Chronic hepatitis C: The virus, its discovery and the natural history of the disease

Journal of Viral Hepatitis

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 213-222

  Booth, J C L ^a  

^a CHELSEA AND WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Hepatitis C virus (HCV); Non A non B (NANB) hepatitis; Post transfusion hepatitis (PTH)

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL ABUSE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE COURSE; HEPATITIS A; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; HEPATITIS NON A NON B; HUMAN; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; NONHUMAN; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ALCOHOL-RELATED DISORDERS; HEPACIVIRUS; HEPATITIS C, CHRONIC; HUMANS;

EID: 0031851113     PISSN: 13520504     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2893.1998.00115.x     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Havens W. Viral hepatitis: multiple attacks in a narcotic addicit. Ann Int Med 1956; 44: 199-203.
2. Mosley JW, Redeker AG, Feinstone SM, Purcell RH. Multiple hepatitis viruses in multiple attacks of acute viral hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1977; 296: 75-78.
3. Blumberg B. Polymorphism of serum proteins and the development of iso-precipitins in transfused patients. Bull NY Acad Med 1964; 40: 377.
4. Walsh J, Purcell R, Morrow A, Channock R, Schmidt P. Posttransfusion hepatitis after open-heart operations. JAMA 1970; 211: 261-265.
5. Alter H, Holland P, Purcell R et al. Posttransfusion hepatitis after exclusion of commercial and hepatitis-B antigen-positive donors. Ann Int Med 1972; 77: 691-699.
6. Holland P, Walsh J, Morrow A, Purcell R. Failure of Australia antibody to prevent post-transfusion hepatitis. Lancet 1969; 1969: 553-555.
7. Purcell R, Walsh J, Holland P, Morrow A, Wood S, Chanock R. Seroepidemiologial studies of transfusion-associated hepatitis. J. Infect Dis 1971; 123: 406-413.
8. Alter H, Purcell R, Holland P, Feinstone S, Morrow A, Moritsugu Y. Clinical and serological analysis of transfusion-associated hepatitis. Lancet 1975; ii: 241-246.
9. Iwarson S, Lundin P, Holmgren J, Hermodsson S. Multiple attacks of hepatitis in drug addicts: biochemical, immunological and morphological characteristics. J Infect Dis 1973; 127: 544-550.
10. Realdi G, Alberti A, Rugge M et al. Long-term follow-up of acute and chronic non-A, non-B post-transfusion hepatitis: evidence of progression to liver cirrhosis. Gut 1982; 23: 270-275.
11. Dienstag J. Non-A, non-B hepatitis 1. Recognition, epidemiology and clinical features. Gastroenterology 1983; 85: 439-462.
12. Alter H, Holland P, Purcell R, Popper H. Transmissible agent in non-A, non-B hepatitis. Lancet 1978; i: 459-463.
13. Tabor E, Drucker J, Hoofnagle J et al. Transmission of Non-A, Non-B hepatitis from man to chimpanzee. Lancet 1978; i: 463-465.
14. Bradley D, Maynard J, Popper H et al. Post-transfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis. Physicochemical properties of two distinct agents. J Infect Dis 1983; 148: 254-265.
15. Bradley D, McCaustland K, Cook E, Schable C, Ebert J, Maynard J. Post-transfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis in chimpanzees. Physicochemical evidence that the tubule-forming agent is a small enveloped virus. Gastroenterology 1985; 88: 773-779.
16. Choo Q-L, Kuo G, Weiner A, Overby L, Bradley D, Houghton M. Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne viral hepatitis genome. Science 1989; 244: 359-362.
17. Kuo G, Choo Q-L, Alter H et al. An assay for circulating antibodies to a major etiologic virus of human non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science 1989; 244: 362-364.
18. Bruix J, Calvet X, Costa J et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Spanish patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatic cirrhosis. Lancet 1989; 334: 1004-1006.
19. Alter H, Purcell R, Shih J et al. Detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus in prospectively followed transfusion recipients with acute and chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 1494-1500.
20. Colombo M, Choo Q-L, Del Ninno E et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Italian patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 1989; 334: 1006-1009.
