Molecular Tools and Infectious Disease Epidemiology

Molecular Tools and Infectious Disease Epidemiology

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1-215

  Foxman, Betsy ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85147080610     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/C2009-0-01643-2     Document Type: Book

References (282)

1. B. Foxman and L. Riley (2001) Molecular epidemiology: focus on infection. Am. J. Epidemiol 153(12), 1135-1141.
2. S.H. Kaufmann and U.E. Schaible (2005) 100th anniversary of Robert Koch's Nobel Prize for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus. Trends Microbiol 13(10), 469-475.
3. R. Zetterstrom (2007) Nobel Prizes for discovering the cause of malaria and the means of bringing the disease under control: hopes and disappointments. Acta. Paediatr 96(10), 1546-1550.
4. T.N. Raju (1998) The Nobel chronicles. 1928: Charles Jules Henry Nicolle (1866–1936). Lancet 352(9142), 1791.
5. T.M. Daniel (2004) Wade Hampton Frost: Pioneer Epidemiologist, 1880–1938 Rochester: University of Rochester Press
6. N. Munoz, F.X. Bosch, S. de Sanjose, et al. (1992) The causal link between human papillomavirus and invasive cervical cancer: a population-based case-control study in Colombia and Spain. Int. J. Cancer 52(5), 743-749.
7. L.A. Koutsky, K.K. Holmes, C.W. Critchlow, et al. (1992) A cohort study of the risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or 3 in relation to papillomavirus infection. N. Engl. J. Med 327(18), 1272-1278.
8. Y. Chang, E. Cesarman, M.S. Pessin, et al. (1994) Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Science 266(5192), 1865-1869.
9. J.E. Golub, W.A. Cronin, O.O. Obasanjo, et al. (2001) Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis through casual contact with an infectious case. Arch. Intern. Med 161(18), 2254-2258.
10. R.M. Robins-Browne and E.L. Hartland (2002) Escherichia coli as a cause of diarrhea. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol 17(4), 467-475.
11. C. Drosten, W. Preiser, S. Gunther, et al. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome: identification of the etiological agent. Trends Mol. Med 9(8), 325-327.
12. C.Y. Ou, C.A. Ciesielski, G. Myers, et al. (1992) Molecular epidemiology of HIV transmission in a dental practice. Science 256(5060), 1165-1171.
13. L.B. Seeff (1990) Yellow fever vaccine-associated hepatitis epidemic during World War II: follow-up more than 40 years later. W.F. Page (Ed.) Epidemiology in Military and Veteran Populations: Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference, March 7, 1990 The National Academies Press 9-18.
14. L.H. Tobler and M.P. Busch (1997) History of posttransfusion hepatitis. Clin. Chem 43(8 Pt 2), 1487-1493.
15. J.C. Booth (1998) Chronic hepatitis C: the virus, its discovery and the natural history of the disease. J. Viral Hepat 5(4), 213-222.
16. G.L. Gitnick (1972) Australia antigen and the revolution in hepatology. Calif. Med 116(4), 28-34.
17. A.M. Prince (1969) Relation between SH and Australia antigens. N. Engl. J. Med 280(11), 617-618.
18. A.M. Prince (1968) An antigen detected in the blood during the incubation period of serum hepatitis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 60(3), 814-821.
19. T. Miyamura, I. Saito, T. Katayama, et al. (1990) Detection of antibody against antigen expressed by molecularly cloned hepatitis C virus cDNA: application to diagnosis and blood screening for posttransfusion hepatitis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87(3), 983-987.
20. G. Gitnick, S. Weiss, L.R. Overby, et al. (1983) Non-A, non-B hepatitis: a prospective study of a hemodialysis outbreak with evaluation of a serologic marker in patients and staff. Hepatology 3(5), 625-630.
21. National Center for Biotechnology Information, Medicine U. N. L. o. SARS CoV [Internet]. Rockville: 2009. Updated: September 26, 2009; Accessed: December 14, 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/SARS/SARS.html.
22. D.M. Haas, C.A. Flowers and C.L. Congdon (2005) Rubella, rubeola, and mumps in pregnant women: susceptibilities and strategies for testing and vaccinating. Obstet. Gynecol 106(2), 295-300.
23. A. Hildesheim, P. Gravitt, M.H. Schiffman, et al. (1993) Determinants of genital human papillomavirus infection in low-income women in Washington, D.C. Sex Transm. Dis 20(5), 279-285.
24. B.S. Hulka (1982) Risk factors for cervical cancer. J. Chronic. Dis 35(1), 3-11.
25. M.H. Schiffman and A. Schatzkin (1994) Test reliability is critically important to molecular epidemiology: an example from studies of human papillomavirus infection and cervical neoplasia. Cancer Res 54(Suppl. 7), 1944s-1947s.
26. A.G. Dean, K.M. Sullivan, M. Soe, OpenEpi: Open source epidemiologic statistics for public health, Version 2.3.
27. L. Zhang, B.W. Gillespie, C.F. Marrs, et al. (2001) Optimization of a fluorescent-based phosphor imaging dot blot DNA hybridization assay to assess E. coli virulence gene profiles. J. Microbiol. Methods 44(3), 225-233.
28. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases [Internet]. Updated: September 5, 2008; Accessed: December 14, 2009. Available at: http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/emerging/list.htm.
29. G.P. Schmidt and H. Loeweneck (1975) Frequency of the retroaortic left renal vein in adults (author's transl). Urol. Int 30(5), 332-340.
30. M.C. Enright (2003) The evolution of a resistant pathogen – the case of MRSA. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol 3(5), 474-479.
31. M. Aires de Sousa, T. Conceicao, C. Simas, et al. (2005) Comparison of genetic backgrounds of methicillin-resistant and -susceptible Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Portuguese hospitals and the community. J. Clin. Microbiol 43(10), 5150-5157.
32. T. Marth and D. Raoult (2003) Whipple's disease. Lancet 361(9353), 239-246.
33. J. Schachter (1999) Biology of Chlamydia trachomatis. K.K. Holmes, P.-A. Mardh, P.F. Saprling (Eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases third ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc 391-405.
34. H.M. Massa, A.W. Cripps and D. Lehmann (2009) Otitis media: Viruses, bacteria, biofilms and vaccines. Med. J. Aust 191(9), S44-S49.
35. B.B. Oakley, T.L. Fiedler, J.M. Marrazzo, et al. (2008) Diversity of human vaginal bacterial communities and associations with clinically defined bacterial vaginosis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol 74(15), 4898-4909.
36. S. Gagneux, M.V. Burgos, K. DeRiemer, et al. (2006) Impact of bacterial genetics on the transmission of isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS Pathog 2(6), e61.
