Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes: Emerging epidemics and their cardiovascular implications

Cardiology Clinics

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 485-504

  Mensah, George A ^a   Mokdad, Ali H ^a   Ford, Earl ^a   Narayan, K M Venkat ^a   Giles, Wayne H ^a   Vinicor, Frank ^a   Deedwania, Prakash C ^b  

^a CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^b Division of Cardiology   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

METFORMIN;

BODY WEIGHT; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEMOGRAPHY; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; REVIEW; UNITED STATES;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; HUMANS; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; OBESITY; PREVALENCE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 6344228286     PISSN: 07338651     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccl.2004.06.005     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. P.C. Deedwania Diabetes and vascular disease: common links in the emerging epidemic of coronary artery disease Am J Cardiol 91 1 2003 68 71
2. S.H. Saydah, M.S. Eberhardt, C.M. Loria, and F.L. Brancati Age and the burden of death attributable to diabetes in the United States Am J Epidemiol 156 8 2002 714 719
3. A joint editorial statement by the American Diabetes Association; The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; The Juvenile Diabetes Foundation International; The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; The American Heart Association Diabetes mellitus: a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease Circulation 100 10 1999 1132 1133
4. K. Gu, C.C. Cowie, and M.I. Harris Mortality in adults with and without diabetes in a national cohort of the U.S. population, 1971-1993 Diabetes Care 21 7 1998 1138 1145
5. A.J. Swerdlow, and M.E. Jones Mortality during 25 years of follow-up of a cohort with diabetes Int J Epidemiol 25 6 1996 1250 1261
6. American Diabetes Association Role of cardiovascular risk factors in prevention and treatment of macrovascular disease in diabetes Diabetes Care 12 8 1989 573 579
7. J.C. Kleinman, R.P. Donahue, M.I. Harris, F.F. Finucane, J.H. Madans, and D.B. Brock Mortality among diabetics in a national sample Am J Epidemiol 128 2 1988 389 401
8. E. Barrett-Connor, and T. Orchard Diabetes and heart disease. National Diabetes Data Group, Diabetes Data Compiled 1984 1985 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Washington, DC
9. M.R. Niefeld, J.B. Braunstein, A.W. Wu, C.D. Saudek, W.E. Weller, and G.F. Anderson Preventable hospitalization among elderly Medicare beneficiaries with type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 26 5 2003 1344 1349
10. O. Vaccaro, J. Stamler, and J.D. Neaton Sixteen-year coronary mortality in black and white men with diabetes screened for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT) Int J Epidemiol 27 4 1998 636 641
11. S.M. Haffner, S. Lehto, T. Ronnemaa, K. Pyorala, and M. Laakso Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction [see comments] N Engl J Med 339 4 1998 229 234
12. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report Circulation 106 25 2002 3143 3421
13. J.E. Ho, F. Paultre, and L. Mosca Is diabetes mellitus a cardiovascular disease risk equivalent for fatal stroke in women? Data from the Women's Pooling Project Stroke 34 12 2003 2812 2816
14. S.M. Haffner, M.P. Stern, H.P. Hazuda, B.D. Mitchell, and J.K. Patterson Cardiovascular risk factors in confirmed prediabetic individuals. Does the clock for coronary heart disease start ticking before the onset of clinical diabetes? JAMA 263 21 1990 2893 2898
15. P.C. Deedwania Mechanism of the deadly quartet Can J Cardiol 16 Suppl E 2000 17E 20E
16. M.A. Creager, T.F. Luscher, F. Consentino, and J.A. Beckman Diabetes and vascular disease: pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and medical therapy Part I Circulation 108 2003 1527 1532
17. A.H. Mokdad, B.A. Bowman, E.S. Ford, F. Vinicor, J.S. Marks, and J.P. Koplan The continuing epidemic of obesity in the United States JAMA 286 2001 1195 1200
18. World Health Organization World Health Report 2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life 2002 World Health Organization Geneva (Switzerland)
19. National Institutes of Health National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults 1998 United States Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service Bethesda (MD)
20. National Center for Health Statistic. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Growth Charts: United States. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ nccdphp/dnpa/pdf/CalltoAction.pdf Accessed September 1, 2004.