21. Kaito M, Watanabe S, Tsukiyama-Kohara K et al. Hepatitis C virus particle detected by immunoelectron microscopic study. J Gen Virol 1994; 75: 1755-1760.
22. Choo Q-L, Richman K, Han J et al. The genetic organization and diversity of the hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 2451-2455.
23. Inchauspe G, Zebedee S, Lee D-H, Sughani M, Nasoff M, Prince AM. Genomic structure of the human prototype strain H of hepatitis C virus: comparison with American and Japanese isolates. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1991; 88: 10292-10296.
24. Kato N, Hijikata M, Ootsuyama Y et al. Molecular cloning of the human hepatitis C virus genome from Japanese patients with non-A, non-B hepatitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 9524-9528.
25. Takamizawa A, Mori C, Fuke I et al. Structure and organization of the hepatitis C virus genome isolated from human carriers. J Virol 1991; 65: 1105-1113.
26. Miller R, Purcell R. Hepatitis C virus shares amino acid sequence similarity with pestiviruses and flaviviruses as well as members of two plant virus supergroups. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 2057-2061.
27. Chambers T, Hahn C, Galler R, Rice C. Flavivirus genome organization, expression and replication. Annu Rev Microbiol 1990; 44: 649-688.
28. Cleaves G, Ryan T, Schlesinger R. Identification and characterization of type 2 dengue virus replicative and intermediate and replicative form RNAs. Virology 1981; 111: 73-83.
29. Choo Q-L, Weiner A, Overby L, Kuo G, Bradley D. Hepatitis C virus: the major causative agent of viral NANB hepatitis. Brit Med Bull 1990; 46: 423-441.
30. Esteban J, Viladomiu L, Gonzalez A et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies among risk groups in Spain. Lancet 1989; 334: 294-297.
31. Roggendorf M, Deinhadt F, Rasslofer R et al. Antibodies to HCV. Lancet 1989; 334: 324-325.
32. Van Der Poel C, Reesing H, Lelie P et al. Anti-hepatitis C antibodies and NANB post-transfusion hepatitis in Netherlands. Lancet 1989; ii: 297-298.
33. Weiner A, Kuo G, Bradley D et al. Detection of hepatitis C sequences in non-A, non-B hepatitis. Lancet 1990; 335: 1-3.
34. Mutimer D, Harrison R, O'Donnell K et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in the asymptomatic British blood donor. J Viral Hep 1995; 2: 47-53.
35. Delaporte E, Thiers V, Dazza M et al. High level of hepatitis C endemicity in Gabon, equatorial Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med 1993; 87: 636-637.
36. Saeed A, Al-Admawi A, Al-Rasheed A et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in Egyptian volunteer blood donors in Riyadh. Lancet 1991; 338: 459-460.
37. El-Ahmady O, Halim A, Mansour O, Salman T. Incidence of hepatitis C virus in Egyptians. J Hepatol 1994; 21: 687.
38. Zuckerman A. The elusive hepatitis C virus. BMJ 1989; 299: 871-873.
39. Allain J-P, Dailey S. Laurian Y et al. Evidence for persistent hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in haemophiliacs. J Clin Invest 1991; 88: 1672-1679.
40. Di Bisceglie A, Goodman Z, Ishak K, Hoofnagle J, Melpolder J, Alter H. Long-term clinical and histological follow up of chronic posttransfusion hepatitis. Hepatology 1991; 14: 969-974.
41. Tremolada F, Casarin C, Alberti A et al. Long-term follow-up of non-A, non-B (type C) post-transfusion hepatitis. J Hepatol 1992; 16: 273-281.
42. Gilli P, Moretti M, Soffritti S, Menini C. Anti-HCV positive patients in dialysis units. Lancet 1990; 336: 243-244.
43. Mondelli MU, Cristina G, Filice G, Rondanelli EG, Piazza V, Barbieri C. Anti-HCV positive patients in dialysis units. Lancet 1990; 336: 244.
44. Pereira B, Milford E, Kirkman R, Levey A. Transmission of hepatitis C virus by organ transplantation. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 454-460.