37. R.P. Beasley, L.Y. Hwang, C.C. Lin, et al. (1981) Hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatitis B virus. A prospective study of 22,707 men in Taiwan. Lancet 2(8256), 1129-1133.
38. M.C. Kew (2003) Synergistic interaction between aflatoxin B1 and hepatitis B virus in hepatocarcinogenesis. Liver Int 23(6), 405-409.
39. H. Lo, C.M. Tang and R.M. Exley (2009) Mechanisms of avoidance of host immunity by Neisseria meningitidis and its effect on vaccine development. Lancet Infect. Dis 9(7), 418-427.
40. L. Guilherme and J. Kalil (2009) Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease: Cellular mechanisms leading autoimmune reactivity and disease. J. Clin. Immunol
41. R.R. Colwell, A. Huq, M.S. Islam, et al. (2003) Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100(3), 1051-1055.
42. J.R. Harris, D. Bergmire-Sweat, J.H. Schlegel, et al. (2009) Multistate outbreak of Salmonella infections associated with small turtle exposure, 20072008. Pediatrics 124(5), 1388-1394.
43. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Tuberculosis Elimination. Guide to the Application of Genotyping to Tuberculosis Prevention and Control. [Internet]. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/tb/programs/genotyping/Append/AppendixB_4_Core.htm, 2009 (Updated 1.6.09; accessed 5.8.10).
44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008) Multistate outbreak of human Salmonella infections caused by contaminated dry dog food United States, 2006-2007. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep 57(19), 521-524.
45. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Department of Informatics Shared Services. Public Health Surveillance Slide Set [Internet]. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncphi/disss/nndss/phs/overview.htm, 2009 (Updated 5.1.09; accessed 14.12.09).
46. M. Trostle, USAID: Infectious Diseases: Disease Surveillance: Overview. [Internet]. Washington, DC: United States Agency for International Development. Available at: http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/id/surveillance/ (accessed 25.2.10).
47. A.G. Mainous 3rd, W.J. Hueston, C.J. Everett, et al. (2006) Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S aureus in the United States, 20012002. Ann. Fam. Med 4(2), 132-137.
48. P.L. Lu, L.K. Siu, T.C. Chen, et al. (2009) Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Acinetobacter baumannii on computer interface surfaces of hospital wards and association with clinical isolates. BMC Infect. Dis 9 164.
49. B. Swaminathan, T.J. Barrett, S.B. Hunter, et al. (2001) PulseNet: The molecular subtyping network for foodborne bacterial disease surveillance, United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis 7(3), 382-389.
50. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006) Ongoing multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 infections associated with consumption of fresh spinach United States, September 2006. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep 55(38), 1045-1046.
51. V.I. Siarkou, D. Vitti, E. Protonotariou, et al. (2009) Molecular epidemiology of outbreak-related pseudomonas aeruginosa strains carrying the novel variant blaVIM-17 metallo-beta-lactamase gene. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 53(4), 1325-1330.
52. J.E. Golub, W.A. Cronin, O.O. Obasanjo, et al. (2001) Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis through casual contact with an infectious case. Arch. Intern. Med 161(18), 2254-2258.
53. D. Medini, D. Serruto, J. Parkhill, et al. (2008) Microbiology in the post-genomic era. Nat. Rev. Microbiol 6(6), 419-430.
54. M. Kibur, V. af Geijerstamm, E. Pukkala, et al. (2000) Attack rates of human papillomavirus type 16 and cervical neoplasia in primiparous women and field trial designs for HPV16 vaccination. Sex Transm. Infect 76(1), 13-17.
55. R. Guy, J. Gold, J.M. Calleja, et al. (2009) Accuracy of serological assays for detection of recent infection with HIV and estimation of population incidence: A systematic review. Lancet Infect. Dis 9(12), 747-759.
56. J. Simonsen, K. Molbak, G. Falkenhorst, et al. (2009) Estimation of incidences of infectious diseases based on antibody measurements. Stat. Med 28(14), 1882-1995.
57. B. Foxman, B. Gillespie, S.D. Manning, et al. (2006) Incidence and duration of group B Streptococcus by serotype among male and female college students living in a single dormitory. Am. J. Epidemiol 163(6), 544-551.
58. C. Gardella, Z. Brown, A. Wald, et al. (2005) Risk factors for herpes simplex virus transmission to pregnant women: A couples study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 193(6), 1891-1899.
59. B. Foxman, S.D. Manning, P. Tallman, et al. (2002) Uropathogenic Escherichia coli are more likely than commensal E. coli to be shared between heterosexual sex partners. Am. J. Epidemiol 156(12), 1133-1140.
60. S.D. Manning, K. Neighbors, P.A. Tallman, et al. (2004) Prevalence of group B streptococcus colonization and potential for transmission by casual contact in healthy young men and women. Clin. Infect. Dis 39(3), 380-388.
61. A.I. Khan, K.A. Talukder, S. Huq, et al. (2006) Detection of intra-familial transmission of shigella infection using conventional serotyping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Epidemiol. Infect 134(3), 605-611.
62. M.E. Kolader, N.H. Dukers, A.K. van der Bij, et al. (2006) Molecular epidemiology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, shows distinct heterosexual and homosexual networks. J. Clin. Microbiol 44(8), 2689-2697.
63. K. DeRiemer and C.L. Daley (2004) Tuberculosis transmission based on molecular epidemiologic research. Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med 25(3), 297-306.
64. B. Mathema, N.E. Kurepina, P.J. Bifani, et al. (2006) Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis: current insights. Clin. Microbiol. Rev 19(4), 658-685.
65. D. Lundback, H. Fredlund, T. Berglund, et al. (2006) Molecular epidemiology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae: identification of the first presumed Swedish transmission chain of an azithromycin-resistant strain. APMIS 114(1), 67-71.
66. G.V. Doern, S.S. Richter, A. Miller, et al. (2005) Antimicrobial resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: have we begun to turn the corner on resistance to certain antimicrobial classes? Clin. Infect. Dis 41(2), 139-148.
67. J. Reidl and K.E. Klose (2002) Vibrio cholerae and cholera: out of the water and into the host. FEMS Microbiol. Rev 26(2), 125-139.
68. NNIS System (2004) National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am. J. Infect. Control 32(8), 470-485.
69. T.S. Naimi, K.H. LeDell, K. Como-Sabetti, et al. (2003) Comparison of community- and health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. JAMA 290(22), 2976-2984.
70. K.E. Sabol, K.L. Echevarria and J.S. Lewis 2nd (2006) Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: new bug, old drugs. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 40(6), 1125-1133.
71. K. Van Reeth (2007) Avian and swine influenza viruses: our current understanding of the zoonotic risk. Vet. Res 38(2), 243-260.