21. R.H. Eckel, and R.M. Krauss American Heart Association Call to Action: obesity as a major risk factor for coronary heart disease Circulation 97 1998 2099 2100
22. United States Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service The Surgeon General's Call To Action To Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity: 2001 2001 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General Rockville (MD)
23. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and United States Department of Health and Human Services Dietary guidelines for Americans 5th edition 2000 USDA Washington, DC
24. United States Department of Health and Human Services Healthy People 2010. With understanding and improving health, and objectives for improving health 2nd edition 2000 U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, DC
25. C. Power, and B.J. Jefferis Fetal environment and subsequent obesity: a study of maternal smoking Int J Epidemiol 31 2002 413 419
26. D. Dabelea, R.L. Hanson, and R.S. Lindsay Intrauterine exposure to diabetes conveys risk for type 2 diabetes and obesity: study of discordant sibships Diabetes 49 2000 2208
27. R. von Kries, B. Koletzko, and T. Sauerwald Breast feeding and obesity: cross sectional study BMJ 319 1999 147
28. E. Zephier, J.H. Himes, and M. Story Prevalence of overweight and obesity in American Indian School children and adolescents in the Aberdeen area: a population study Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23 Suppl 2 1999 S28 S30
29. M.K. Park, S.W. Menard, and J. Schoolfield Prevalence of overweight in a triethnic pediatric population of San Antonio, Texas Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25 3 2001 409 416
30. C.L. Ogden, R.P. Troiano, R.R. Briefel, R.J. Kuczmarski, K.M. Flegal, and C.L. Johnson Prevalence of overweight among preschool children in the United States, 1971 through 1994 Pediatrics 99 4 1997 E1
31. T.A. Melnik, S.J. Rhoades, K.R. Wales, C. Cowell, and W.S. Wolfe Overweight school children in New York City: prevalence estimates and characteristics Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 22 1 1998 7 13
32. T. Kitagawa, M. Owada, T. Urakami, and K. Yamauchi Increased incidence of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus among Japanese school children correlates with an increased intake of animal protein and fat Clin Pediatr (Phila) 37 2 1998 111 115
33. S. Likitmaskul, P. Kiattisathavee, K. Chaichanwatanakul, L. Punnakanta, K. Angsusingha, and C. Tuchinda Increasing prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in Thai children and adolescents associated with increasing prevalence of obesity J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 16 1 2003 71 77
34. J.N. Wei, F.C. Sung, C.C. Lin, R.S. Lin, C.C. Chiang, and L.M. Chuang National surveillance for type 2 diabetes mellitus in Taiwanese children JAMA 290 10 2003 1345 1350
35. S. Ehtisham, T.G. Barrett, and N.J. Shaw Type 2 diabetes mellitus in UK children - an emerging problem Diabet Med 17 12 2000 867 871
36. D. Allison, K. Fontaine, J. Manson, J. Stevens, and K. Vanltallie Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States JAMA 282 1999 1530 1538
37. A. Must, J. Spadano, E.H. Coakley, A.E. Field, G. Colditz, and W.H. Dietz The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity JAMA 282 16 1999 1523 1529
38. K. Fontaine, and S. Bartlett Estimating health-related quality of life in obese individuals Dis Manage Health Outcomes 3 1998 61 70
39. E.S. Ford, D.G. Moriarty, M.M. Zack, A.H. Mokdad, and D.P. Chapman Self-reported body mass index and health-related quality of life: findings from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Obes Res 9 2001 21 31
40. A.M. Wolf, and G.A. Colditz Current estimates of the economic cost of obesity in the United States Obes Res 6 1998 97
41. R. Sturm The effects of obesity, smoking, and problem drinking on chronic medical problems and health care costs Health Aff 21 2 2002 245 253
42. Story M, Sherwood NE, Himes JH, Davis M, Jacobs DR Jr, Cartwright Y et al. An after-school obesity prevention program for African-American girls: the Minnesota GEMS pilot study. Ethn Dis 2003;13(1)(Suppl 1):S54-64.