45. Kiyosawa K, Sodeyama T, Tanaka E, Nakano Y, Furuta S, Nishioka K. Hepatitis C in hospital employees with needle stick injuries. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115: 367-369.
46. Zuckermen J, Clewley G, Griffiths P, Cockcroft A. Prevalence of hepatitis C antibodies in clinical healthcare workers. Lancet 1994; 343: 1618-1619.
47. Melbye M, Biggar R, Wantzin P, Krogsgaard K, Ebbesen P, Becker N. Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus: cohort study (1981-9) among European homosexual men. BMJ 1990; 301: 210-212.
48. Teder R, Gilson R, Briggs M et al. Hepatitis C virus: evidence for sexual transmission. BMJ 1991; 302: 1299-1302.
49. Hess G, Massing A, Rossol S, Schutt H, Clemens R, Meyer Zum Buschenfelde K. Hepatitis C virus and sexual transmission. Lancet 1989; 334: 987.
50. Wright T, Hollander H, Pu X et al. Hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients with and without AIDS: prevalence and relationship to patient survival. Hepatology 1994; 20: 1152-1155.
51. Bresters D, Mauser-Bunschoten EP, Reesink HW et al. Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1993; 342: 210-211.
52. Gordon S, Elloway R, Long J. Dmuchowski C. The pathology of hepatitis C as a function of mode of transmission: blood transfusion vs intravenous drug use. Hepatology 1993; 18: 1338-1343.
53. Hsu H, Wright T, Luba D et al. Failure to detect hepatitis C virus genome in human secretions with the polymerase chain reaction. Hepatology 1991; 14: 763-767.
54. Scaraggi FA, Lomuscio S, Perricci A, De Mitrio V, Napoli N, Schiraldi O. Intrafamilial and sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1993; 342: 1300-1301.
55. Akahane Y, Kojima M, Sugai Y, Sakamoto M, Miyazaki Y, Tanaka T. Hepatitis C virus infection in spouses of patients with type C chronic liver disease. Ann Intern Med 1994; 120: 748-752.
56. Kao J-H, Chen P-J, Lei M-Y, Wang T-H, Chen D-S. Sexual transmission of HCV. Lancet 1993; 342: 626.
57. Chayama K. Kobayashi M, Tsubota A et al. Molecular analysis of intraspousal transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Hepatol 1995; 22: 431-439.
58. Mesquita P, Granato C, Castelo R. Risk factors associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among prostitutes and their clients in the city of Santos, Sao Paolo State, Brazil. J Med Virol 1997; 51: 338-343.
59. Giovannini M, Tagger A, Ribero ML et al. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus and HIV infections: a possible interaction. Lancet 1990; 335: 1166.
60. Ohto H, Terazawa S, Sasaki N et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 744-750.
61. Zanetti A, Tanzi E, Paccagnini S et al. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1995; 345: 289-291.
62. Meisal H, Reip A, Faltus B et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus to children and husbands by women infected with contaminated anti-D immunoglobulin. Lancet 1995; 345: 1209-1211.
63. Manzini P, Saracco G, Cerchier A et al. Human immunodeficiency virus infection as risk factor for mother to child hepatitis C virus transmission; persistence of antihepatitis C virus in children is associated with the mother's anti-hepatitis C virus immunoblotting pattern. Hepatology 1995; 21: 328-332.
64. Ogasawara S, Kage M, Kosai K-I, Shimamatsu K, Kojiro M. Hepatitis C virus RNA in saliva and breastmilk of hepatitis C carrier mothers. Lancet 1993; 341: 561.
65. Liou T-C, Chang T-T, Young K-C, Lin X-Z, Lin C-Y, Wu H-L. Detection of HCV RNA in saliva, urine, seminal fluid and ascites. J Med Virol 1992; 37: 197-202.
66. Wang JT, Wang TH, Sheu JC, Lin JT, Chen DS. Hepatitis C virus RNA in saliva of patients with posttransfusion hepatitis and low efficiency of transmission among spouses. J Med Virol 1992; 36: 28-31.
