Cholesterol in neurologic disorders of the elderly: Stroke and Alzheimer's disease

Neurobiology of Aging

Volumn 25, Issue 8, 2004, Pages 977-989

  Reiss, Allison B ^a   Siller, Keith A ^a   Rahman, Mohammad M ^a   Chan, Edwin S L ^a   Ghiso, Jorge ^a   De Leon, Mony J ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Amyloid; ATP binding cassette A1; Cholesterol; CYP46; Oxysterols; Statins; Stroke

Indexed keywords

24 HYDROXYCHOLESTEROL; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ATORVASTATIN; CHOLESTEROL; CYTOCHROME P450; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MEVINOLIN; OXYGENASE; PRAVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN; STATIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BRAIN CELL; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG TOLERABILITY; HEART INFARCTION; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; LIPID DEGRADATION; MULTIINFARCT DEMENTIA; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT;

AGED; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYLOID BETA-PROTEIN; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHOLESTEROL; HUMANS; HYDROXYCHOLESTEROLS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; INTRACRANIAL ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; STEROID HYDROXYLASES;

EID: 2942752089     PISSN: 01974580     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2003.11.009     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Ames P.R., Margarita A., Delgado A.J., Tommasino C., Iannaccone L., Brancaccio V. Anticardiolipin antibody titre and plasma homocysteine level independently predict intima media thickness of carotid arteries in subjects with idiopathic antiphospholipid antibodies. Lupus. 11(4):2002;208-214
2. Anderson M., Elmberger P.G., Edlund C., Kristensson K., Dallner G. Rates of cholesterol, ubiquinone, dolichol, and dolichyl-P biosynthesis in rat brain slices. FEBS Lett. 269:1990;15-18
3. Anderson T.J., Meredith I.T., Yeung A.C., Frei B., Selwyn A.P., Ganz P. The effect of cholesterol-lowering and antioxidant therapy on endothelium-dependent vasomotion. N. Engl. J. Med. 332:1995;488-493
4. Ansell B.J. Cholesterol, stroke risk, and stroke prevention. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 2(2):2000;92-96
5. Benfante R., Yano K., Hwang L.J., Curb J.D., Kagan R.W. Elevated serum cholesterol is a risk factor for both coronary heart disease and thromboembolic stroke in Hawaiian Japanese men. Implications of shared risk. Stroke. 25:1994;814-820
6. Björkhem I. Do oxysterols control cholesterol homeostasis? J. Clin. Invest. 110(6):2002;725-730
7. Bloch K.E. Sterol structure and membrane function. CRC Crit. Rev. Biochem. 14:1983;47-92
8. Bonita R. Epidemiology of stroke. Lancet. 339:1992;342-344
9. Bots M.L., Hoes A.W., Koudstaal P.J., Hofman A., Grobbee D.E. Common carotid intima-media thickness and risk of stroke and myocardial infarction: the Rotterdam Study. Circulation. 96:1997;1432-1437
10. Botti J., Triscari H.Y., Pan J., Zayat J. Concentrations of pravastatin and lovastatin in cerebrospinal fluid in healthy subjects. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 14:1991;256-261
11. Brown B.G., Zhao X.Q., Sacco D.E., Albers J.J. Lipid lowering and plaque regression: new insights into prevention of plaque disruption and clinical events in coronary disease. Circulation. 87:1993;1781-1791
12. Calero M., Rostagno A., Matsubara E., Zlokovic B., Frangione B., Ghiso J. Apolipoprotein J (clusterin) and Alzheimer's disease. Microsc. Res. Tech. 50(4):2000;305-315
13. Cali J.J., Hsieh C., Francke U., Russell D.W. Mutations in the bile acid biosynthetic enzyme sterol 27-hydroxylase underlie cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. J. Biol. Chem. 266:1991;7779-7783
14. Christiansen-Weber T.A., Voland J.R., Wu Y., Ngo K., Roland B.L., Nguyen S., et al. Functional loss of ABCA1 in mice causes severe placental malformation, aberrant lipid distribution, and kidney glomerulonephritis as well as high-density lipoprotein cholesterol deficiency. Am. J. Pathol. 157(3):2000;1017-1029