72. D.M. Morens, J.K. Taubenberger and A.S. Fauci (2009) The persistent legacy of the 1918 influenza virus. N. Engl. J. Med 361(3), 225-229.
73. V.C. Cheng, S.K. Lau, P.C. Woo, et al. (2007) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection. Clin. Microbiol. Rev 20(4), 660-694.
74. World Health Organization. SARS: Cumulative Number of Reported Cases: Total Number of Cases. 2671 as of 8 April, 2003 14:30 GMT+2 [Internet]. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/sars/SARS2003_4_8.jpg, 2003 (accessed 5.8.10).
75. R.A. Weinstein (2004) Planning for epidemics: the lessons of SARS. N. Engl. J. Med 350(23), 2332-2334.
76. A. Berger, C. Drosten, H.W. Doerr, et al. (2004) Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): paradigm of an emerging viral infection. J. Clin. Virol 29(1), 13-22.
77. T.G. Ksiazek, D. Erdman, C.S. Goldsmith, et al. (2003) A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med 348(20), 1953-1966.
78. M.L. Metzker, D.P. Mindell, X.M. Liu, et al. (2002) Molecular evidence of HIV-1 transmission in a criminal case. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99(22), 14292-14297.
79. M.D. Saad, A.M. Shcherbinskaya, Y. Nadai, et al. (2006) Molecular epidemiology of HIV Type 1 in Ukraine: birthplace of an epidemic. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 22(8), 709-714.
80. Y. Chang, E. Cesarman, M.S. Pessin, et al. (1994) Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Science 266(5192), 1865-1869.
81. P.S. Moore and Y. Chang (1995) Detection of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with and without HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med 332(18), 1181-1185.
82. Y. Chang, J. Ziegler, H. Wabinga, et al. (1996) Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and Kaposi's sarcoma in Africa. Uganda Kaposi's Sarcoma Study Group. Arch. Intern. Med 156(2), 202-204.
83. S.J. Gao, L. Kingsley, D.R. Hoover, et al. (1996) Seroconversion to antibodies against Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-related latent nuclear antigens before the development of Kaposi's sarcoma. N. Engl. J. Med 335(4), 233-241.
84. P.S. Moore, L.A. Kingsley, S.D. Holmberg, et al. (1996) Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection prior to onset of Kaposi's sarcoma. AIDS 10(2), 175-180.
85. M. Durst, L. Gissmann, H. Ikenberg, et al. (1983) A papillomavirus DNA from a cervical carcinoma and its prevalence in cancer biopsy samples from different geographic regions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80(12), 3812-3815.
86. L. Koutsky (2009) The epidemiology behind the HPV vaccine discovery. Ann. Epidemiol 19(4), 239-244.
87. Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Pathogen Genomics [Internet]. Available at: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/Pathogens/ (accessed 5.8.09).
88. M.M. Pettigrew, B. Foxman, C.F. Marrs, et al. (2002) Identification of the lipooligosaccharide biosynthesis gene lic2B as a putative virulence factor in strains of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae that cause otitis media. Infect. Immun 70(7), 3551-3556.
89. Q. Li, A.J. Smith, T.W. Schacker, et al. (2009) Microarray analysis of lymphatic tissue reveals stage-specific, gene expression signatures in HIV-1 infection. J. Immunol 183(3), 1975-1982.
90. J.M. Fitzpatrick, E. Peak, S. Perally, et al. (2009) Anti-schistosomal intervention targets identified by lifecycle transcriptomic analyses. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis 3(11), e543.
91. J. Bagaitkar, L.R. Williams, D.E. Renaud, et al. (2009) Tobacco-induced alterations to Porphyromonas gingivalis-host interactions. Environ. Microbiol 11(5), 1242-1253.
92. C.L. Meinert and S. Tonascia (1986) Clinical Trials: Design, Conduct, and Analysis. Monographs in Epidemiology and Biostatistics vol. 8 New York: Oxford University Press
93. J.-M. Garcia, N. Lagarde, E.S.K. Ma, et al. (2010) Optimization and evaluation of an influenza A (H5) pseudotyped lentiviral particle-based serological assay. J. Clin. Virol 47(1), 29-33.
94. D.R. Mayo and W.H. Beckwith 3rd (2002) Inactivation of West Nile virus during serologic testing and transport. J. Clin. Microbiol 40(8), 3044-3046.
95. P. Tunback, T. Bergstrom, B.A. Claesson, et al. (2007) Early acquisition of herpes simplex virus type 1 antibodies in children–a longitudinal serological study. J. Clin. Virol 40(1), 26-30.
96. C. Janson, H. Asbjornsdottir, A. Birgisdottir, et al. (2007) The effect of infectious burden on the prevalence of atopy and respiratory allergies in Iceland, Estonia, and Sweden. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol 120(3), 673-679.
97. A. Aschengrau and G.R. Seage (2008) Essentials of Epidemiology in Public Health second ed. Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers
98. A.G. Rundle, P. Vineis and H. Ahsan (2005) Design options for molecular epidemiology research within cohort studies. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev 14(8), 1899-1907.
99. S. Sutcliffe, E. Giovannucci, J.F. Alderete, et al. (2006) Plasma antibodies against Trichomonas vaginalis and subsequent risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev 15(5), 939-945.
100. H. Rakotonirina, C. Barnadas, R. Raherijafy, et al. (2008) Accuracy and reliability of malaria diagnostic techniques for guiding febrile outpatient treatment in malaria-endemic countries. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 78(2), 217-221.
101. J.S. Koopman, D.R. Prevots, M.A. Vaca Marin, et al. (1991) Determinants and predictors of dengue infection in Mexico. Am. J. Epidemiol 133(11), 1168-1178.
102. D. Werber, L. Beutin, R. Pichner, et al. (2008) Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli serogroups in food and patients, Germany. Emerg. Infect. Dis 14(11), 1803-1806.
103. B. Alberts, D. Bray, K. Hopkin, et al. (2004) Essential Cell Biology second ed. New York: Garland Science
104. P. Stanley, R.D. Cummings (2009) The A, B, and H blood groups. A. Varki, R.D. Cummings, J.D. Esko, H.H. Freeze, P. Stanley, C.R. Bertozzi, et al., (Eds) Essentials of Glycobiology second ed. Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
105. S. Linden, J. Mahdavi, C. Semino-Mora, et al. (2008) Role of ABO secretor status in mucosal innate immunity and H. pylori infection. PLoS Pathog 4(1), e2.
106. Genetics Home Reference: Your Guide to Understanding Genetic Conditions. Insertion Mutation [Internet]. Available at: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/illustrations/mutationtypes?show=insertion (accessed 14.8.10).
