Fermentation and germination improve nutritional value of cereals and legumes through activation of endogenous enzymes

Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 6, Issue 8, 2018, Pages 2446-2458

  Nkhata, Smith G ^a   Ayua, Emmanuel ^b   Kamau, Elijah H ^b   Shingiro, Jean Bosco ^c  

^a Department of Agriculture Extension Services ^*  (Malawi)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET   (Kenya)

^c RWANDA AGRICULTURE BOARD   (Rwanda)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85055058054     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20487177     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.846     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Albertini, B., Schoubben, A., Guarnaccia, D., Pinelli, F., Della Vecchia, M., Ricci, M., … Blasi, P. (2015). Effect of fermentation and drying on cocoa polyphenols. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63(45), 9948–9953. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01062
2. Ali, M. A. M., El-Tinay, A. H., & Abdalla, A. H. (2003). Effect of fermentation on the in vitro protein digestibility of pearl millet. Food Chemistry, 80, 51–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00234-0
3. Alka, S., Neelam, Y., & Shruti, S. (2012). Effect of fermentation on physicochemical properties & in vitro starch and protein digestibility of selected cereals. International Journal of Agricultural and Food Science, 2, 66–70.
4. Banhegyi, G., & Mandl, J. (2001). The hepatic glycogenoreticular system. Pathology and Oncology Research, 7, 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03032575
5. Bhathal, S., & Kaur, N. (2015). Effect of germination on nutrient composition of gluten free Quinoa (Chenopodium Quinoa). International Journal of Scientific Research, 4, 423–425.
6. Byrne, C. S., Chambers, E. S., Morrison, D. J., & Frost, G. (2015). The role of short chain fatty acids in appetite regulation and energy homeostasis. International Journal of Obesity, 39, 1331–1338. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2015.84
7. Canfora, E. E., Jocken, W. J., & Blaak, E. E. (2015). Short chain fatty acids in control of body weight and insulin sensitivity. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 11, 577–591. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2015.128
8. Chavan, U. D., Chavan, J. K., & Kadam, S. S. (1988). Effect of fermentation on insoluble protein and in vitro protein digestibility of sorghum, green gram and sorghum green blends. Journal of Food Science, 53, 1574–1578. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1988.tb09329.x
9. Chaven, J. K., & Kadam, S. S. (1989). Nutritional improvement of cereals by fermentation. Critical Reviews in Food Science Technology, 28, 349–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398909527507
10. Chaves-Lopez, C., Serio, A., Grande-Tovar, C. D., Cuervo-Mulet, R., Delgado-Ospina, J., & Paparella, A. (2014). Traditional fermented foods and beverages from a microbiological and nutritional perspective: The Colombian Heritage. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 13, 1031–1048. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12098
11. Chinma, C. E., Adewuyi, O., & Abu, J. O. (2009). Effect of germination on the chemical, functional and pasting properties of flour from brown and yellow varieties of tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus). Food Research International, 42, 1004–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.04.024
12. Chinma, C. E., Anuonye, J. C., Simon, O. C., Ohiare, R. O., & Danbaba, N. (2015). Effect of germination on the physicochemical and antioxidant characteristics of rice flour from three rice varieties from Nigeria. Food Chemistry, 185, 454–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.04.010
13. Darwiche, G., Almer, L., Bjorgell, O., Cederholm, C., & Nilsson, P. (2001). Delayed gastric emptying rate in Type 1 diabetics with cardiac autonomic neuropathy. Journal of Diabetes and its Complications, 15, 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-8727(00)00143-4
14. Day, C. N., & Morawicki, R. O. (2018). Effects of fermentation by yeast and amylolytic lactic acid bacteria on grain sorghum protein content and digestibility. Hindawi Journal of Food Quality, 2018, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3964392
15. Desai, A. D., Kulkarni, S. S., Sahoo, A. K., Ranveer, R. C., & Dandge, P. B. (2010). Effect of supplementation of malted ragi flour on the nutritional and sensorial quality characteristics of cake. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2, 67–71.