15. Cook RP. Cholesterol. Chemistry, biochemistry, and pathology. New York: Academic Press; 1958. p. 1-542.
16. Corder E.H., Saunders A.M., Strittmatter W.J., Schmechel D.E., Gaskell P.C., Small G.W., et al. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families. Science. 261:1993;921-923
17. Costet P., Luo Y., Wang N., Tall A.R. Sterol-dependent transactivation of the ABC1 promoter by the liver X receptor/retinoid X receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 275(36):2000;28240-28245
18. Crisby M., Carlson L.A., Winblad B. Statins in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 16:2002;131-136
19. Crouse J.R., Byington R.P., Furberg C.D. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor therapy and stroke risk reduction: an analysis of clinical trials data. Atherosclerosis. 138:1998;11-24
20. Danik M., Champagne D., Petit-Turcotte C., Beffert U., Poirier J. Brain lipoprotein metabolism and its relation to neurodegenerative disease. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 13(4):1999;357-407
21. de Leon M.J., Convit A., Wolf O.T., Tarshish C.Y., De Santi S., Rusinek H., et al. Prediction of cognitive decline in normal elderly subjects with 2-[18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose/positron-emission tomography (FDG/PET). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:2001;10966-10971
22. Demchuk A.M., Hess D.C., Brass L.M., Yatsu F.M. Is cholesterol a risk factor for stroke? Yes. Arch. Neurol. 56:1999;1518-1520
23. Desai P., DeKosky S.T., Kamboh M.I. Genetic variation in the cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (CYP46) gene and the risk of Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci. Lett. 328(1):2002;9-12
24. Di Mascio R., Marchioli R., Tognoni G. Cholesterol reduction and stroke occurrence: an overview of randomized controlled trials. Cerebrovasc. Dis. 10:2000;85-92
25. Di Napoli P., Taccardi A.A., Oliver M., De Caterina R. Statins and stroke: evidence for cholesterol-independent effects. Eur. Heart J. 23(24):2002;1908-1921
26. Dietschy J.M., Kita T., Suckling K.E., Goldstein J.L., Brown M.S. Cholesterol synthesis in vivo and in vitro in the WHHL rabbit, an animal with defective low density lipoprotein receptors. J. Lipid Res. 24:1983;469-480
27. Endres M., Laufs U., Huang Z., Nakamura T., Huang P., Moskowitz M.A., et al. Stroke protection by 3-hydroxy-3-mehylglutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase inhibitors mediated by endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:1998;8880-8885
28. Falk E., Shah P.K., Fuster V. Coronary plaque disruption. Circulation. 92:1995;657-671
29. Farhangrazi Z.S., Ying H., Bu G., Dugan L.L., Fagan A.M., Choi D.W., et al. High density lipoprotein decreases beta-amyloid toxicity in cortical cell culture. Neuroreport. 8(5):1997;1127-1130
30. Fassbender K., Simons M., Bergmann C., Stroick M., Lutjohann D., Keller P., et al. Simvastatin strongly reduces levels of Alzheimer's disease beta-amyloid peptides Abeta 42 and Abeta 40 in vitro and in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 98(10):2001;5856-5861
31. Fielding C.J., Fielding P.E. Molecular physiology of reverse cholesterol transport. J. Lipid Res. 36:1995;211-228
32. Forte T.M., Bielicki J.K., Goth-Goldstein R., Selmek J., McCall M.R. Recruitment of cell phospholipids and cholesterol by apolipoproteins A-II and A-I: formation of nascent apolipoprotein-specific HDL that differ in size, phospholipid composition, and reactivity with LCAT. J. Lipid Res. 36(1):1995;148-157
33. Fu X., Menke J.G., Chen Y., Zhou G., MacNaul K.L., Wright S.D., et al. 27-Hydroxycholesterol is an endogenous ligand for LXR in cholesterol-loaded cells. J. Biol. Chem. 276(42):2001;38378-38387