43. T. Baranowski, K.W. Cullen, T. Nicklas, D. Thompson, and J. Baranowski School-based obesity prevention: a blueprint for taming the epidemic Am J Health Behav 26 6 2002 486 493
44. L. Mo-suwan, S. Pongprapai, C. Junjana, and A. Puetpaiboon Effects of a controlled trial of a school-based exercise program on the obesity indexes of preschool children Am J Clin Nutr 68 5 1998 1006 1011
45. D. Neumark-Sztainer, M. Story, P.J. Hannan, and J. Rex New Moves: a school-based obesity prevention program for adolescent girls Prev Med 37 1 2003 41 51
46. M.R. Stolley, M.L. Fitzgibbon, A. Dyer, L. Van Horn, K. KauferChristoffel, and L. Schiffer Hip-Hop to Health Jr., an obesity prevention program for minority preschool children: baseline characteristics of participants Prev Med 36 3 2003 320 329
47. M.L. Fitzgibbon, M.R. Stolley, A.R. Dyer, L. VanHorn, and K. KauferChristoffel A community-based obesity prevention program for minority children: rationale and study design for Hip-Hop to Health Jr Prev Med 34 2 2002 289 297
48. S.M. Davis, S.B. Going, D.L. Helitzer, N.I. Teufel, P. Snyder, and J. Gittelsohn Pathways: a culturally appropriate obesity-prevention program for American Indian schoolchildren Am J Clin Nutr 69 4 Suppl 1999 796S 802S
49. J. Gittelsohn, M. Evans, D. Helitzer, J. Anliker, M. Story, and L. Metcalfe Formative research in a school-based obesity prevention program for Native American school children (Pathways) Health Educ Res 13 2 1998 251 265
50. R.W. Jeffery Community programs for obesity prevention: the Minnesota Heart Health Program Obes Res 3 Suppl 2 1995 283s 288s
51. R.W. Jeffery, C.W. Gray, S.A. French, W.L. Hellerstedt, D. Murray, and R.V. Luepker Evaluation of weight reduction in a community intervention for cardiovascular disease risk: changes in body mass index in the Minnesota Heart Health Program Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19 1 1995 30 39
52. J. Wylie-Rosett, C. Swencionis, M.H. Peters, E.A. Dornelas, L. Edlen-Nezin, and L.D. Kelly A weight reduction intervention that optimizes use of practitioner's time, lowers glucose level, and raises HDL cholesterol level in older adults J Am Diet Assoc 94 1 1994 37 42
53. L. Del Prete, C. English, M. Caldwell, S.W. Banspach, and C. Lefebvre Three-year follow-up of Pawtucket Heart Health's community-based weight loss programs Am J Health Promot 7 3 1993 182 187
54. C.B. Taylor, S.P. Fortmann, J. Flora, S. Kayman, D.C. Barrett, and D. Jatulis Effect of long-term community health education on body mass index. The Stanford Five-City Project Am J Epidemiol 134 3 1991 235 249
55. Kumanyika SK, Obarzanek E, Robinson TN, Beech BM. Phase 1 of the Girls Health Enrichment Multi-site Studies (GEMS): conclusion. Ethn Dis 2003;13(1)(Suppl 1):S88-91.
56. Beech BM, Klesges RC, Kumanyika SK, Murray DM, Klesges L, McClanahan B, et al. Child- and parent-targeted interventions: the Memphis GEMS pilot study. Ethn Dis 2003;13(1)(Suppl 1):S40-53.