16. Dordevic, T., Marinkovic, S. S., & Dimitrijevic-Brankovic, S. I. (2010). Effect of fermentation on antioxidant properties of some cereals and pseudo cereals. Food Chemistry, 119, 957–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.07.049
17. Doudu, K. G., Taylor, J. R. N., Belton, P. S., & Hamaker, B. R. (2003). Factors affecting sorghum protein digestibility. Journal of Cereal Science, 38, 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0733-5210(03)00016-X
18. Duenas, M., Fernandaz, D., Hernandez, T., Estrella, I., & Munoz, R. (2005). Bioactive phenolic compounds of cowpeas (Vigna sinensis L.). Modifications by fermentation with natural microflora and with Lactobacillus plantarun ATCC 14917. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85, 297–304. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.1924
19. Egli, I., Davidsson, L., Juillerat, M. A., Barclay, D., & Hurrell, R. F. (2002). The influence of soaking and germination on the phytase activity and phytic acid content of grains and seeds potentially useful for complementary feeding. Journal of Food Science, 67, 3484–3488. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb09609.x
20. Egli, I., Davidsson, L., Juillerat, M. A., Barclay, D., & Hurrell, R. F. (2003). Phytic acid degradation in complementary foods using phytase naturally occurring in whole grain cereals. Journal of Food Science, 68, 1855–1859. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb12342.x
21. El-Hag, M. E., El-Tinay, A. H., & Yousif, N. E. (2002). Effect of fermentation and dehulling on starch, total polyphenols, phytic acid content and in vitro protein digestibility of pearl millet. Food Chemistry, 77, 193–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00336-3
22. Emambux, M. N., & Taylor, J. N. (2003). Sorghum kafirin interaction with various phenolic compounds. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 83, 402–407. https://doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0010
23. Ghavidel, R. A., & Prakash, J. (2007). The impact of germination and dehulling on nutrients, anti-nutrients, in-vitro iron and calcium bioavailability and in-vitro starch and protein digestibility of some legume seeds. LWT – Food Science and Technology, 40, 1292–1299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2006.08.002
24. Golzarand, M., Mirmiran, P., Bahadoran, Z., Alamdari, S., & Azizi, F. (2014). Dietary phytochemical index and subsequent changes of lipid profile: A 3-year follow-up in Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study in Iran. ARYA Atherosclerosis, 10, 203–210.
25. Gunness, P., & Gidley, M. J. (2010). Mechanisms underlying the cholesterol lowering properties of soluble dietary fiber polysaccharides. Functional Foods, 1, 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0fo00080a
26. Guo, X., Li, T., Tang, K., & Liu, R. H. (2012). Effect of germination on phytochemicals profiles and antioxidant activity of mung beans sprouts (Vigna radiata). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60, 11050–11055. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf304443u
27. Hamad, A. M., & Fields, M. L. (1979). Evaluation of the protein quality and available lysine of germinated and fermented cereal. Journal of Food Science, 44, 456–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1979.tb03811.x
28. Hassan, G. F., Yusuf, L., Adebolu, T. T., & Onifade, A. K. (2015). Effect of fermentation on mineral and anti-nutritional composition of cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta linn). Sky Journal of Food Science, 4, 042–049.
29. Hemalatha, S., Platel, K., & Srinivasan, K. (2007). Influence of germination and fermentation on bioaccessibility of zinc and iron from food grains. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, 342–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602524
30. Hotz, C., & Gibson, R. S. (2007). Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plants-based diets. Journal of Nutrition, 137, 1097–1100. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.4.1097
31. Hubert, J., Berger, M., Nepveu, F., Paul, F., & Dayde, J. (2008). Effects of fermentation on the phytochemical composition and antioxidant properties of soy germ. Food Chemistry, 109, 709–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.081
32. Idris, W. H., AbdelRahaman, S. M., Elmaki, H. B., Babikar, E. E., & Eltinay, A. H. (2007). Effect of malt pre-treatment on HCL extractability of calcium, phosphorus and iron of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) cultivars. International Journal of Food Science, 42, 194–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01207.x
33. Ihediohanma, N. C. (2011). Determination of the glycemic indices of three different cassava granules (garri) and the effect of fermentation period on their glycemic responses. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 10, 6–9.