34. Fujiyama J., Kuriyama M., Arima S., Shibata Y., Nagata K., Takenaga S., et al. Atherogenic risk factors in cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. Clinica Chimica Acta. 200:1991;1-12
35. Ghiso J., Frangione B. Cerebral amyloidosis, amyloid angiopathy, and their relationship to stroke and dementia. J. Alzheimers Dis. 3(1):2001;65-73
36. Gromadzka G., Uchacz I., Palasik W., Ryglewicz D., Korlak J., Czlonkowska A. Presence of immune complexes in ischemic stroke. Neurol. Neurochir. Pol. 33(2):1999;301-309
37. Hamon Y., Broccardo C., Chambenoit O., Lucuani M.F., Oti F., Chaslin S., et al. ABC1 promotes engulfment of apoptotic cells and transbilayer redistribution of phosphatidylserine. Nat. Cell Biol. 2:2000;399-406
38. Herrmann N. Cognitive pharmacotherapy of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. Can. J. Psychiatry. 47:2002;715-722
39. Hulthe J., Wikstrand J., Emanuelsson H., Wiklund O., de Feyter P., Wendelhag I. Atherosclerotic changes in the carotid artery bulb as measured by B-mode ultrasound are associated with the extent of coronary atherosclerosis. Stroke. 28:1997;1189-1194
40. Iso H.H., Jacobs D.R., Wentworth D., Neaton J.D., Cohen J.D. Serum cholesterol levels and six-year mortality from stroke in 350, 977 men screened for the multiple risk factor intervention trial. N. Engl. J. Med. 320:1989;904-910
41. Jackson SM, Ericsson J, Edwards PA. In: Bittman R, editor. Cholesterol: its functions and metabolism in biology and medicine. New York: Plenum Press; 1997. p. 1-22.
42. Jick H., Zornberg G.L., Jick S.S., Seshadri S., Drachman D.A. Statins and the risk of dementia. Lancet. 356(9242):2000;1627-1631
43. Joensuu T., Salonen R., Winblad I., Korpela H., Salonen J.T. Determinants of femoral and carotid artery atherosclerosis. J. Intern. Med. 236(1):1994;79-84
44. Jurevics H., Morell P. Cholesterol for synthesis of myelin is made locally, not imported into brain. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;895-901
45. Kalaria R. Similarities between Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. J. Neurol. Sci. 203/204:2002;29-34
46. Kalaria R.N. The blood-brain barrier and cerebrovascular pathology in Alzheimer's disease. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 893:1999;113-125
47. Khachaturian Z.S. Diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Arch. Neurol. 42:1985;1097-1105
48. Kiener P.A., Rankin B.M., Davis P.M., Yocum S.A., Warr G.A., Grove R.I. Immune complexes of LDL induce atherogenic responses in human monocytic cells. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 15:1995;990-999
49. Kneisel U., Wolburg H. Tight junctions of the blood-brain barrier. Cell Mol. Neurobiol. 20:2000;57-76
50. Knopp R.H. Drug treatment of lipid disorders. N. Engl. J. Med. 341:1999;498-511
51. Koldamova RP, Lefterov IM, Ikonomovic, MD, Skoko J, Lefterov PI, Isanski BA, DeKosky ST, Lazo JS. 22R-Hydroxycholesterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid induce ABCA1 transporter expression and cholesterol efflux in brain cells and decrease Abeta secretion. J Biol Chem 2003 (epublished).
52. Kolsch H., Lutjohann D., Ludwig M., Schulte A., Ptok U., Jessen F., et al. Polymorphism in the cholesterol 24S-hydroxylase gene is associated with Alzheimer's disease. Mol. Psychiatry. 7(8):2002;899-902
53. Koudinov A.R., Koudinova N.V. Essential role for cholesterol in synaptic plasticity and neuronal degeneration. FASEB J. 15:2001;1858-1860
54. Krieger M. The "best" of cholesterols, the "worst" of cholesterols: a tale of two receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95(8):1998;4077-4080
55. Kuipers F, Elferink RPJO, Verkade HJ, Groen AK. In: Bittman R, editor. Cholesterol: its functions and metabolism in biology and medicine. New York: Plenum Press; 1997. p. 295-318.
