastrointestinal therapeutic system on glycemic control and insulin secretion in NIDDM. Results of two multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials. The Glipizide Gastrointestinal Therapeutic System Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:597-606.
68. Rosenstock J, Samols E, Muchmore DB, Schneider J. Glimepiride, a new once-daily sulfonylurea. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of NIDDM patients. Glimepiride Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:1194-9.
69. Blaum CS, Velez L, Hiss RG, Halter JB. Characteristics related to poor glycemic control in NIDDM patients in community practice. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:7-11.
70. Groop LC. Sulfonylureas in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:737-54.
71. Turner R, Stratton I, Horton V, Manley S, Zimmet P, Mackay IR, et al. UKPDS 25: autoantibodies to islet-cell cytoplasm and glutamic acid decarboxylase for prediction of insulin requirement in type 2 diabetes. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Lancet. 1997;350:1288-93.
72. Haupt E, Laube F, Loy H, Schoffling K. [Secondary failures in modern therapy of diabetes mellitus with blood glucose lowering sulfonamides.] Med Klin. 1977;72:1529-36.
73. Camerini-Davalos R, Lozano-Castaneda O, Marble A. Five year experience with tolbutamide. Metabolism. 1962;11(Suppl):74-80.
74. Balodimos MC, Camerini-Davalos R, Marble A. Nine years' experience with tolbutamide in the treatment of diabetes. Metabolism. 1966;11:957-70.
75. Groop L, Groop PH, Stenman S, Saloranta C, Totterman KJ, Fyhrquist F, et al. Comparison of pharmacokinetics, metabolic effects and mechanisms of action of glyburide and glipizide during long-term treatment. Diabetes Care. 1987;10:671-8.
76. Groop L, Luzi L, Melander A, Groop PH, Ratheiser K, Simonson DC, et al. Different effects of glibenclamide and glipizide on insulin secretion and hepatic glucose production in normal and NIDDM subjects. Diabetes. 1987; 36:1320-8.
77. Jeppesen J, Zhou MY, Chen YD, Reaven GM. Effect of glipizide on postprandial lipaemia in patients with NIDDM. Diabetologia. 1996;37:781-7.
78. Lebovitz HE, Melander A. Sulfonylureas: basic aspects and clinical uses. In: Alberti KG, Zimmet P, DeFronzo RA, eds. International Textbook of Diabetes Mellitus. 2d ed. New York: J Wiley; 1997:817-40.
79. Berger W, Caduff F, Pasquel M, Rump A. [The relatively frequent incidence of severe sulfonylurea-induced hypoglycemia in the last 25 years in Switzerland. Results of 2 surveys in Switzerland in 1969 and 1984.] Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1986;116:145-51.
80. Schorr RI, Ray WA, Daughterty JR, Griffin MR. Individual sulfonylureas and serious hypoglycemia in older people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44:751-5.
81. van Staa T, Abenhaim L, Monette J. Rates of hypoglycemia in users of sulfonylureas. J Clin Epidemiol. 1997;50:735-41.
82. Burge MR, Schmitz-Florantino K, Fischette C, Quails CR, Schade DS. A prospective trial of risk factors for sulfonylurea-induced hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 1998;14:137-43.
83. Schor S. The University Group Diabetes Program. A statistician looks at the mortality results. JAMA. 1971;217:1673-5.
84. Kilo C, Miller L, Williamson J. The crux of the UGDP. Spurious results and biologically inappropriate data analysis. Diabetologia. 1980;18:179-85.
85. Ohneda A, Maruhama Y, Itabashi H, Olkawa SI, Kobayashi T, Horigome K, et al. Vascular complications and long-term administration of oral hypoglycemic agents in patients with diabetes mellitus. Tohoku J Exp Med. 1978;124:205-22.
86. Jarrett RJ, McCartney P, Keen H. The Bedford survey: ten year mortality rates in newly diagnosed diabetics, borderline diabetics and normoglycaemic controls and risk indices for coronary heart disease in borderline diabetics. Diabetologia. 1982;22:79-84.
87. Paasikivi J, Wahlberg F. Preventive tolbutamide treatment and arterial disease in mild hyperglycaemia. Diabetologia. 1971;7:323-7.
88. Leibowitz G, Cerasi E. Sulphonylurea treatment of NIDDM patients with cardiovascular disease: a mixed blessing? Diabetologia. 1996;39:503-14.