34. Ihekoronye, A. I., & Ngoody, P. O. (1985). Tropical roots and tubers crops. In Integrated food science and technology for the tropics (pp. 266–282). London, UK: Macmillan.
35. Ikeda, K., Arioka, K., Fujii, S., Kusano, T., & Oku, M. (1984). Effect on buckwheat protein quality of seed germination and changes in trypsin inhibitor content. Cereal Chemistry, 61, 236.
36. Jan, R., Saxena, D. C., & Singh, S. (2017). Physico-chemical, textural, sensory and antioxidant characteristics of gluten e Free cookies made from raw and germinated Chenopodium (Chenopodium album) flour. LWT – Food Science and Technology, 71, 281–287.
37. Kahajdova, Z., & Karovicova, J. (2007). Fermentation of cereals for specific purpose. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 46, 51–57.
38. Khetarpaul, N., & Chauhan, B. M. (1990). Effect of germination and fermentation on in vitro starch and protein digestibility of pearl millet. Journal of Food Science, 55, 883–884. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1990.tb05261.x
39. Kim, H. Y., Hwang, I. G., Kim, T. M., Woo, K. S., Park, D. S., Kim, J. H., … Jeong, H. S. (2012). Chemical and functional components in different parts of rough rice (Oryza sativa L.) before and after germination. Food Chemistry, 134, 288–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.02.138
40. Kruger, J., Taylor, J., John, R. N., & André, O. (2012). Effects of reducing phytate content in sorghum through genetic modification and fermentation on in vitro iron availability in whole grain porridges. Food Chemistry, 131, 220–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.08.063
41. Kumar, V., Sinha, A. K., Makkar, H. P. S., & Becker, K. (2010). Dietary roles of phytate and phytase in human nutrition: A review. Food Chemistry, 120, 945–959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.11.052
42. Kuo, L., Cheng, W., Wu, R., Huang, C., & Lee, K. (2006). Hydrolysis of black soybean isoflavone glycosides by Bacillus subtilis natto. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 73, 314–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-006-0474-7
43. Laxmi, G., Chaturvedi, N., & Richa, S. (2015). The impact of malting on nutritional composition of foxtail millet, wheat and chickpea. Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences, 5, 407.
44. Leenhardt, F., Levrat-Verny, M., Chanlia, E., & Eameasy, C. (2005). Moderate decrease of pH by sourdough fermentation is sufficient to reduce phytate content of whole wheat flour through endogenous phytase activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 98–102. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf049193q
45. Lesinski, G. B., Reville, P. K., Mace, T. A., Young, G. S., Ahn-Jarvis, J., Thomas-Ahner, J., … Clinton, S. K. (2015). Consumption of soy isoflavone enriched bread in men with prostate cancer is associated with reduced proinflammatory cytokines and immunosuppressive cells. Cancer Prevention Research, 8, 1036–1044. https://doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.capr-14-0464
46. Li, S., Tayie, F. A. K., Young, M. F., Rocheford, T., & White, W. S. (2007). Retention of provitamin A carotenoids in high β-carotene maize (Zea mays) during traditional African household processing. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 10744–10750. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf071815v
47. Liang, J., Han, B. Z., Nout, M. J. R., & Hamer, R. J. (2008). Effects of soaking, germination and fermentation on phytic acid, total and in vitro soluble zinc in brown rice. Food Chemistry, 110, 821–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.064
48. Liljeberg, H., & Bjorck, I. (1998). Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycaemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52, 368–371. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600572
49. 14in the liver of the intact rat. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 235, 937–939.
50. Lopez, Y., Gordon, D. T., & Fields, M. L. (1983). Release of phosphorous from phytate by natural lactic fermentation. Journal of Food Science, 48, 935–954.