57. S.M. Grundy, H.B. Brewer Jr., and J.I. Cleeman Definition of metabolic syndrome: report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24 2004 e13 e18
58. K.G. Alberti, and P.Z. Zimmet Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation Diabet Med 15 7 1998 539 553
59. D. Einhorn, G.M. Reaven, and R.H. Cobin American College of Endocrinology position statement on the insulin resistance syndrome Endocr Pract 9 2003 237 252
60. E.S. Ford, and W.H. Giles A comparison of the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome using two proposed definitions Diabetes Care 26 3 2003 575 581
61. G.M. Reaven Banting lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease Diabetes 37 12 1988 1595 1607
62. D.J. Brotman, and J.P. Girod The metabolic syndrome: a tug-of-war with no winner Cleve Clin J Med 69 12 2002 990 994
63. P. Bjorntorp, and R. Rosmond The metabolic syndrome-a neuroendocrine disorder? Br J Nutr 83 Suppl 1 2000 S49 S57
64. F. Kreier, A. Yilmaz, A. Kalsbeek, J.A. Romijn, H.P. Sauerwein, and E. Fliers Hypothesis: shifting the equilibrium from activity to food leads to autonomic unbalance and the metabolic syndrome Diabetes 52 11 2003 2652 2656
65. B.B. Duncan, and M.I. Schmidt Chronic activation of the innate immune system may underlie the metabolic syndrome Sao Paulo Med J 119 3 2001 122 127
66. M. Frohlich, A. Imhof, G. Berg, W.L. Hutchinson, M.B. Pepys, and H. Boeing Association between C-reactive protein and features of the metabolic syndrome: a population-based study Diabetes Care 23 12 2000 1835 1839
67. A. Festa, R. D'Agostino Jr., G. Howard, L. Mykkanen, R.P. Tracy, and S.M. Haffner Chronic subclinical inflammation as part of the insulin resistance syndrome: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS) Circulation 102 1 2000 42 47
68. E.S. Ford The metabolic syndrome and C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and leukocyte count: findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Atherosclerosis 168 2 2003 351 358
69. M. de Courten, P. Zimmet, A. Hodge, V. Collins, M. Nicolson, and M. Staten Hyperleptinaemia: the missing link in the metabolic syndrome? Diabet Med 14 3 1997 200 208
70. A.M. Hodge, E.J. Boyko, M. de Courten, P.Z. Zimmet, P. Chitson, and J. Tuomilehto Leptin and other components of the metabolic syndrome in Mauritius-a factor analysis Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25 1 2001 126 131
71. E.S. Ford Factor analysis and defining the metabolic syndrome Ethn Dis 13 4 2003 429 437
72. L. Groop Genetics of the metabolic syndrome Br J Nutr 83 Suppl 1 2000 S39 S48
73. E.S. Ford, W.H. Giles, and W.H. Dietz Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey JAMA 287 3 2002 356 359
74. B. Isomaa, P. Almgren, T. Tuomi, B. Forsen, K. Lahti, and M. Nissen Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome Diabetes Care 24 4 2001 683 689
75. R.L. Hanson, G. Imperatore, P.H. Bennett, and W.C. Knowler Components of the metabolic syndrome and incidence of type 2 diabetes Diabetes 51 10 2002 3120 3127
76. B.C. Solymoss, M.G. Bourassa, J. Lesperance, S. Levesque, M. Marcil, and S. Varga Incidence and clinical characteristics of the metabolic syndrome in patients with coronary artery disease Coron Artery Dis 14 3 2003 207 212
77. H.M. Lakka, D.E. Laaksonen, T.A. Lakka, L.K. Niskanen, E. Kumpusalo, and J. Tuomilehto The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men JAMA 288 21 2002 2709 2716
78. C.L. Scott Diagnosis, prevention, and intervention for the metabolic syndrome Am J Cardiol 92 1A 2003 35i 42i
79. R.J. Barnard, and S.J. Wen Exercise and diet in the prevention and control of the metabolic syndrome Sports Med 18 4 1994 218 228
80. G. Riccardi, and A.A. Rivellese Dietary treatment of the metabolic syndrome - the optimal diet Br J Nutr 83 Suppl 1 2000 S143 S148
81. P. Marckmann Dietary treatment of thrombogenic disorders related to the metabolic syndrome Br J Nutr 83 Suppl 1 2000 S121 S126