89. American Diabetes Association, policy statement: the UGDP controversy. Diabetes Care. 1979;2:1-3.
90. Bailey CJ, Turner RC, Metformin, N Engl J Med. 1996;334:574-9.
91. DeFronzo RA, Goodman AM, Efficacy of metformin in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Multicenter Metformin Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:541-9.
92. DeFronzo RA, Barzilai N, Simonson DC. Mechanism of metformin action in obese and lean noninsulin-dependent diabetic subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991:73:1294-301.
93. Stumvoll N, Nurjhan N, Perriello G, Dailey G, Gerich JE. Metabolic effects of metformin in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:550-4.
94. Johnson AB, Webster JM, Sum CF, Heseltlne L, Argyraki M, Cooper BG, et at. The impact of metformin therapy on hepatic glucose production and skeletal muscle glycogen synthase activity in overweight type II diabetic patients. Metabolism. 1993;42:1217-22.
95. Wollen N, Bailey CJ. Inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis by metformin. Synergism with insulin. Biochem Pharmacol. 1988;37:4353-8.
96. Cusi K, Consoli A, DeFronzo RA. Metabolic effects of metformin on glucose and lactate metabolism in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:4059-67.
97. Widen El, Eriksson JG, Groop LC. Metformin normalizes nonoxidative glucose metabolism in insulin-resistant normoglycemic first-degree relatives of patients with NIDDM. Diabetes. 1992;41:354-8.
98. Stith BJ, Goalstone ML, Espinoza R, Mossel C, Roberts D, Wiernsperger N. The antidiabetic drug metformin elevates receptor tyrosine kinase activity and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate mass in Xenopus oocytes. Endocrinology. 1996;137:2990-9.
99. Cusi K, DeFronzo RA. Metformin: a review of its metabolic effects. Diabetes Rev. 1998;6:89-131.
100. Rossetti L. DeFronzo RA, Gherzi R, Stein P, Andraghetti G, Falzentti G, et al. Effect of metformin treatment on insulin action in diabetic rats: in vivo and in vitro correlations. Metabolism. 1990;39:425-35.
101. Klip A, Letter LA. Cellular mechanism of action of metformin. Diabetes Care. 1990;13:696-704.
102. Campbell IW, Hewlett HC. Worldwide experience of metformin as an effective glucose-lowering agent: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Rev. 1995;11 Suppl 1:S57-62.
103. Hermann LS, Schersten B, Bitzen PO, Kjellstrom T, Lindgarde F, Melander A. Therapeutic comparison of metformin and sulfonylurea, alone and in various combinations. A double-blind controlled study. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:1100-9.
104. Garber AJ, Duncan TG, Goodman AM, Mills DJ, Rohrf JL. Efficacy of metformin in type II diabetes: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-response trial. Am J Med. 1997:103:491-7.
105. Johansen K. Efficacy of metformin in the treatment of NIDDM. Meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:33-7.
106. Reaven GM, Johnston P, Hollenbeck CB, Skowronskl R, Zhang JC, Goldflne ID, et al. Combined metformin-sulfonylurea treatment of patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes in fair to poor glycemic control. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;74:1020-6.
107. Perriello G, Misericordia P, Volpi E, Santucci A, Santucci C, Ferrannini E, et al. Acute antihyperglycemic mechanisms of metformin in NIDDM: evidence for suppression of lipid oxidation and hepatic glucose production. Diabetes. 1994;43:920-8.
108. Gustafson A, Bjorntorp P, Fahlen M. Metformin administration in hyperlipidemic states. Acta Med Scand. 1971;190:491-4.
109. Fontbonne A, Charles MA, Juhan-Vague I, Bard JM, Andre P, Isnard F, et al. The effect of metformin on the metabolic abnormalities associated with upper-body fat distribution. BIGPRO Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1996; 19:920-6.
110. Vague P, Juhan-Vague I, Alessi MC, Badier C, Valadier J. Metformin decreases the high plasminogen activator inhibition capacity, plasma insulin and triglyceride levels in non-diabetic obese subjects. Thromb Haemost. 1987;57:326-8.
111. Nagi DK, Yudkin JS. Effects of metformin on insulin resistance, risk factors for cardiovascular disease, and plasminogen activator inhibitor in NIDDM subjects. A study of two ethnic groups. Diabetes Care. 1993;16:621-9.