107. Genetics Home Reference: Your Guide to Understanding Genetic Conditions. Deletion mutation [Internet]. Available at: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/illustrations/mutationtypes?show=deletion (accessed 14.8.10).
108. Genetics Home Reference: Your Guide to Understanding Genetic Conditions. Frameshift mutation [Internet]. Available at: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/illustrations/frameshift (accessed 14.8.10).
109. S. Talarico, L. Zhang, C.F. Marrs, et al. (2008) Mycobacterium tuberculosis PE_PGRS16 and PE_PGRS26 genetic polymorphism among clinical isolates. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 88(4), 283-294.
110. D. Mazel (2006) Integrons: agents of bacterial evolution. Nat. Rev. Microbiol 4(8), 608-620.
111. A Basic Introduction to the Science Underlying NCBI Resources. Figure 4. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/genetics_cell.html (accessed 14.8.10).
112. A.A. Brakhage, M. Thon, P. Sprote, et al. (2009) Aspects on evolution of fungal beta-lactam biosynthesis gene clusters and recruitment of trans-acting factors. Phytochemistry 70(15-16), 1801-1811.
113. O. Johnsborg and L.S. Havarstein (2009) Regulation of natural genetic transformation and acquisition of transforming DNA in Streptococcus pneumoniae. FEMS Microbiol. Rev 33(3), 627-642.
114. M.N. Alekshun and S.B. Levy (2007) Molecular mechanisms of antibacterial multidrug resistance. Cell 128(6), 1037-1050.
115. A.D. O'Brien, J.W. Newland, S.F. Miller, et al. (1984) Shiga-like toxin-converting phages from Escherichia coli strains that cause hemorrhagic colitis or infantile diarrhea. Science 226(4675), 694-696.
116. Molecular Station. Molecular Station [Internet]. Available at: http://www.molecularstation.com/, 2008 (accessed 18.2.10).
117. J. Dale and M. Schantz M.v. (2007) From Genes to Genomes: Concepts and Applications of DNA Technology second ed. Hoboken: Wiley
118. Huntington's Outreach Project for Education at Stanford. Figure S-2: Gel Electrophoresis. Stanford University. Available at: http://hopes.stanford.edu/n3429/managing-d/genetic-testing(accessed 18.2.10).
119. R.A. Nichols, J.E. Moore and H.V. Smith (2006) A rapid method for extracting oocyst DNA from Cryptosporidium-positive human faeces for outbreak investigations. J. Microbiol. Methods 65(3), 512-524.
120. Y. Jiang, P.E. Jolly, P. Preko, et al. (2008) Aflatoxin-related immune dysfunction in health and in human immunodeficiency virus disease. Clin. Dev. Immunol 2008 790309.
121. J.F. Pissinate, I.T. Gomes, V. Peruhype-Magalhaes, et al. (2008) Upgrading the flow-cytometric analysis of anti-Leishmania immunoglobulins for the diagnosis of American tegumentary leishmaniasis. J. Immunol. Methods 336(2), 193-202.
122. W.G. Lee, Y.G. Kim, B.G. Chung, et al. (2009) Nano/microfluidics for diagnosis of infectious diseases in developing countries. Adv. Drug. Deliv. Rev
123. J.E. Fox, An Introduction to MALDI Mass Spectrometry [Internet]. Alta Bioscience: A University of Birmingham business. Available at: http://www.altabioscience.bham.ac.uk/pdfs/Intro_to_MALDI_MASS_SPEC.pdf, 2009 (accessed 14.8.2010).
124. B.C. van Munster, M.J. van Breemen, P.D. Moerland, et al. (2009) Proteomic profiling of plasma and serum in elderly patients with delirium. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci 21(3), 284-291.
125. J.M. Matos, F.A. Witzmann, O.W. Cummings, et al. (2009) A pilot study of proteomic profiles of human hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States. J. Surg. Res 155(2), 237-243.
126. H.B. Oh, S.O. Kim, C.H. Cha, et al. (2008) Identification of hepatitis C virus genotype 6 in Korean patients by analysis of 5′ untranslated region using a matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight-based assay, restriction fragment mass polymorphism. J. Med. Virol 80(10), 1712-1719.
127. A. Vierstraete, Principle of the PCR [Internet]. Ghent: Ghent University. Available at: http://users.ugent.be/~avierstr/principles/pcr.html, 1999 (Updated 08.11.99; accessed 17.2.10).
128. W.J. Mason, J.S. Blevins, K. Beenken, et al. (2001) Multiplex PCR protocol for the diagnosis of staphylococcal infection. J. Clin. Microbiol 39(9), 3332-3338.
129. D.T. McNamara, J.M. Thomson, L.J. Kasehagen, et al. (2004) Development of a multiplex PCR-ligase detection reaction assay for diagnosis of infection by the four parasite species causing malaria in humans. J. Clin. Microbiol 42(6), 2403-2410.
130. E.J. Nascimento, U. Braga-Neto, C.E. Calzavara-Silva, et al. (2009) Gene expression profiling during early acute febrile stage of dengue infection can predict the disease outcome. PLoS One 4(11), e7892.
131. L. Chen, I. Borozan, J. Sun, et al. (2009) Cell-type specific gene expression signature in liver underlies response to interferon therapy in chronic hepatitis C infection. Gastroenterology
132. H. Zhu, M. Liu, P. Sumby, et al. (2009) The secreted esterase of group a streptococcus is important for invasive skin infection and dissemination in mice. Infect. Immun 77(12), 5225-5232.
133. K.A. Eckert and T.A. Kunkel (1991) DNA polymerase fidelity and the polymerase chain reaction. PCR Methods Appl 1(1), 17-24.
134. R.M. Ratcliff, G. Chang, T. Kok, et al. (2007) Molecular diagnosis of medical viruses. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol 9(2), 87-102.
135. M. Hunt, Real Time PCR. in: Microbiology and Immunology On-line [Internet]. University of South Carolina School of Medicine. Available at: http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/pcr/realtime-home.htm, 2009 ([updated] 29.10.09; accessed 14.8.10).
136. M. Ronaghi (2001) Pyrosequencing sheds light on DNA sequencing. Genome Research 11(1), 3-11.
137. N. Shaw, The Sanger Method. Bloomington: Ned Shaw Studio; Available at: http://www.nedshaw.com
138. C. Hoffmann, N. Minkah, J. Leipzig, et al. (2007) DNA bar coding and pyrosequencing to identify rare HIV drug resistance mutations. Nucleic Acids Res 35(13), e91.
139. P. Parameswaran, R. Jalili, L. Tao, et al. (2007) A pyrosequencing-tailored nucleotide barcode design unveils opportunities for large-scale sample multiplexing. Nucleic Acids Res 35(19), e130.