67. Abe K, Kurata T, Sugitani M, Oda T. Experimental transmission of NANB hepatitis by saliva. J Infect Dis 1987; 155: 1078-1079.
68. Dusheiko G, Smith M, Scheuer P. Hepatitis C virus transmitted by human bite. Lancet 1990; 336: 503-504.
69. Klein RS, Freeman K, Taylor PE, Stevens CE. Occupational risk for hepatitis C virus infection among New York City dentists. Lancet 1991; 338: 1539-1542.
70. Brackmann S, Gerritzen A, Oldenburg J. Search for intrafamilial transmission of hepatitis C virus in haemophilia patients. Blood 1993; 81: 1077-1082.
71. Buscarini E, Tanzi E, Zanetti A. High prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus among family members of patients with anti-HCV positive chronic liver disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1993; 28: 343-346.
72. Wright T, Hsu H, Donegan E et al. Hepatitis C virus not found in fulminant non-A, non-B hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115: 111-112.
73. Fagan E, Harrison T. Exclusion in liver by polymerase chain reaction of hepatitis B and C viruses in acute liver failure attributed to sporadic non-A, non-B hepatitis. J Hepatol 1994; 21: 587-591.
74. Weltman M, Brotodihardjo A, Crewe E et al. Coinfection with hepatitis B and C, C and D viruses results in severe chronic liver disease and responds poorly to interference treatment. J Viral Hep 1995; 2: 39-45.
75. Alter MJ, Margolis HS, Krawczynski K et al. The natural history of community-acquired hepatitis C in the United States. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1899-1905.
76. Alberti A, Morsica G, Chemello L et al. Hepatitis C viraemia and liver disease in symptom-free individuals with anti-HCV. Lancet 1992; 340: 697-698.
77. Seeff LB, Buskell-Bales Z, Wright EC et al. Long-term mortality after transfusion-associated non-A, non-B hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1906-1911.
78. Tong M, El-Farra N, Reikes A, Co R. Clinical outcomes after transfusion-associated hepatitis C. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1463-1466.
79. Yuki N, Hayashi N, Kamada T. HCV viraemia and liver injury in symptom-free blood donors. Lancet 1993; 342: 444.
80. Pozzato G, Moretti M, Franzin F et al. Severity of liver disease with different HCV clones. Lancet 1991; 338: 509.
81. Honda M, Kaneko S, Sakai A, Unoura M, Murakami S, Kobayashi K. Degree of diversity of hepatitis C virus quasispecies and progression of liver disease. Hepatology 1994; 20: 1144-1151.
82. Lau JYN, Davis GL, Kniffen J et al. Significance of serum hepatitis C virus RNA levels in chronic hepatitis C. Lancet 1993; 341: 1501-1504.
83. Bjoro K, Froland S, Yun Z, Samdal H, Haaland T. Hepatitis C infection in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinaemia after treatment with contaminated immune globulin. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1607-1611.
84. Nalpas B, Thiers V, Pol S et al. Hepatitis C viremia and anti-HCV antibodies in alcoholics. J Hepatol 1992; 14: 381-384.
85. Takase S, Tsutsumi M, Kawahara H, Takada N, Takada A. The alcohol-altered liver membrane antibody and hepatitis C virus infection in the progression of alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 1993; 17: 9-13.
86. Martin P, Di Bisceglie AM, Kassianides C, Lisker-Melman M, Hoofnagle JH. Rapidly progressive non-A, non-B hepatitis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Gastroenterology 1989; 97: 1559-1561.
87. Lunel F. Hepatitis C virus and autoimmunity: fortuitous association or reality? Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 1550-1555.
88. McFarlane J, Smith H, Johnson P, Bray G, Vergani D, Williams R. Hepatitis C virus antibodies in chronic active hepatitis: pathogenetic factor or false-positive results?Lancet 1990; 335: 754-757.
89. Michel G, Ritter A, Gerken G, Meyer zum Buschenfelde K-H, Decker R, Manns MP. Anti-GOR and hepatitis C virus in autoimmune liver diseases. Lancet 1992; 339: 267-269.