56. Langmann T., Klucken J., Reil M., Liebisch G., Luciani M.F., Chimini G., et al. Molecular cloning of the human ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 (hABC1): evidence for sterol-dependent regulation in macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257(1):1999;29-33
57. Lehmann J.M., Kliewer S.A., Moore L.B., Smith-Oliver T.A., Oliver B.B., Su J.L., et al. Activation of the nuclear receptor LXR by oxysterols defines a new hormone response pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 272:1997;3137-3140
58. Leoni V, Masterman T, Patel P, Meaney S, Diczfalusy U, Bjorkhem I. Side-chain oxidised oxysterols in cerebrospinal fluid and integrity of blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers. J Lipid Res 2003 (e-published ahead of print).
59. Liu Y. Understanding the biological activity of amyloid proteins in vitro: from inhibited cellular MTT reduction to altered cellular cholesterol homeostasis. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiat. 23:1999;377-395
60. Locatelli S., Lutjohann D., Schmidt H.H., Otto C., Beisiegel U., von Bergmann K. Reduction of plasma 24S-hydroxycholesterol (cerebrosterol) levels using high-dosage simvastatin in patients with hypercholesterolemia: evidence that simvastatin affects cholesterol metabolism in the human brain. Arch. Neurol. 59(2):2002;213-216
61. Lund E.G., Guileyardo J.M., Russell D.W. cDNA cloning of cholesterol 24-hydroxylase, a mediator of cholesterol homeostasis in the brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 96:1999;7238-7243
62. Lütjohann D., Bruer O., Ahlborg G., Nennesmo I., Sidén Å., Diczfalusy U., et al. Cholesterol homeostasis in human brain: evidence for an age-dependent flux of 24S-hydroxycholesterol from the brain into the circulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;9799-9804
63. Lutjohann D., Papassotiropoulos A., Bjorkhem I., Locatelli S., Bagli M., Oehring R.D., et al. Plasma 24S-hydroxycholesterol (cerebrosterol) is increased in Alzheimer and vascular demented patients. J. Lipid Res. 41:2000;195-198
64. Mathiesen E.B., Bønaa K.H., Joakimsen O. Echolucent plaques are associated with high risk of ischemic cerebrovascular events in carotid stenosis: the Tromsø Study. Circulation. 103:2001;2171-2175
65. McNeish J., Aiello R.J., Guyot D., Turi T., Gabel C., Aldinger C., et al. High density lipoprotein deficiency and foam cell accumulation in mice with targeted disruption of ATP-binding cassette transporter-1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 97:2000;4245-4250
66. Mercuri M., Bond M.G., Sitori C.R. Pravastatin reduces carotid intima-media thickness progression in an asymptomatic hypercholesterolemic Mediterranean population: the Carotid Atherosclerosis Italian Ultrasound Study. Am. J. Med. 101:1996;627-634
67. Meyer O. Atherosclerosis and connective tissue diseases. Joint Bone Spine. 68(6):2001;564-575
68. Morell P., Jurevics H. Origin of cholesterol in myelin. Neurochem. Res. 21(4):1996;463-470
69. sw mice. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 60:2001;778-785