140. M. Klouche and U. Schroder (2008) Rapid methods for diagnosis of bloodstream infections. Clin Chem Lab Med 46(7), 888-908.
141. R.A. Goldsby, T.J. Kindt and B.A. Osborne (2000) Kuby Immunology fourth ed. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company
142. Z. Wang, A.P. Malanoski, B. Lin, et al. (2008) Resequencing microarray probe design for typing genetically diverse viruses: human rhinoviruses and enteroviruses. BMC Genomics 9 577.
143. M. Uttamchandani, J.L. Neo, B.N. Ong, et al. (2009) Applications of microarrays in pathogen detection and biodefence. Trends Biotechnol 27(1), 53-61.
144. L. Zhang, U. Reddi, U. Srinivasan, et al. (2008) Combining microarray technology and molecular epidemiology to identify genes associated with invasive group B streptococcus. Interdiscip. Perspect. Infect. Dis 2008 314762.
145. A. Brazma, P. Hingamp, J. Quackenbush, et al. (2001) Minimum information about a microarray experiment (MIAME)-toward standards for microarray data. Nat. Genet 29(4), 365-371.
146. D.A. Sack, R.B. Sack, G.B. Nair, et al. (2004) Cholera. Lancet 363(9404), 223-233.
147. V. Nair and M. Zavolan (2006) Virus-encoded microRNAs: novel regulators of gene expression. Trends Microbiol 14(4), 169-175.
148. E.C. Holmes (2008) Evolutionary history and phylogeography of human viruses. Ann. Rev. Microbiol 62 307-328.
149. A.E. Fiore, D.K. Shay, K. Broder, et al. (2008 Aug 8) Prevention and control of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2008. MMWR Recomm Rep 57(RR-7), 1-60.
150. Division of Viral Hepatitis and National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Hepatitis B Information for Health Professionals [Internet], CDC; 2008, Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HBV/index.htm (Updated 3.12.09; accessed 18.2.10).
151. I. Mokrousov (2009) Corynebacterium diphtheriae: genome diversity, population structure and genotyping perspectives. Infect. Genet. Evol 9(1), 1-15.
152. Y. Saito-Nakano, K. Tanabe, K. Kamei, et al. (2008) Genetic evidence for Plasmodium falciparum resistance to chloroquine and pyrimethamine in Indochina and the Western Pacific between 1984 and 1998. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 79(4), 613-619.
153. S.E. McNamara, U. Srinivasan, L. Zhang, et al. (2009) Comparison of probe hybridization array typing to multilocus sequence typing for pathogenic Escherichia coli. J. Clin. Microbiol 47(3), 596-602.
154. Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork: MLST Databases at the ERI, University College Cork [website], Available at http://mlst.ucc.ie/mlst/dbs/Ecoli/documents (accessed 8.8.10).
155. A.C. Noller, M.C. McEllistrem, O.C. Stine, et al. (2003) Multilocus sequence typing reveals a lack of diversity among Escherichia coli O157:H7 isolates that are distinct by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J. Clin. Microbiol 41(2), 675-679.
156. H. Myrmel, E. Ulvestad and B. Asjo (2009) The hepatitis C virus enigma. APMIS 117(5-6), 427-439.
157. X. Forns and J. Bukh (1999) The molecular biology of hepatitis C virus. Genotypes and quasispecies. Clin. Liver Dis 3(4), 693-716. vii
158. E. Kanduma, T.D. McHugh and S.H. Gillespie (2003) Molecular methods for Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain typing: a users guide. J. Appl. Microbiol 94(5), 781-791.
159. R. Frothingham (1995) Differentiation of strains in Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex by DNA sequence polymorphisms, including rapid identification of M. bovis BCG. J. Clin. Microbiol 33(4), 840-844.
160. P. Gerner-Smidt, K. Hise, J. Kincaid, et al. (2006) PulseNet USA: a five-year update. Foodborne Pathog. Dis 3(1), 9-19.
161. Z. Wang, A.P. Malanoski, B. Lin, et al. (2008) Resequencing microarray probe design for typing genetically diverse viruses: human rhinoviruses and enteroviruses. BMC Genomics 9 577.
162. S.P. Gygi, Y. Rochon, B.R. Franza, et al. (1999) Correlation between protein and mRNA abundance in yeast. Mol. Cell. Biol 19(3), 1720-1730.
163. E.O. List, D.E. Berryman, B. Bower, et al. (2008) The use of proteomics to study infectious diseases. Infect. Disord. Drug Targets 8(1), 31-45.
164. A. Schwegmann and F. Brombacher (2008) Host-directed drug targeting of factors hijacked by pathogens. Sci. Signal 1(29), re8.
165. S. Ubol, P. Masrinoul, J. Chaijaruwanich, et al. (2008) Differences in global gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells indicate a significant role of the innate responses in progression of dengue fever but not dengue hemorrhagic fever. J. Infect. Dis 197(10), 1459-1467.
166. D.S. Merrell, S.M. Butler, F. Qadri, et al. (2002) Host-induced epidemic spread of the cholera bacterium. Nature 417(6889), 642-645.
167. P. Drevinek, M.T. Holden, Z. Ge, et al. (2008) Gene expression changes linked to antimicrobial resistance, oxidative stress, iron depletion and retained motility are observed when Burkholderia cenocepacia grows in cystic fibrosis sputum. BMC Infect. Dis 8 121.
168. The Office of NIH History: A Thin Blue Line: The History of the Pregnancy Test Kit [website], Available at: http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/thinblueline/timeline.html (accessed 8.8.10).
169. D.T. Fleming, G.M. McQuillan, R.E. Johnson, et al. (1997) Herpes simplex virus type 2 in the United States, 1976 to 1994. N. Engl. J. Med 337(16), 1105-1111.
170. M. Ndao (2009) Diagnosis of parasitic diseases: old and new approaches. Interdiscip. Perspect. Infect. Dis 2009 278246.
171. K.L. Seib, G. Dougan and R. Rappuoli (2009) The key role of genomics in modern vaccine and drug design for emerging infectious diseases. PLoS Genet 5(10), e1000612.
172. C.J. Clarke and J.N. Haselden (2008) Metabolic profiling as a tool for understanding mechanisms of toxicity. Toxicol. Pathol 36(1), 140-147.
173. J.P. Henderson, J.R. Crowley, J.S. Pinkner, et al. (2009) Quantitative metabolomics reveals an epigenetic blueprint for iron acquisition in uropathogenic Escherichia coli. PLoS Pathog 5(2), e1000305.
