Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of capparis spinosa as a medicinal plant

Nutrients

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2018, Pages

  Zhang, Hongxia ^a   Ma, Zheng Feei ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

^b XI AN JIAOTONG LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

Caper; Capparis spinosa; Cardiovascular disease; Flavonoids; Rutin; Traditional medicine

Indexed keywords

1,2,3,4 TETRAHYDROQUINOLINE DERIVATIVE; ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE; ARACHIDIC ACID; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE; ASTRAGALIN; BEHENIC ACID; CAPPARINE A; CAPPARINE B; CAPPARINE C; FLAVANONE; FLAVONE; FLAVONOL; FLAZIN; GLUCOCAPPARIN; ISOFLAVONOID; ISOQUERCITRIN; LINOLENIC ACID; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MYRISTIC ACID; NICOTIFLORIN; PALMITIC ACID; PALMITOLEIC ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTOSIDE; STACHYDRINE; STEARIC ACID; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; PHYTOCHEMICAL; PLANT EXTRACT; POLYPHENOL;

ANTIDIABETIC ACTIVITY; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE ACTIVITY; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY; CAPPARIS SPINOSA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; ELECTROSPRAY MASS SPECTROMETRY; HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; HUMAN; MEDICINAL PLANT; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; OBESITY; PHYTOCHEMISTRY; REVIEW; SOLID PHASE MICROEXTRACTION; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE; BLOOD; CAPPARIS; CHEMISTRY; PLANT ROOT; PLANT SEED;

BIOMARKERS; CAPPARIS; HUMANS; PHYTOCHEMICALS; PLANT EXTRACTS; PLANT ROOTS; PLANTS, MEDICINAL; POLYPHENOLS; SEEDS;

EID: 85041030841     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu10020116     Document Type: Review

References (84)