51. Lorenzen, J. K., Nielsen, S., Holst, J. J., Tetens, I., Rehfeld, J. F., & Astrup, A. (2007). Effect of dairy calcium or supplementary calcium intake on postprandial fat metabolism, appetite, and subsequent energy intake. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85, 678–687. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.3.678
52. Luo, Y. W., Xie, W. H., Jin, X. X., Wang, Q., & He, Y. J. (2014). Effects of germination on iron, zinc, calcium, manganese and copper availability from cereals and legumes. CyTA – Journal of Food, 12, 22–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2013.782071
53. Manach, C., Scalbert, A., Morand, C., Remesy, C., & Jimenez, L. (2004). Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79, 727–747. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/79.5.727
54. Martin-Cabrejas, M. A., Ariza, N., Esteban, R., Molla, E., Waldron, K., & López-Andréu, F. J. (2003). Effect of germination on the carbohydrate composition of the dietary fiber of peas (Pisum sativum L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 1254–1259. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0207631
55. Mbithi-Mwikya, S., Camp, J. V., Yiru, Y., & Huyghebaert, A. (2000). Nutrient and anti-nutrient changes in finger millet (Eleusine coracan) during sprouting. LWT – Food Science and Technology, 33, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1006/fstl.1999.0605
56. McNabney, S. M., & Henagan, T. M. (2017). Short chain fatty acids in the colon and peripheral tissues: A focus on butyrate, colon cancer, obesity and insulin resistance. Nutrients, 9, 1348. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9121348
57. Megat, R. M. R., Azrina, A., & Norhaizan, M. E. (2016). Effect of germination on total dietary fibre and total sugar in selected legumes. International Food Research Journal, 23, 257–261.
58. Mlotha, V., Mwangwela, A. M., Kasapila, W., Siyame, E. W. P., & Masamba, K. (2016). Glycemic responses to maize flour stiff porridges prepared using local recipes in Malawi. Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 4, 322–328. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.293
59. Mohite, B. V., Chaudhari, G. A., Ingale, H. S., & Mahajan, V. N. (2013). Effect of fermentation and processing on in vitro mineral estimation of selected fermented foods. International Food Research Journal, 20, 1373–1377.
60. Moongngarm, A., & Saetung, N. (2010). Comparison of chemical compositions and bioactive compounds of germinated rough and brown rice. Food Chemistry, 122, 782–788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.03.053
61. Nirmala, M.,Subba Rao, M. V. S. S. T., & Muralikrishna, G. (2000). Carbohydrates and their degrading enzymes from native and malted finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine coracana, Indaf-15). Food Chemistry, 69, 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00250-2
62. Obizoba, I. C., & Atii, J. V. (1991). Effect of soaking, sprouting, fermentation and cooking on the nutrient composition and some anti-nutritional factors of sorghum (Guinesia) seeds. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 41, 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02196388
63. Ogbonna, A. C., Abuajah, C. I., Ide, E. O., & Udofia, U. S. (2012). Effect of malting conditions on the nutritional and anti-nutritional factors of sorghum grist. Food Technology, 36, 64–72.
64. Oghbaei, M., & Prakash, J. (2016). Effect of primary processing of cereals and legumes on its nutritional quality: A comprehensive review. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 2, 1136015.
65. Ojha, P., Adhikari, R., Karki, R., Mishra, A., Subedi, U., & Karki, T. B. (2018). Malting and fermentation effects on anti-nutritional components and functional characteristics of sorghum flour. Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 6, 47–53. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.525
66. Omemu, A. M. (2011). Fermentation dynamics during production of ogi, a Nigerian fermented cereal porridge. Report and Opinion, 3, 8–17.
67. Ongol, M. P., Nyozima, E., Gisanura, I., & Vasanthakaalam, H. (2013). Effect of germination and fermentation on nutrients in maize flour. Pakistan Journal of Food Sciences, 23, 183–188.
68. Onyango, C. A., Ochanda, S. O., Mwasaru, M. A., Ochieng, J. K., Mathooko, F. M., & Kinyuru, J. N. (2013). Effects of malting and fermentation on anti-nutrient reduction and protein digestibility of red sorghum, white sorghum and pearl millet. Journal of Food Research, 2, 41–49. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v2n1p41
69. Ortiz, D., Nkhata, S., Buechler, A., Rocheford, T., & Ferruzzi, M. G. (2017). Nutritional changes during biofortified maize fermentation (steeping) for ogi production. The FASEB Journal, 31, 1.