174. U. Himmelreich, R. Malik, T. Kuhn, et al. (2009) Rapid etiological classification of meningitis by NMR spectroscopy based on metabolite profiles and host response. PLoS One 4(4), e5328.
175. C.M. Slupsky, A. Cheypesh, D.V. Chao, et al. (2009) Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia induce distinct metabolic responses. J. Proteome Res 8(6), 3029-3036.
176. A.P. Feinberg, Genome-scale approaches to the epigenetics of common human disease, Virchows Arch. 456 (1) 13–21.
177. C.D. Bayliss (2009) Determinants of phase variation rate and the fitness implications of differing rates for bacterial pathogens and commensals. FEMS Microbiol. Rev 33(3), 504-520.
178. J. Huang (2009) Current progress in epigenetic research for hepatocarcinomagenesis. Sci. China C Life Sci 52(1), 31-42.
179. S. Zhong, M.W. Tang, W. Yeo, et al. (2002) Silencing of GSTP1 gene by CpG island DNA hypermethylation in HBV-associated hepatocellular carcinomas. Clin. Cancer Res 8(4), 1087-1092.
180. M. Emonts, A.G. Uitterlinden, J.L. Nouwen, et al. (2008) Host polymorphisms in interleukin 4, complement factor H, and C-reactive protein associated with nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and occurrence of boils. J. Infect. Dis 197(9), 1244-1253.
181. Z. Gao, C.H. Tseng, Z. Pei, et al. (2007) Molecular analysis of human forearm superficial skin bacterial biota. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 104(8), 2927-2932.
182. D. Cowan, Q. Meyer, W. Stafford, et al. (2005) Metagenomic gene discovery: past, present and future. Trends Biotechnol 23(6), 321-329.
183. J.M. Janda and S.L. Abbott (2007) 16S rRNA gene sequencing for bacterial identification in the diagnostic laboratory: pluses, perils, and pitfalls. J. Clin. Microbiol 45(9), 2761-2764.
184. B. Khanna, J.E. Spelbring, B.L. Innis, et al. (1992) Characterization of a genetic variant of human hepatitis A virus. J. Med. Virol 36(2), 118-124.
185. P. Martens, S.W. Worm, B. Lundgren, et al. (2004) Serotype-specific mortality from invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae disease revisited. BMC Infect. Dis 4 21.
186. E.M. Volz, S.L. Kosakovsky Pond, M.J. Ward, et al. (2009) Phylodynamics of infectious disease epidemics. Genetics 183(4), 1421-1430.
187. B.T. Grenfell, O.G. Pybus, J.R. Gog, et al. (2004) Unifying the epidemiological and evolutionary dynamics of pathogens. Science 303(5656), 327-332.
188. K. Yokoyama, K. Makino, Y. Kubota, et al. (2000) Complete nucleotide sequence of the prophage VT1-Sakai carrying the Shiga toxin 1 genes of the enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 strain derived from the Sakai outbreak. Gene 258(1-2), 127-139.
189. P. Roumagnac, F.X. Weill, C. Dolecek, et al. (2006) Evolutionary history of Salmonella typhi. Science 314(5803), 1301-1304.
190. H. Tettelin, V. Masignani, M.J. Cieslewicz, et al. (2005) Genome analysis of multiple pathogenic isolates of Streptococcus agalactiae: implications for the microbial "pan-genome". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 102(39), 13950-13955.
191. M. Touchon, C. Hoede, O. Tenaillon, et al. (2009) Organised genome dynamics in the Escherichia coli species results in highly diverse adaptive paths. PLoS Genet 5(1), e1000344.
192. M. Uttamchandani, J.L. Neo, B.N. Ong, et al. (2009) Applications of microarrays in pathogen detection and biodefence. Trends Biotechnol 27(1), 53-61.
193. S.B. Pounds (2006) Estimation and control of multiple testing error rates for microarray studies. Brief. Bioinform 7(1), 25-36.
194. E.L. Brodie, T.Z. Desantis, D.C. Joyner, et al. (2006) Application of a high-density oligonucleotide microarray approach to study bacterial population dynamics during uranium reduction and reoxidation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol 72(9), 6288-6298.
195. A. Kistler, P.C. Avila, S. Rouskin, et al. (2007) Pan-viral screening of respiratory tract infections in adults with and without asthma reveals unexpected human coronavirus and human rhinovirus diversity. J. Infect. Dis 196(6), 817-825.
196. N. Berthet, I. Leclercq, A. Dublineau, et al., High-density resequencing DNA microarrays in public health emergencies, Nat. Biotechnol. 28 (1) 25–27.
197. L. Zhang, U. Srinivasan, C.F. Marrs, et al. (2004) Library on a slide for bacterial comparative genomics. BMC Microbiol 4 12.
198. J.A. Maynard, R. Myhre and B. Roy (2007) Microarrays in infection and immunity. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol 11(3), 306-315.
199. O. Hungnes, T.O. Jonassen, C.M. Jonassen, et al. (2000) Molecular epidemiology of viral infections. How sequence information helps us understand the evolution and dissemination of viruses. APMIS 108(2), 81-97.
200. National Center for Biotechnology Information: Just the Facts. A Basic Introduction to the Science Underlying NCBI Resources. Systematics and Molecular Phylogenetics [website], Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/phylo.html (Updated 1.04.04; accessed 10.08.10).
201. A. Vierstraete, Phylogenetics [website], Available at: http://users.ugent.be/~avierstr/principles/phylogeny.html (Updated 11.08.99; accessed 10.08.10).
202. M. Dominguez, N. Jourdan-Da Silva, V. Vaillant, et al. (2009) Outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype Montevideo infections in France linked to consumption of cheese made from raw milk. Foodborne Pathog. Dis 6(1), 121-128.
203. R.S. Ross, S. Viazov, Y.E. Khudyakov, et al. (2009) Transmission of hepatitis C virus in an orthopedic hospital ward. J. Med. Virol 81(2), 249-257.
204. O.G. Pybus, M.A. Charleston, S. Gupta, et al. (2001) The epidemic behavior of the hepatitis C virus. Science 292(5525), 2323-2325.
205. E.C. Holmes (2008) Evolutionary history and phylogeography of human viruses. Annu. Rev. Microbiol 62 307-328.
206. R.D.M. Page and E.C. Holmes (1998) Molecular Evolution: A Phylogenetic Approach Oxford: Blackwell-Science Ltd.
207. B.G. Hall (2007) Phylogenetic Trees Made Easy: A How-To Manual third ed. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates, Incorporated
208. M.J. Claesson, O. O'Sullivan, Q. Wang, et al. (2009) Comparative analysis of pyrosequencing and a phylogenetic microarray for exploring microbial community structures in the human distal intestine. PLoS One 4(8), e6669.