112. Vague P, Rudnichi A, Fontbonne A, Safar M. Bard JM, Juhan-Vague I, et al. The effect of metformin on the metabolic anomalies associated with android type body fat distribution: results of the BIGPRO trial. Diabetologia. 1994;37(Suppl 1):236.
113. Campbell IW. Metformin and the sulphonylureas: the comparative risk. Horm Metab Res Suppl. 1985;15:105-11.
114. Wiholm BE, Myrhed M. Metformin-associated lactic acidosis in Sweden 1977-1991. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1993:44:589-91.
115. Misbin RI, Green L, Stadel BV, Gueriguian JL, Gubbi A, Fleming GA. Lactic acidosis in patients treated with metformin [Letter]. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:265-6.
116. Turner RC Holman R, Stratton I. Correspondence. The UK Prospective Diabetes Study. Lancet. 1999;352:1934.
117. Clissold SP, Edwards C. Acarbose. A preliminary review of its pharmaco-dynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic potential. Drugs. 1988;35:214-43.
118. Lebovitz HE. A new oral therapy for diabetes management: alpha-glucosidase inhibition with acarbose. Clinical Diabetes. 1995;13:99-103.
119. Krentz AJ, Ferner RE, Bailey CJ. Comparative tolerability profiles of oral antidiabetic agents. Drug Saf. 1994;11:223-41.
120. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Hunt JA, Palmason C, Rodger NW, Ross SA, et al. The efficacy of acarbose in the treatment of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. A multicenter controlled clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:928-35.
121. Coniff RF, Shapiro JA, Robbins D, Kleinfield R, Seaton TB, Beisswenger P, et al. Reduction of glycosylated hemoglobin and postprandial hyperglycemia by acarbose in patients with NIDDM. A placebo-controlled dose-comparison study. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:817-24.
122. Hlllebrand I, Boehme K, Frank G, Fink H, Berchtold P. The efferts of the α-glucosidase inhibitor BAY g 5421 (Acarbose) on meal-stimulated elevations of circulating glucose, insulin, and triglyceride levels in man. Res Exp Med (Berl). 1979;175:81-6.
123. Bayraktar M, Van Thiel DH, Adalar N. A comparison of acarbose versus metformin as an adjuvant therapy in sulfonylurea-treated NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:252-4.
124. Saltiel AR, Olefsky JM. Thiazolidinediones in the treatment of insulin resistance and type II diabetes. Diabetes. 1996;45:1661-9.
125. Spiegelman BM. PPAR-γ: adipogenic regulator and thiazolizinedione receptor. Diabetes 1998;47:507-14.
126. Patel J, Miller E, Hu J, Granett J. BRL 49653 (a thiazolidinedione) improves glycemic control in NIDDM patients [Abstract]. Diabetes. 1997;46(Suppl 1):150A.
127. Grossman S, Lessem J. Mechanisms and clinical effects of thiazolidinediones. Exp Opin Invest Drugs. 1997;6:1025-40.
128. Maggs DG, Buchanan TA, Burant CF, Cline G, Gumbiner B, Hsueh WA, et al. Metabolic effects of troglitazone monotherapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:176-85.
129. Suter SL, Nolan JJ, Wallace P, Gumbiner B, Olefsky JM. Metabolic effects of new oral hypoglycemic agent CS-045 in NIDDM subjects. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:193-203.
130. Sironi AM, Vichi S, Gastaldelli A, Pecori N, Anichini R, Foot E, et al. Effects of troglitazone on insulin action and cardiovascular risk factors in patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1997; 62:194-202.
131. Nolan JJ, Ludvik B, Beerdsen P, Joyce M, Olefsky J. Improvement in glucose tolerance and insulin resistance in obese subjects treated with troglitazone. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1188-93.
132. Claraldi TP, Gilmora A, Olefsky JM, Goldberg M, Heldenrelch KA. In vitro studies on the action of CS-045, a new antidiabetic agent. Metabolism. 1990;39:1056-62.
133. Young PW, Cawthome MA, Coyle PJ, Holder JC, Holman GD, Kozka IJ, et al. Repeat treatment of obese mice with BRL 49653, a new potent insulin sensitizer, enhances insulin action in white adipocytes. Association with increased insulin binding and cell-surface GLUT4 as measured by photo-affinity labeling. Diabetes. 1995;44:1087-92.