82. J. Steinberger, and S.R. Daniels Obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk in children: an American Heart Association scientific statement from the Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young Committee (Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young) and the Diabetes Committee (Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism) Circulation 107 10 2003 1448 1453
83. A.S. Greenberg The expanding scope of the metabolic syndrome and implications for the management of cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes with particular focus on the emerging role of the thiazolidinediones J Diabetes Complications 17 4 2003 218 228
84. R. Komers, and A. Vrana Thiazolidinediones-tools for the research of metabolic syndrome X Physiol Res 47 4 1998 215 225
85. American Diabetes Association (Committee Report). Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Care 22 Supplement 1 1999 S5 S19
86. California Healthcare Foundation/American Geriatrics Society Panel on Improving Care for Elders with Diabetes Guidelines for improving the care of the older person with diabetes mellitus J Am Geriatr Soc 51 Supplement #5 2003 S265 S280
87. E.W. Gregg, C.M. Mangione, J.A. Cauley, T.J. Thompson, A.V. Schwartz, and K.E. Ensrud Diabetes and incidence of functional disability in older women Diabetes Care 25 1 2002 61 67
88. E.W. Gregg, G.L. Beckles, D.F. Williamson, S.G. Leveille, J.A. Langlois, and M.M. Engelgau Diabetes and physical disability among older U.S. adults Diabetes Care 23 9 2000 1272 1277
89. S.M. Haffner Epidemiology of type 2 diabetes: risk factors Diabetes Care 21 Suppl 3 1998 C3 C6
90. F.B. Hu, R.J. Sigal, J.W. Rich-Edwards, G.A. Colditz, C.G. Solomon, and W.C. Willett Walking compared with vigorous physical activity and risk of type 2 diabetes in women: a prospective study JAMA 282 1999 1433 1439
91. F.B. Hu, T.Y. Li, G.A. Colditz, W.C. Willett, and J.E. Manson Television watching and other sedentary behaviors in relation to risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus in women JAMA 289 2003 1785 1791
92. G.A. Colditz, J.E. Manson, M.J. Stampfer, B. Rosner, W.C. Willett, and F.E. Speizer Diet and risk of clinical diabetes in women Am J Clin Nutr 55 1992 1018 1023
93. S. Liu Intake of refined carbohydrates and whole grain foods in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary heart disease J Am Coll Nutr 21 2002 298 306
94. D. Dabelea, R.L. Hanson, R.S. Lindsay, D.J. Pettitt, G. Imperatore, and M.M. Gabir Intrauterine exposure to diabetes conveys risks for type 2 diabetes and obesity: a study of discordant sibships Diabetes 49 2000 2208 2211
95. C.N. Hales, D.J. Barker, P.M. Clark, L.J. Cox, C. Fall, and C. Osmond Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64 BMJ 303 1991 1019 1022
96. D.J. Pettitt, M.R. Forman, R.L. Hanson, W.C. Knowler, and P.H. Bennett Breastfeeding and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians Lancet 350 1997 166 168
97. R. Kawate, M. Yamakido, Y. Nishimoto, P.H. Bennett, R.F. Hamman, and W.C. Knowler Diabetes mellitus and its vascular complications in Japanese migrants on the Island of Hawaii Diabetes Care 2 1979 161 170
98. E.S. Ford, D.F. Williamson, and S. Liu Weight change and diabetes incidence: findings from a national cohort of US adults Am J Epidemiol 146 1997 214 222
99. A.F. Amos, D.J. McCarty, and P. Zimmet The rising global burden of diabetes and its complications: estimates and projections to the year 2010 Diabet Med 15 Suppl 5 1997 S1 S5
100. K.M. Narayan, J.P. Boyle, T.J. Thompson, S.W. Sorensen, and D.F. Williamson Lifetime risk for diabetes mellitus in the United States JAMA 290 2003 1884 1890
101. K.F. Eriksson, and F. Lindgarde Prevention of type 2 (non-insulin- dependent) diabetes mellitus by diet and physical exercise. The 6-year Malmo feasibility study Diabetologia 34 1991 891 898