209. N.T. Atkins, More on Bias (systematic) and Random Errors [website]. Lyndonville: Lyndon State College. Available at: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/remote/lecture_notes/measurements/bias_random_errors.html (Updated 7.1.2000; accessed 7.1.10).
210. L. Zhang, B.W. Gillespie, C.F. Marrs, et al. (2001) Optimization of a fluorescent-based phosphor imaging dot blot DNA hybridization assay to assess E. coli virulence gene profiles. J. Microbiol. Methods 44(3), 225-233.
211. B. Foxman, B. Gillespie, S.D. Manning, et al. (2006) Incidence and duration of group B Streptococcus by serotype among male and female college students living in a single dormitory. Am. J. Epidemiol 163(6), 544-551.
212. A. Rodriguez-Cortes, A. Ojeda, O. Francino, et al. (2010) Leishmania infection: laboratory diagnosing in the absence of a gold standard. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 82(2), 251-256.
213. S.G. Baker and B.S. Kramer (2006) Identifying genes that contribute most to good classification in microarrays. BMC Bioinformatics 7 407.
214. K.H. Zou, A.J. O'Malley and L. Mauri (2007) Receiver-operating characteristic analysis for evaluating diagnostic tests and predictive models. Circulation 115(5), 654-657.
215. L. Mauri, E.J. Orav, A.J. O'Malley, et al. (2005) Relationship of late loss in lumen diameter to coronary restenosis in sirolimus-eluting stents. Circulation 111(3), 321-327.
216. H. Guinto-Ocampo, J.E. Bennett and M.W. Attia (2008) Predicting pertussis in infants. Pediatr. Emerg. Care 24(1), 16-20.
217. J.C. Hageman, S.K. Fridkin, J.M. Mohammed, et al. (2003) Antimicrobial proficiency testing of National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System hospital laboratories. Infect. Control and Hosp. Epidemiol 24(5), 356-361.
218. M. Porta, I. Hernandez-Aguado, B. Lumbreras, et al. (2007) Omics research, monetization of intellectual property and fragmentation of knowledge: can clinical epidemiology strengthen integrative research? J. Clin. Epidemiol 60(12), 1220-1225. discussion 1226–8
219. D.J. Dlugos, T.M. Scattergood, T.N. Ferraro, et al. (2005) Recruitment rates and fear of phlebotomy in pediatric patients in a genetic study of epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 6(3), 444-446.
220. N.T. Holland, L. Pfleger, E. Berger, et al. (2005) Molecular epidemiology biomarkers – sample collection and processing considerations. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol 206(2), 261-268.
221. B. Foxman, L. Zhang, J. Koopman, et al. (2005) Choosing an appropriate bacterial typing technique for epidemiologic studies. Epidemiol. Perspect. Innov 2(1), 10.
222. S.L. Liang, M.T. Lin, M.J. Hafez, et al. (2008) Application of traditional clinical pathology quality control techniques to molecular pathology. J. Mol. Diagn 10(2), 142-146.
223. A.G. Dean, K.M. Sullivan, M. Soe, OpenEpi: Open Source Epidemiologic Statistics for Public Health (website), Version 2.3, Available at: http://www.openepi.com (accessed 08.08.10).
224. R.J.A. Little and D.B. Rubin (2002) Statistical Analysis with Missing Data Hoboken: Wiley
225. E.A. Archie, G. Luikart and V.O. Ezenwa (2009) Infecting epidemiology with genetics: A new frontier in disease ecology. Trends Ecol. Evol 24(1), 21-30.
226. J.M. Balada-Llasat, C. Elkins, L. Swyers, et al. (2010 Jul) Pseudo-outbreak of Cupriavidus pauculus at an outpatient clinic related to rinsing culturette swabs in tap water. J. Clin. Microbiol 48(7), 2645-2647.
227. D. Pillay, A. Rambaut, A.M. Geretti, et al. (2007) HIV phylogenetics. BMJ 335(7618), 460-461.
228. E.J. Feil, B.C. Li, D.M. Aanensen, et al. (2004) eBURST: inferring patterns of evolutionary descent among clusters of related bacterial genotypes from multilocus sequence typing data. J. Bacteriol 186(5), 1518-1530.
229. E.C. Holmes (2008) Evolutionary history and phylogeography of human viruses. Annu. Rev. Microbiol 62 307-328.
230. G.J. Smith, D. Vijaykrishna, J. Bahl, et al. (2009) Origins and evolutionary genomics of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic. Nature 459(7250), 1122-1125.
231. Rambaut A., Epidemiology and molecular clock analysis (website), Available at: http://tree.bio.ed.ac.uk/groups/influenza/wiki/4b60e/Epidemiology_and_molecular_clock_analysis.html, 2009 (Updated 10.05.09; accessed 08.08.10).
232. R.J. Garten, C.T. Davis, C.A. Russell, et al. (2009) Antigenic and genetic characteristics of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza viruses circulating in humans. Science 325(5937), 197-201.
233. L. Dethlefsen, S. Huse, M.L. Sogin, et al. (2008) The pervasive effects of an antibiotic on the human gut microbiota, as revealed by deep 16S rRNA sequencing. PLoS Biol 6(11), e280.
234. B. Foxman, L. Zhang, P. Tallman, et al. (1995) Virulence characteristics of Escherichia coli causing first urinary tract infection predict risk of second infection. J. Infect. Dis 172(6), 1536-1541.
235. K. Dietz (1993) The estimation of the basic reproduction number for infectious diseases. Stat. Methods Med. Res 2(1), 23-41.
236. E.M. Volz, S.L. Kosakovsky Pond, M.J. Ward, et al. (2009) Phylodynamics of infectious disease epidemics. Genetics 183(4), 1421-1430.
237. O.G. Pybus, M.A. Charleston, S. Gupta, et al. (2001) The epidemic behavior of the hepatitis C virus. Science 292(5525), 2323-2325.
238. C. Fraser, C.A. Donnelly, S. Cauchemez, et al. (2009) Pandemic potential of a strain of influenza A (H1N1): Early findings. Science 324(5934), 1557-1561.
239. P.K. Moonan, J. Oppong, B. Sahbazian, et al. (2006) What is the outcome of targeted tuberculosis screening based on universal genotyping and location? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 174(5), 599-604.
240. U. Nubel, P. Roumagnac, M. Feldkamp, et al. (2008) Frequent emergence and limited geographic dispersal of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 105(37), 14130-14135.
241. N.E. Kass (2001) An ethics framework for public health. Am. J. Public Health 91(11), 1776-1782.
242. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Office of Extramural Research, Glossary & Acronym List [website], Available at: http://grants.nih.gov/grants/glossary.htm (Updated 19.2.10; accessed 17.8.10).