70. National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2001. Hyattsville, Md: Public Health Service. 2001.
71. Nunan J., Small D.H. Proteolytic processing of the amyloid-beta protein precursor of Alzheimer's disease. Essays Biochem. 38:2002;37-49
72. O'Donnell T.F., Erdoes L., Mackey W.C., McCullough J., Shepard A., Heggerick P., et al. Correlation of B-mode ultrasound image and arteriography with pathologic findings at carotid endarterectomy. Arch. Surg. 120:1985;443-449
73. Oftebro H., Bjorkhem I., Skrede S., Shreiner A., Pedersen J.I. Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. J. Clin. Invest. 65:1980;1418-1430
74. Ohvo-Rekila H., Ramstedt B., Leppimaki P., Slotte J.P. Cholesterol interactions with phospholipids in membranes. Prog. Lipid Res. 41(1):2002;66-97
75. Olesen O.F., Dago L. High density lipoprotein inhibits assembly of amyloid beta-peptides into fibrils. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 270(1):2000;62-66
76. Oram J.F., Yokoyama S. Apolipoprotein-mediated removal of cellular cholesterol and phospholipids. J. Lipid Res. 37:1996;2473-2491
77. Papadakis J.A., Mikhailidis D.P., Winder A.F. Lipids and stroke: neglect of a useful preventive measure? Cardiovasc. Res. 40:1998;265-271
78. Papassotiropoulos A., Lutjohann D., Bagli M., Locatelli S., Jessen F., Rao M.L., et al. Plasma 24S-hydroxycholesterol: a peripheral indicator of neuronal degeneration and potential state marker for Alzheimer's disease. NeuroReport. 11:2000;1959-1962
79. Papassotiropoulos A., Streffer J.R., Tsolaki M., Schmid S., Thal D., Nicosia F., et al. Increased brain beta-amyloid load, phosphorylated tau, and risk of Alzheimer disease associated with an intronic CYP46 polymorphism. Arch. Neurol. 60(1):2003;29-35
80. Peet D.J., Turley S.D., Ma W., Janowski B.A., Lobaccaro J.M., Hammer R.E., et al. Cholesterol and bile acid metabolism are impaired in mice lacking the nuclear oxysterol receptor LXR. Cell. 93:1998;693-704
81. Polak J.F., Shemanski L., O'Leary D., Lefkowitz D.S., Price T.R., Savage P.J., et al. Hypoechoic plaque at US of the carotid artery: an independent risk factor for incident stroke in adults aged 65 years or older. Radiology. 208:1998;649-654
82. Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range of initial cholesterol levels: The Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1349-57.
83. Prospective Studies Collaboration. Cholesterol, diastolic blood pressure, and stroke: 13, 000 strokes in 450, 000 people in 45 prospective cohorts. Lancet 1995;346:1647-53.
84. Quion J.A., Jones P.H. Clinical pharmacokinetics of pravastatin. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 27:1994;94-103
85. Reese T.S., Karnovsky M.J. Fine structure localization of a BBB to exogenous peroxidase. J. Cell Biol. 36:1967;207-217
86. Refolo L.M., Pappolla M.A., LaFrancois J., Malester B., Schmidt S.D., Thomas-Bryant T., et al. A cholesterol-lowering drug reduces beta-amyloid pathology in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Dis. 8(5):2001;890-899
87. Refolo L.M., Pappolla M.A., Malester B., LaFrancois J., Bryant-Thomas T., Wang R., et al. Hypercholesterolemia accelerates the Alzheimer's amyloid pathology in a transgenic mouse model. Neurobiol. Dis. 7:2000;321-331
88. Reinhart M.P., Billheimer J.T., Faust J.R., Gaylor J.L. Subcellular localization of the enzymes of cholesterol biosynthesis and metabolism in rat liver. J. Biol. Chem. 262(20):1987;9649-9655
89. Reiss A.B., Awadallah N.W., Cronstein B.N. Cytochrome P450 cholesterol 27-hydroxylase: an anti-atherogenic enzyme. Recent Res. Devel Lipids Res. 4:2000;39-50
90. Reiss A.B., Awadallah N.W., Malhotra S., Montesinos M.C., Chan E.S.L., Javitt N.B., et al. Immune complexes and interferon-γ decrease cholesterol 27-hydroxylase in human arterial endothelium and macrophages. J. Lipid Res. 42(11):2001;1913-1922