102. X.R. Pan, G.W. Li, Y.H. Hu, J.X. Wang, W.Y. Yang, and Z.X. An Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study Diabetes Care 20 1997 537 544
103. J. Tuomilehto, J. Lindstrom, J.G. Eriksson, T.T. Valle, H. Hamalainen, and P. Ilanne-Parikka Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance N Engl J Med 344 2001 1343 1350
104. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin N Engl J Med 346 2002 393 403
105. K.M. Narayan, E.W. Gregg, M.M. Engelgau, B. Moore, T.J. Thompson, and D.F. Williamson Translation research for chronic disease: the case of diabetes Diabetes Care 23 2000 1794 1798
106. S.A. Garfield, S. Malozowski, M.H. Chin, K.M. Venkat Narayan, R.E. Glasgow, and L.W. Green Considerations for diabetes translational research in real-world settings Diabetes Care 26 2003 2670 2674
107. Major cardiovascular disease (CVD) during 1997-1999 and major CVD hospital discharge rates in 1997 among women with diabetes-United States MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 50 43 2001 948 954
108. American Diabetes Association Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2002 Diabetes Care 26 2003 917 932
109. W.C. Perdue, L.A. Stone, and L.O. Gostin The built environment and its relationship to the public's health: the legal framework Am J Public Health 93 9 2003 1390 1394
110. C.L. Ogden, K.M. Flegal, M.D. Carroll, and C.L. Johnson Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000 JAMA 288 14 2002 1728 1732
111. J.P. Boyle, A.A. Honeycutt, K.M. Venkat Narayan, T.J. Hoerger, L.S. Geiss, and H. Chen Projection of diabetes burden through 2050: impact of changing demography and disease prevalence in the U.S Diabetes Care 24 11 2001 1936 1940
112. K.M. Flegal, and R.P. Troiano Changes in the distribution of body mass index of adults and children in the US population Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24 7 2000 807 818
113. L.S. Geiss Diabetes surveillance, 1999 1999 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Atlanta (GA)
114. K.M. Flegal, M.D. Carroll, R.J. Kuczmarski, and C.L. Johnson Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1960-1994 Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 22 1 1998 39 47
115. R.P. Troiano, and K.M. Flegal Overweight children and adolescents: description, epidemiology, and demographics Pediatrics 101 3 Pt 2 1998 497 504
116. American Heart Association. International cardiovascular disease statistics, biostatistical fact sheet. Available at: http://www.americanheart. org/statistics/biostats/bioin.htm Accessed September 1, 2004.
117. R.O. Bonow, L.A. Smaha, S.C. Smith Jr., G.A. Mensah, and C. Lenfant World Heart Day 2002: the international burden of cardiovascular disease: responding to the emerging global epidemic Circulation 106 13 2002 1602 1605
118. R. Uauy, C. Albala, and J. Kain Obesity trends in Latin America: transiting from under- to overweight J Nutr 131 3 2001 893S 899S
119. H. King, R.E. Aubert, and W.H. Herman Global burden of diabetes, 1995-2025: prevalence, numerical estimates, and projections Diabetes Care 21 9 1998 1414 1431
120. N.E. Sherwood, N. Morton, R.W. Jeffery, S.A. French, D. Neumark-Sztainer, and N.H. Falkner Consumer preferences in format and type of community-based weight control programs Am J Health Promot 13 1 1998 12 18
121. P.C. Deedwania Metabolic syndrome and vascular disease: is nature or nurture leading the new epidemic of cardiovascular disease? Circulation 109 2004 2 4
122. G.A. Mensah, R.A. Goodman, S. Zaza, A.D. Moulton, P.L. Kocher, and W.H. Dietz Law as a tool for preventing chronic diseases: expanding the range of effective public health strategies. Part 1 of 2 Preventing Chronic Dis 1 2004 1 8
123. G.A. Mensah, R.A. Goodman, S. Zaza, A.D. Moulton, P.L. Kocher, and W.H. Dietz Law as a tool for preventing chronic diseases: expanding the range of effective public health strategies. Part 2 of 2 Preventing Chronic Dis 4 2004 1 8