70. Osman, M. A. (2004). Changes in sorghum enzyme inhibitors, phytic acid, tannins and in vitro protein digestibility occurring during Khamir (local bread) fermentation. Food Chemistry, 88, 129–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.12.038
71. Osman, M. A. (2011). Effect of traditional fermentation process on the nutrient and antinutrient contents of pearl millet during preparation of Lohoh. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 10, 1–6.
72. Ostman, E. M., Granfeldt, Y., Persson, L., & Bjorck, I. M. E. (2005). Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59, 983–988. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602197
73. Ostman, E. M., Liljeberg-Elmstah, H. G., & Bjorck, I. M. (2001). Inconsistency between glycemic and insulinemic responses to regular and fermented milk products. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 74, 96–100. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/74.1.96
74. Ostman, E. M., Nilsson, M., Liljeberg Elmstah, H. G. M., Molin, G., & Bjorck, I. M. E. (2002). On the effect of lactic acid on blood glucose and insulin responses to cereal products: Mechanistic studies in healthy subjects and in vitro. Journal of Cereal Science, 36, 339–346. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcrs.2002.0469
75. Otutu, O. L., Ikuomola, D. S., & Oloruntoba, R. O. (2014). Effect of sprouting days on the chemical and physicochemical properties of sorghum starch. American Journal of Food and Nutrition, 4, 11–20.
76. Phorbee, O. O., Olayiwola, I. O., & Sanni, S. A. (2013). Bioavailability of beta carotene in traditional fermented, roasted granules, gari from bio-fortified cassava roots. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 4, 1247–1254.
77. Pranoto, Y., Anggrahini, S., & Efendi, Z. (2013). Effect of natural and Lactobacillus plantarum fermentation on invitro protein and starch digestibilities of sorghum flours. Food Bioscience, 2, 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2013.04.001
78. Prodanov, M., Sierra, I., & Vidal-Valverde, C. (1997). Effect of germination on the thiamine, riboflavin and niacin in legumes. Lebensm Unters Forsch, 205, 48–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002170050122
79. Reale, A., Konietzny, U., Coppola, R., Sorrentino, E., & Greiner, R. (2007). The importance of lactic acid bacteria for phytate degradation during cereal dough fermentation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 2993–2997. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf063507n
80. Riccardi, G., & Rivellese, A. A. (1991). Effects of dietary fiber and carbohydrate on glucose and lipoprotein metabolism in diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 14, 1115–1125. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.14.12.1115
81. Rumberger, J. M., Arch, J. R. S., & Green, A. (2014). Butyrate and other short fatty acids increase the rate of lipolysis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. PeerJ, 2, e611. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.611
82. Rumiyati,, James, A. P., & Jayasena, V. (2012). Effect of germination on the nutritional and protein profile of Australian Sweet Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.). Food and Nutrition Sciences, 3, 621–626.
83. Sahlin, P. (1999). Fermentation as a method of food processing production of organic acids, pH-development and microbial growth in fermenting cereals. Msc Thesis, Lund University, Department of Applied Nutrition and Food Chemistry.
84. Scazzina, F., Del Rio, D., Pellegrini, N., & Brighenti, F. (2008). Sourdough bread: Starch digestibility and postprandial glycemic response. Journal of Cereal Science, 49, 419–421.
85. Sindhu, S., & Khetarpaul, N. (2001). Probiotic fermentation of indigenous Food mixture: Effect on anti-nutrients and digestibility of starch and protein. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 14, 601–609. https://doi.org/10.1006/jfca.2001.1022
86. Sripriya, G., Antony, U., & Chandra, T. S. (1997). Changes in carbohydrate, free amino acids, phytate and HCL extractability of minerals during germination and fermentation of finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Food Chemistry, 58, 345–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(96)00206-3
87. Steinkraus, K. H. (1994). Nutritional significance of fermented foods. Food Research International, 21, 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/0963-9969(94)90094-9
88. Svanberg, U., & Lorri, W. (1997). Fermentation and nutrient availability. Food Control, 8, 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-7135(97)00018-2
89. Tang, Y., & Zhao, G. (1998). The relationship between phenylalanine deaminase activities and xanthoketone contents in buckwheat. Journal of Mianyang College of Economy & Technology, 15, 9–12.