91. Reiss A.B., Hammerschlag M.R., Awadallah N.W., Roblin P.M., Chan E.S.L., Cronstein B.N. Immune modulation of cholesterol homeostasis. Recent Res. Devel Protein Eng. 1:2001;21-38
92. Rockwood K., Kirkland S., Hogan D.B., MacKnight C., Merry H., Verreault R., et al. Use of lipid-lowering agents, indication bias, and the risk of dementia in community-dwelling elderly people. Arch. Neurol. 59:2002;223-227
93. Rothblat G.H., Mahlberg F.H., Johnson W.J., Phillips M.C. Apolipoproteins, membrane cholesterol domains, and the regulation of cholesterol efflux. J. Lipid Res. 33(8):1992;1091-1097
94. Rust S., Rosier M., Funke H., Real J., Amoura Z., Piette J.C., et al. Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1. Nat. Genet. 22(4):1999;352-355
95. Sacco R.L., Benson R.T., Kargman D.E., Boden-Albala B., Tuck C., Lin I.F., et al. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and ischemic stroke in the elderly: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. JAMA. 285(21):2001;2729-2735
96. Schwartz K., Lawn R.M., Wade D.P. ABC1 gene expression and ApoA-I-mediated cholesterol efflux are regulated by LXR. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 274(3):2000;794-802
97. Segrest J.P., Jones M.K., DeLoof H., Brouillette C.G., Venkatachalapathi Y.V., Anantharamaiah G.M. The amphipathic helix in the exchangeable apolipoproteins: a review of secondary structure and function. J. Lipid Res. 33:1992;141-166
98. Selkoe D.J. Cell biology of the amyloid beta-protein precursor and the mechanism of Alzheimer's disease. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 10:1994;373-403
99. Shiomi M., Ito T., Tsukada T., Yata T., Watanabe Y., Tsujita Y., et al. Reduction of serum cholesterol levels alters lesional composition of atherosclerotic plaques: effect of pravastatin sodium on atherosclerosis in mature WHHL rabbits. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 15:1995;1938-1944
100. Simons K., Ikonen E. How cells handle cholesterol. Science. 290(5497):2000;1721-1726
101. Simons M., Keller P., De Strooper B., Beyreuther K., Dotti C.G., Simons K. Cholesterol depletion inhibits the generation of beta-amyloid in hippocampal neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95(11):1998;6460-6464
102. Simons M., Schwarzler F., Lutjohann D., von Bergmann K., Beyreuther K., Dichgans J., et al. Treatment with simvastatin in normocholesterolemic patients with Alzheimer's disease: a 26-week randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Ann. Neurol. 52(3):2002;346-350
103. Skoog I., Wallin A., Fredman P., Hesse C., Aevarsson O., Karlsson I., et al. A population study on blood-brain barrier function in 85-year-olds: relation to Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Neurology. 50:1998;966-971
104. Snowdon D.A., Greiner L.H., Mortimer J.A., Riley K.P., Greiner P.A., Marksbery W.R. Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease. The Nun Study. JAMA. 277:1997;813-817
105. Spady D.K., Dietschy J.M. Sterol synthesis in vivo in 18 tissues of the squirrel monkey, guinea pig, rabbit, hamster and rat. J. Lipid Res. 24:1983;303-315
106. Sparks D.L., Scheff S.W., Hunsaker J.C. III, Liu H., Landers T., Gross D.R. Induction of Alzheimer-like beta-amyloid immunoreactive in the brains of rabbits with dietary cholesterol. Exp. Neurol. 126:1994;88-94
107. Sparks D.L. Intraneuronal beta-amyloid immunoreactivity in the CNS. Neurobiol. Aging. 17:1996;291-299
108. Stensland-Bugge E., Bonaa K.H., Joakimsen O. Age and sex differences in the relationship between inherited and lifestyle risk factors and subclinical carotid atherosclerosis: the Tromso study. Atherosclerosis. 154(2):2001;437-448
109. Stephens DJ, Walters CE, Davies H, Austen BM, The role of cholesterol in the biosynthesis of beta-amyloid. In: Frears ER, editor. Neuroreport, vol. 10. 1999. p. 1699-705.