243. A.L. Fairchild and R. Bayer (2004) Public health. Ethics and the conduct of public health surveillance. Science 303(5658), 631-632.
244. N. Riccardi and T. Monmaney (2000) King/Drew medical research suspended. voluntary action comes after regulators find two dozen violations of rules designed to protect human subjects and ensure credibility at south L.A. facility. Los Angeles Times April 27
245. R.L. Penslar, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services: Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP): IRB Guidebook [Internet], U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Available at: http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/irb/irb_guidebook.htm (accessed 17.8.10).
246. H. Jonas (1976) Freedom of scientific inquiry and the public interest. The accountability of science as an agent of social action. Hastings Cent. Rep 6(4), 15-18.
247. A.L. Caplan (1992) Twenty years after. The legacy of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. When evil intrudes. Hastings Cent. Rep 22(6), 294.
248. H. Edgar (1992) Twenty years after. The legacy of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Outside the community. Hastings Cent. Rep 22(6), 324.
249. P.A. King (1992) Twenty years after: The legacy of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The dangers of difference. Hastings Cent. Rep 22(6), 354.
250. H.K. Beecher (1966) Ethics and clinical research. N. Engl. J. Med 274(24), 1354-1360.
251. S. Spotswood, Department of Veterans Affairs Office of Inspector General. Healthcare Inspection: Human Subjects Protections Violations at the Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System Little Rock, Arkansas. VA Office of Inspector General. Washington, DC. August 6, 2008. Available at: http://www4.va.gov/oig/54/reports/VAOIG-07-03042-182.pdf
252. T.L. Beauchamp and J.F. Childress (2009) Principles of Biomedical Ethics sixth ed. New York: Oxford University Press
253. R.K. Zimmerman (2007) HPV vaccine and its recommendations. J. Fam. Pract. 2007 56(Suppl. Vaccines 2), S1-5. C1
254. National Institutes of Health, Office of Human Subjects Research, Regulations and Ethical Guidelines [website], Available at: http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/index.html (Updated 3.9.09; accessed 17.8.10).
255. R.B. Ness (2007) Influence of the HIPAA Privacy Rule on health research. JAMA 298(18), 2164-2170.
256. R. Hakimian, S. Taube, M. Bledsoe, et al., 50-State Survey of Laws Regulating the Collection, Storage, and Use of Human Tissue Specimens and Associated Data for Research. National Cancer Institute Cancer Diagnosis Program, National Cancer Institute Available at: http://cdp.cancer.gov/humanSpecimens/survey/index.htm
257. National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: National Cancer Institute Best Practices for Biospecimen Resources [pdf], Available at: http://biospecimens.cancer.gov/practices, 2007 (Updated 12.4.10; accessed 17.8.10).
258. J.B. Vaught, N. Lockhart, K.S. Thiel, et al. (2007) Ethical, legal, and policy issues: Dominating the biospecimen discussion. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev 16(12), 2521-2523.
259. G. Williams (2005) Bioethics and large-scale biobanking: individualistic ethics and collective projects. Genomics Soc. Policy 1(2), 50-66.
260. American College of Epidemiology (2002) Principles of Data Sharing. Policy Statement on Sharing Data from Epidemiologic Studies Raleigh: American College of Epidemiology 2–5
261. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee: About Us [website], Available at: http://www.iacuc.org/aboutus.htm (Updated 22.1.09; accessed 17.8.10).
262. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, et al. (2007) Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories fifth ed. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office US
263. American College of Epidemiology (2000) Ethics guidelines. Ann. Epidemiol 10(8), 487-497.
264. Public Health Leadership Society. Principles of the ethical practice of public health [website], National Network of Heath Institutes, Available at: http://phls.org/CMSuploads/Principles-of-the-Ethical-Practice-of-PH-Version-2.2-68496.pdf (Updated 11.3.10; accessed 11.3.10).
265. S.S. Coughlin (2006) Ethical issues in epidemiologic research and public health practice. Emerg. Themes Epidemiol 3 16.
266. C.L. Soskolne and A. Light (1996) Towards ethics guidelines for environmental epidemiologists. Sci. Total Environ 184(1-2), 137-147.
267. Committee on Conflict of Interest in Medical Research Education and Practice, Institute of Medicine (2009) B. Lo, M.J. Field (Eds) Conflict of Interest in Medical Research, Education, and Practice Washington, DC: National Academies Press
268. N. Pearce (2008) Corporate influences on epidemiology. Int. J. Epidemiol 37(1), 46-53.
269. E. Pisani (2008) Wisdom of Whores 1st American ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
270. S. Li, J.N. Eisenberg, I.H. Spicknall, et al. (2009) Dynamics and control of infections transmitted from person to person through the environment. Am. J. Epidemiol 170(2), 257-265.
271. M.J. Keeling and P. Rohani (2008) Modeling Infectious Diseases in Humans and Animals Princeton: Princeton University Press
272. C.D. Heaney, E. Sams, S. Wing, et al. (2009) Contact with beach sand among beachgoers and risk of illness. Am. J. Epidemiol 170(2), 164-172.
273. I. Haase, S. Olson, M.A. Behr, et al. (2007) Use of geographic and genotyping tools to characterise tuberculosis transmission in Montreal. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis 11(6), 632-638.
274. M.E. Kolader, N.H. Dukers, A.K. van der Bij, et al. (2006) Molecular epidemiology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, shows distinct heterosexual and homosexual networks. J. Clin. Microbiol 44(8), 2689-2697.
275. P.K. Moonan, J. Oppong, B. Sahbazian, et al. (2006) What is the outcome of targeted tuberculosis screening based on universal genotyping and location? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 174(5), 599-604.
276. N. Wolfe (2009) Preventing the next pandemic. Sci. Am 300(4), 76-81.
277. M.J. Blaser and S. Falkow (2009) What are the consequences of the disappearing human microbiota? Nat. Rev. Microbiol 7(12), 887-894.
278. D.N. Gerding (2009) Clostridium difficile 30 years on: what has, or has not, changed and why? Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 33(Suppl. 1), S2-8.
279. P.J. Turnbaugh, M. Hamady, T. Yatsunenko, et al. (2009) A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature 457(7228), 480-484.
280. E.A. Grice, H.H. Kong, S. Conlan, et al. (2009) Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome. Science 324(5931), 1190-1192.
281. M. Osler, L. Petersen, E. Prescott, et al. (2006) Genetic and environmental influences on the relation between parental social class and mortality. Int. J. Epidemiol 35(5), 1272-1277.
282. I. Asimov (1983) The Robots of Dawn Garden City: Doubleday