90. Taur, A. T., Pawar, V. D., & Ingle, V. M. (1984). Nutritional improvement of grain sorghum by germination. The Indian Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, 21, 168–173.
91. Taylor, R. N., & Dewang, J. (2001). Development in sorghum food technologies. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, 43, 217–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1043-4526(01)43006-3
92. Tian, B., Xie, B., Shi, J., Wu, J., Cai, Y., Xu, T., … Deng, Q. (2010). Physicochemical changes of oat seeds during germination. Food Chemistry, 119, 1195–1200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.08.035
93. Torre, M., Rodriquez, R., & Saura-Calixto, F. (1991). Effects of dietary fiber and phytic acid on mineral availability. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 30, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408399109527539
94. Towo, E., Matuschek, E., & Svanberg, U. (2006). Fermentation and enzyme treatment of tannin sorghum gruels: Effects on phenolic compounds, phytate and in vitro accessible iron. Food Chemistry, 94, 369–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.11.027
95. Traore, T., Mouquet, C., Icard-Verniere, C., Traore, A. S., & Treche, S. (2004). Changes in nutrient composition, phytate and cyanide contents and α-amylase activity during cereal malting in small production units in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Food Chemistry, 88, 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.01.032
96. Untersmayr, E., & Jensen-Jarolim, E. (2008). The role of protein digestibility and antacids on food allergy outcomes. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 121, 1301–1310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.04.025
97. Wanasundara, P. K. J. P. D., Wanasundara, U. N., & Shahidi, F. (1999). Changes in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seed lipids during germination. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 76, 141–146.
98. Wang, C., Wu, S., & Shyu, Y. (2014). Antioxidant properties of certain cereals as affected by food grade bacteria fermentation. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 117, 449–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2013.10.002
99. Wheeler, G. L., Jones, M. A., & Smirnoff, N. (1998). The biosynthetic pathway of vitamin C in higher plants. Nature, 393, 365–369. https://doi.org/10.1038/30728
100. Yasmin, A., Zeb, A., Khalil, A. W., Paracha, G. M., & Khattak, A. B. (2008). Effect of processing on anti-nutritional factors of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) grains. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 1, 415–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-008-0125-3
101. Yousif, N. E., & El Tinayi, A. H. (2001). Effect of fermentation on sorghum protein fractions and in vitro protein digestibility. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 56, 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011140602122
102. Yousif, N. E., & El Tinayi, A. H. (2003). Effect of natural fermentation on protein fractions and in vitro protein digestibility of rice. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 58, 1–8.
103. Yu, K., Ke, M. Y., Li, W. H., Zhang, S. Q., & Fang, X. C. (2014). The impact of soluble dietary fibre on gastric emptying, postprandial blood glucose and insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 23, 210–218.
104. Zhang, G., Xu, Z., Gao, Y., Huang, X., & Yang, T. (2015). Effects of germination on the nutritional properties, phenolic profiles, and antioxidant activities of buckwheat. Journal of Food Science, 80, H1111–H1119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12830
105. Zheng, Y. M., He, R. G., Zheng, L., Hua, P., Hu, Q. L., & Huang, X. (2006). Change of anti-nutrient and phytic acid contents in brown rice during sprouting period. Journal of the Chinese Cereals and Oils Association, 21, 1–4.
106. Zilic, S., Delic, N., Basic, Z., Ignjatovic-Micic, D., Jankovic, M., & Vancetovic, J. (2015). Effects of alkaline cooking and sprouting on bioactive compounds, their bioavailability and relation to antioxidant capacity of maize flour. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 54, 155–164.