110. Subasinghe S., Unabia S., Barrow C.J., Mok S.S., Aguilar M.I., Small D.H. Cholesterol is necessary both for the toxic effect of Abeta peptides on vascular smooth muscle cells and for Abeta binding to vascular smooth muscle cell membranes. J. Neurochem. 84(3):2003;471-479
111. Tell G.S., Crouse J.R., Furberg C.D. Relation between blood lipids, lipoproteins, and cerebrovascular atherosclerosis: a review. Stroke. 19:1988;423-430
112. Tsuji A., Saheki A., Tamai I., Terasaki T. Transport mechanism of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors at the blood-brain barrier. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 267:1993;1085-1090
113. Vaughan C.J., Delanty N., Basson C.T. Statin therapy and stroke prevention. Curr. Opin. Cardiol. 16(4):2001;219-224
114. Vaughan C.J., Gotto A.M., Basson C.T. The evolving role of statins in the management of atherosclerosis. J. Am. Coll Cardiol. 35:2000;1-10
115. Vaughan C.J., Murphy M.B., Buckley B.M. Statins do more than just lower cholesterol. Lancet. 348:1996;1079-1082
116. Vaya J., Aviram M., Mahmood S., Hayek T., Grenadir E., Hoffman A., et al. Selective distribution of oxysterols in atherosclerotic lesions and human plasma lipoproteins. Free Radic. Res. 34(5):2001;485-497
117. Walter M., Gerdes U., Seedorf U., Assmann G. The high density lipoprotein- and apolipoprotein A-I-induced mobilization of cellular cholesterol is impaired in fibroblasts from Tangier disease subjects. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 205:1994;850-856
118. Wick G., Schett G., Amberger A., Kleindienst R., Xu Q. Is atherosclerosis an immunologically mediated disease? Immunol. Today. 16:1995;27-33
119. Wikstrand J., Wiklund O. Frontiers in cardiovascular science: quantitative measurements of atherosclerosis manifestations in humans. Arterioscler. Thromb. 12:1992;114-119
120. Willy P.J., Mangelsdorf D.J. Unique requirements for retinoid-dependent transcriptional activation by the orphan receptor LXR. Genes Dev. 11(3):1997;289-298
121. Wilson J.D. The measurement of the exchangeable pools of cholesterol in the baboon. J. Clin. Invest. 49:1970;655-665
122. Wollmer M.A., Streffer J.R., Lutjohann D., Tsolaki M., Iakovidou V., Hegi T. Papassotiropoulos A. ABCA1 modulates CSF cholesterol levels and influences the age at onset of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging. 24(3):2003;421-426
123. Wolozin B., Kellman W., Ruosseau P., Celesia G.G., Siegel G. Decreased prevalence of Alzheimer disease associated with 3-hydroxy-3-methyglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors. Arch. Neurol. 57(10):2000;1439-1443
124. Xavier A.R., Siddiqui A.M., Kirmani J.F., Hanel R.A., Yahia A.M., Qureshi A.I. Clinical potential of intra-arterial thrombolytic therapy in patients with acute ischaemic stroke. CNS Drugs. 17:2003;213-224
125. Yankner B.A., Dawes L.R., Fisher S., Villa-Komaroff L., Oster-Granite M.L., Neve R.L. Neurotoxicity of fragment of the amyloid precursor associated with Alzheimer's disease. Science. 245:1989;417-420
126. Yankner B.A., Duffy L.K., Kirschner D.A. Neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects of amyloid beta protein: reversal by tachykinin neuropeptides. Science. 250:1990;279-282
127. Yankner B.A. Mechanisms of neuronal degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron. 16:1996;921-932
128. Yokoyama S. Apolipoprotein-mediated cellular cholesterol efflux. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1392:1998;1-15
129. Younkin S.G. Evidence that A-beta 42 is the real culprit in Alzheimer's disease. Annu. Neurol. 37:1995;287-288
130. Zheng Z., Lee J.E., Yenari M.A. Stroke: molecular mechanisms and potential targets for treatment. Curr. Mol. Med. 3:2003;361-372