134. Okuno A, Tamemoto H, Tobe K, Ueki K, Mori Y, Iwamoto K, et al. Troglitazone increases the number of small adipocytes without the change of white adipose tissue mass in obese Zucker rats. J Clin Invest. 1998;101: 1354-61.
135. Hallakou S, Doare L, Foufelle F, Kergoat M, Guerre-Millo M, Berthaurt MF, et al. Pioglitazone induces in vivo adipocyte differentiation in the obese Zucker fa/fa rat. Diabetes. 1997;46:1393-9.
136. Iwamoto Y, Kosaka K, Kuzuya T, Akanuma Y, Shigeta Y, Kaneko T. Effects of troglitazone: a new hypoglycemia agent in patients with NIDDM poorly controlled by diet therapy. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:151-6.
137. Kumar S, Boutton AJ, Beck-Nlelsen H, Berthezene F, Muggeo M, Persson B, et al. Troglitazone, an insulin action enhancer, improves met-abolic control in NIDDM patients. Troglitazone Study Group. Diabetologia. 1996;39:701-9.
138. Ghazzi MN, Perez JE, Antonucci TK, Driscoll JH, Huang SM, Faja BW, et al. Cardiac and glycemic benefits of troglitazone treatment in NIDDM. The Troglitazone Study Group. Diabetes. 1997;46:433-9.
139. Fonesca VA, Valiquet TR, Huang SM, Ghazzi MN, Whitcomb RW. Troglitazone monotherapy improves glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, controlled study. The Troglitazone Study Group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:3169-76.
140. Horton ES, Whitehouse F, Ghazzi MN, Venable TC, Whitcomb R. Troglitazone in combination with sulfonylurea restores glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. The Troglitazone Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:1462-9.
141. Schwartz S, Raskln P, Fonesca V, Graveline JF. Effect of troglitazone in insulin-treated patients with type II diabetes mellitus. Troglitazone and Exogenous Insulin Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1998:13:861-6.
142. Gitlin N, Julie NL, Spurr CL, Lim KN, Juarbe HM. Two cases of severe clinical and histologic hepatotoxicity associated with troglitazone. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:36-8.
143. Fuhlendorff J, Rorsman P, Kofod H. Brand CL, Rolin B, MacKay P, et al. Stimulation of insulin release by repaglinide and glibenclamide involves both common and distinct processes. Diabetes. 1998;47:345-51.
144. Schwartz SL, Goldberg RB, Strange P. Repaglinide in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled, dose-response study. Repaglinide Study Group [Abstract]. Diabetes. 1998;47 (Suppl 1):A98.
145. Berger S, Strange P. Repaglinide, a novel and hypoglycemic agent in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, fixed-dose study. Repaglinide Study Group [Abstract]. Diabetes. 1998:47 (Suppl 1):A18.
146. Moses R, Slobodniuk R, Boyages S, Colagluri S, Kidson W, Carter J, et al. Effect of repaglinide addition to metformin monotherapy on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:119-24.
147. Marbury T, Huang WC, Strange P, Lebovitz H. Repaglinide versus glyburide: a one-year comparison trial. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1999;43:155-66.
148. Bailey CJ, Biguanides and NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:755-72.
149. Dunn CJ, Peters DH, Metformin. A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Drugs. 1995;49:721-49.
150. Trischitta V, Italia S, Mazzarino S, Buscema M, Rabuazzo AM, Sanglorgio L, et al. Comparison of combined therapies in treatment of secondary failure to glyburide. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:539-42.
151. Cefalu WT, Bell-Farrow AD, Wang ZQ, McBride DG, Terry JG, Tive L, et al. Combination glipizide GITS/metformin normalizes glucose and improves insulin sensitivity in hyperinsulinemic moderately well controlled NIDDM [Abstract]. Diabetes. 1996; 45(Suppl 2):201A.
152. Haupt E, Knick B, Koschinsky T, Llebermeister H, Schneider J, Hirche H. Oral antidiabetic combination therapy with sulphonylureas and metformin. Diabet Metab. 1991;17(1 Pt 2):224-31.
153. Rodger NW, Chaisson JL, Josse RG, Hunt JA, Palmason C, Ross SA, et al. Clinical experience with acarbose: results of a Canadian multicentre study. Clin Invest Med. 1995;18:318-24.
154. Coniff RF, Shapiro JA, Seaton TB, Bray GA. Multicenter, placebo controlled trial comparing acarbose (BAY g 5421) with placebo, tolbutamide, and tolbutamide-plus-acarbose in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Med. 1995;98:443-51.