90. Mishiro S, Hoshi Y, Takeda K et al. Non-A, non-B hepatitis specific antibodies directed at host-derived epitope: implication for an autoimmune process. Lancet 1990; 336: 1400-1403.
91. Koskinas J, McFarlane B, Noun-Aria K et al. Cellular and humoral immune reactions against autoantigens and hepatitis C viral antigens in chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 1436-1442.
92. Lohr H, Gerken G, Michel G, Braun H-B, Buschenfelde K-H. In vitro secretion of anti-GOR protein and anti-hepatitis C virus antibodies in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 1443-1448.
93. Disdier P, Harle J-R, Weiller P-J. Cryoglobulinaemia and hepatitis C infection. Lancet 1991; 338: 1151-1152.
94. Bichard P, Ounanian A, Girard M et al. High prevalence of hepatitis C virus RNA in the supernatant and the croprecipitate of patients with essential and secondary type II mixed cryoglobulinaemia. J Hepatol 1994; 21: 58-63.
95. Marcellin P, Descamps V, Martinot-Peignoux M et al. Cryoglobulinaemia with vasculitis associated with hepatitis C virus infection. Gastroenterology 1993; 104: 272-277.
96. Chung R, Agnello V, Weiner N, Dienstag J, Kaplan L. A role for hepatitis C virus infection in the pathogenesis of essential mixed Cryoglobulinaemia: selective concentrations of HCV antigen and RNA in cryoprecipitates. Gastroenterology 1992; 102: A794.
97. DeCastro M, Sanchez J, Herrera JF et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies and liver disease in patients with porphyria cutanea tarda. Hepatology 1993; 17: 551-557.
98. Murphy A, Dooley S, Hillary IB, Murphy GM. HCV infection in porphyria cutanea tarda. Lancet 1993; 341: 1534-1535.
99. Silva M, Li X, Cheinquer H et al. HCV-associated idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). Gastroenterology 1992; 102: A889.
100. Pares A, Barrera J, Caballeria J et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies in chronic alcoholic patients: association with severity of liver injury. Hepatology 1990; 12: 1295-1299.
101. Oshita M, Hayashi N, Kasahara H et al. Increased serum hepatitis C virus RNA levels among alcoholic patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 1994; 20: 1115-1120.
102. Nisiguchi S, Kuroki T, Yabusako T et al. Detection of hepatitis C virus antibodies and hepatitis C virus RNA in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 1991; 14: 985-989.
103. Sata M, Fukuizumi K, Uchimura Y et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in patients with clinically diagnosed alcoholic liver diseases. J Viral Hepatol 1996; 3: 143-148.
104. Takase S. Takada N, Enomoto N, Yasuhara M, Takada A. Different types of chronic hepatitis in alcoholic patients: does chronic hepatitis induced by alcohol exist? Hepatology 1991; 13: 876-881.
105. Poynard T, Bedossa P, Opolon P, and for the OBSVIRC, M., CLINIVIR and DOSVIRC groups. Natural history of liver flbrosis progression in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Lancet 1997; 349: 825-832.
106. Noda K, Yoshihara H, Suzuki K et al. Progression of type C chronic hepatitis to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma - its relationship to alcohol drinking and the age of transfusion. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1996; 2: 95A-100A.
107. Kew M, Houghton M, Choo Q-L, Kuo G. Hepatitis Cvirus antibodies in southern African blacks with hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 1990; 335: 873-874.
108. Levrero M, Tagger A, Balsano C et al. Antibodies to hepatitis C virus in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 1991; 12: 60-63.
109. Kew M, Yu M, Kedda M, Coppin A, Sarkin A, Hodkinson J. The relative roles of hepatitis B and C viruses in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in southern African blacks. Gastroenterology 1997; 112: 184-187.
110. Yamauchi M, Nakahara M, Maezawa Y, Satoh S, Nishikawa F, Ohata M. Prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis and prior exposure to hepatitis C. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 39-43.
111. Nishiguchi S, Kuroki T, Nakatani S et al. Randomised trial of effects of interferon-α on incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic active hepatitis C with cirrhosis. Lancet 1995; 346: 1051-1055.