155. Rosenstock J, Brown A, Fischer J, Jain A, Littlejohn T, Nadeau D, et al. Efficacy and safety of acarbose in metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:2050-5.
156. Iwamoto V, Kosaka K, Kuzuya T, Akanuma Y, Shigeta Y, Kaneko T. Effect of combination therapy of troglitazone and sulphonylureas in patients with type 2 diabetes who were poorly controlled by sulphonylurea therapy alone. Diabet Med 1996;13:365-70.
157. Inzucchl SE, Maggs DG, Spollett GR, Page SL, Rife FS, Walton V, et al. Efficacy and metabolic effects of metformin and troglitazone in type II diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:867-72.
158. Bell DS, Mayo MS. Outcome of metformin-facilitated reinitiation of oral diabetic therapy in insulin-treated patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Endocrine Practice. 1997;3:73-6.
159. Yki-Järvinen H, Ryysy L. Nikkila K, Tulokas T, Vanamo R, Heikkila M. Comparison of bedtime insulin regimens in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:389-96.
160. Yki-Järvinen H, Kauppila M, Kujansuu E, Lahti J, Marjanen T, Niskanen L, et al. Comparison of insulin regimens in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1426-33.
161. Johnson JL, Wolf SL, Kabadi UM. Efficacy of insulin and sulfonylurea combination therapy in type II diabetes. A meta-analysis of the randomized placebo-controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:259-64.
162. Landstedt-Hallin L, Adamson U, Arner P, Bolinder J, Lins PE. Comparison of bedtime NPH or preprandial regular insulin combined with glibenclamide in secondary sulfonylurea failure. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:1183-6.
163. Bergenstal R, Johnson M, Whipple D, Noller D, Boyce K, Roth L. et al. Advantages of adding metformin to multiple dose insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 1998;7(Suppl 1):A89.
164. Shank M, Del Prato S, DeFronzo RA. Bedtime insulin/daytime glipizide. Effective therapy for sulfonylurea failures in NIDDM. Diabetes. 1995;44:165-72.
165. Riddle MC. Evening insulin strategy. Diabetes Care. 1990;13:676-86
166. Groop L, Widen E. Treatment strategies for secondary sulfonylurea failure. Should we start insulin or add metformin? Is there a place for intermittent insulin therapy? Diabetes Metab. 1991;17(1 Pt 2):218-23.
167. Chow CC, Tsang LW, Sorenson JP, Cockram CS. Comparison of insulin with or without continuation of oral hypoglycemic agents in the treatment of secondary failure in NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:307-14.
168. Klein W. Sulfonylurea-metformin-combination versus sulfonylurea-insulin-combination in secondary failures of sulfonylurea monotherapy. Results of a prospective randomized study in 50 patients. Diabetes Metab. 1991;17(1 Pt 2):235-40.
169. Vigneri R, Trischitta V, Italia S, Mazzarino S, Rabuazzo MA, Squatrito S. Treatment of NIDDM patients with secondary failure to glyburide: comparison of the addition of either metformin or bed-time NPH insulin to glyburide. Diabetes Metab. 1991;17:232-4.
170. Groop L, Widen E, Franssila-Kallunki A, Ekstrand A, Saloranta C, Schalin C, et al. Different effects of insulin and oral antidiabetic agents on glucose and energy metabolism in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1989;32:599-605.
171. Buse JB, Gumbiner B, Mathlas NP, Nelson DM, Faja BW, Whitcomb RW. Troglitazone use in insulin-treated type 2 diabetic patients. The Troglitazone Insulin Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:1455-61.
172. Giugliano D, Quatraro A, Consoli G, Minei A, Ceriello A, De Rosa N, et al. Metformin for obese, insulin-treated diabetic patients: improvement in glycaemic control and reduction of metabolic risk factors. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1993;44:107-12.
173. Aviles-Santa L, Sinding J, Raskin P. The effects of metformin poorly controlled insulin-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus [Abstract]. Diabetes. 1998; 47(Suppl 1):A89.
174. Bell DSH, Mayo MS. Outcome of metformin-facilitated reinitiation of oral diabetic therapy in insulin-treated patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Endocrine Practice. 1997;373-6.
175. Kelley DE, Bidot P, Freedman Z, Haag B, Podlecki D, Rendell M, et al. Efficacy and safety of acarbose in insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:2056-61.