1. Locatelli, C.; Melucci, D.; Locatelli, M. Toxic metals in herbal medicines. A review. Curr. Bioact. Compd. 2014, 10, 181–188. [CrossRef]
2. World Health Organization (WHO). Regulatory Situation of Herbal Medicines: A Worldwide Review; World Health Organization (WHO): Geneva, Switzerland, 2013.
3. Locatelli, M.; Zengin, G.; Uysal, A.; Carradori, S.; De Luca, E.; Bellagamba, G.; Aktumsek, A.; Lazarova, I. Multicomponent pattern and biological activities of seven asphodeline taxa: Potential sources of natural-functional ingredients for bioactive formulations. J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem. 2017, 32, 60–67. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Gunjan, M.; Naing, T.W.; Saini, R.S.; Ahmad, A.; Naidu, J.R.; Kumar, I. Marketing trends & future prospects of herbal medicine in the treatment of various disease. World J. Pharm. Res. 2015, 4, 132–155.
5. Hall, J.C.; Sytsma, K.J.; Iltis, H.H. Phylogeny of Capparaceae and Brassicaceae based on chloroplast sequence data. Am. J. Bot. 2002, 89, 1826–1842. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Ao, M.; Gao, Y.; Yu, L. Advances in studies on constituents and their pharmacological activities of Capparis spinosa. Chin. Tradit. Herb. Drug 2007, 38, 463–467.
7. Asl, M.B.; Talebpour, A.H.; Alijanpour, R. Introducing of medicinal plants in Maragheh, Eastern Azerbaijan province (northwestern Iran). J. Med. Plants Res. 2012, 6, 4208–4220.
8. Tlili, N.; Elfalleh, W.; Saadaoui, E.; Khaldi, A.; Triki, S.; Nasri, N. The caper (Capparis L.): Ethnopharmacology, phytochemical and pharmacological properties. Fitoterapia 2011, 82, 93–101. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Barbera, G.; Di Lorenzo, R. The caper culture in Italy. Acta Hortic. 1984, 144, 167–171. [CrossRef]
10. Ramezani-Gask, M.; Bahrani, M.J.; Shekafandeh, A.; Salehi, H.; Taghvaei, M.; Al-Ahmadi, M.J. A comparison of different propagation methods of common caper-bush (Capparis spinosa L.) as a new horticultural crop. Int. J. Plant Dev. Biol. 2008, 2, 106–110.
11. Inocencio, C.; Rivera, D.; Alcaraz, F.; Tomás-Barberán, F.A. Flavonoid content of commercial capers (Capparis spinosa, C. Sicula and C. Orientalis) produced in Mediterranean countries. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2000, 212, 70–74. [CrossRef]
12. Nabavi, S.F.; Maggi, F.; Daglia, M.; Habtemariam, S.; Rastrelli, L.; Nabavi, S.M. Pharmacological effects of Capparis spinosa L. Phytother. Res. 2016, 30, 1733–1744. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Chedraoui, S.; Abi-Rizk, A.; El-Beyrouthy, M.; Chalak, L.; Ouaini, N.; Rajjou, L. Capparis spinosa L. in a systematic review: A xerophilous species of multi values and promising potentialities for agrosystems under the threat of global warming. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 1845. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Fici, S. A taxonomic revision of the Capparis spinosa group (Capparaceae) from the Mediterranean to Central Asia. Phytotaxa 2014, 174, 1–24. [CrossRef]
15. Fici, S. A taxonomic revision of the Capparis spinosa group (Capparaceae) from eastern Africa to Oceania. Phytotaxa 2015, 203, 24–36. [CrossRef]
16. Aichi-Yousfi, H.; Bahri, B.A.; Medini, M.; Rouz, S.; Nejib Rejeb, M.; Ghrabi-Gammar, Z. Genetic diversity and population structure of six species of Capparis in Tunisia using AFLP markers. C. R. Biol. 2016, 339, 442–453. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Sakcali, M.; Bahadir, H.; Ozturk, M. Ecophysiology of Capparis spinosa L.: A plant suitable for combating desertification. Pak. J. Bot. 2008, 40, 1481–1486.
18. Özdemir, F.; Öztürk, M. Studies on the autecology of Capparis L. Species distributed in west Anatolia. Turk. J. Bot. 1996, 20, 117–127.
19. Rhizopoulou, S.; Psaras, G.K. Development and structure of drought-tolerant leaves of the Mediterranean shrub Capparis spinosa L. Ann. Bot. 2003, 92, 377–383. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Mansour, R.B.; Jilani, I.B.H.; Bouaziz, M.; Gargouri, B.; Elloumi, N.; Attia, H.; Ghrabi-Gammar, Z.; Lassoued, S. Phenolic contents and antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract of Capparis spinosa. Cytotechnology 2016, 68, 135–142. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. Afzal, S.; Afzal, N.; Awan, M.R.; Khan, T.S.; Khanum, A.G.; Tariq, S. Ethno-botanical studies from northern Pakistan. J. Ayub. Med. Coll. Abbottabad. 2009, 21, 52–57. [PubMed]
22. Mahboubi, M.; Mahboubi, A. Antimicrobial activity of Capparis spinosa as its usages in traditional medicine. Herba Pol. 2014, 60, 39–48. [CrossRef]
23. Fu, X.P.; Aisa, H.A.; Abdurahim, M.; Yili, A.; Aripova, S.F.; Tashkhodzhaev, B. Chemical composition of Capparis spinosa fruit. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2007, 43, 181–183. [CrossRef]
24. Çaliş, İ.; Kuruüzüm, A.; Lorenzetto, P.A.; Ruedi, P. (6S)-hydroxy-3-oxo-α-ionol glucosides from Capparis spinosa fruits. Phytochemistry 2002, 59, 451–457. [CrossRef]
25. Çaliş, İ.; Kuruüzüm, A.; Rüedi, P. 1H-Indole-3 acetonitrile glycosides from Capparis spinosa fruits. Phytochemistry 1999, 50, 1205–1208. [CrossRef]
26. Zhou, H.; Jian, R.; Kang, J.; Huang, X.; Li, Y.; Zhuang, C.; Yang, F.; Zhang, L.; Fan, X.; Wu, T.; et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of caper (Capparis spinosa L.) fruit aqueous extract and the isolation of main phytochemicals. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 12717–12721. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Ramezani, Z.; Aghel, N.; Keyghobadi, H. Rutin from different parts of Capparis spinosa growing wild in Khuzestan/Iran. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 2008, 11, 768–772. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Rodrigo, M.; Lazaro, M.J.; Alvarruiz, A.; Giner, V. Composition of capers (Capparis spinosa): Influence of cultivar, size and harvest date. J. Food Sci. 1992, 57, 1152–1154. [CrossRef]
29. Siracusa, L.; Kulisic-Bilusic, T.; Politeo, O.; Krause, I.; Dejanovic, B.; Ruberto, G. Phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of aqueous infusions from Capparis spinosa L. and Crithmum maritimum L. before and after submission to a two-step in vitro digestion model. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 12453–12459. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Sharaf, M.; El-Ansari, M.A.; Saleh, N.A.M. Quercetin triglycoside from Capparis spinosa. Fitoterapia 2000, 71, 46–49. [CrossRef]
31. Afsharypuor, S.; Jeiran, K.; Jazy, A.A. First investigation of the flavour profiles of the leaf, ripe fruit and root of Capparis spinosa var. Mucronifolia from Iran. Pharm. Acta Helv. 1998, 72, 307–309. [CrossRef]
32. 1 H qNMR. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2016, 123, 53–62. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Boga, C.; Forlani, L.; Calienni, R.; Hindley, T.; Hochkoeppler, A.; Tozzi, S.; Zanna, N. On the antibacterial activity of roots of Capparis spinosa L. Nat. Prod. Res. 2011, 25, 417–421. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Akgül, A.; Özcan, M. Some compositional characteristics of capers (Capparis spp.) seed and oil. Grasas y Aceites 1999, 50, 49–52. [CrossRef]
35. Gupta, S.A.; Chakrabarty, M.M. Composition of the seed fats of the Capparidaceae family. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1964, 15, 69–73. [CrossRef]
36. Matthaus, B.; Ozcan, M. Glucosinolates and fatty acid, sterol, and tocopherol composition of seed oils from Capparis spinosa Var. spinosa and Capparis ovata Desf. Var. canescens (Coss.) Heywood. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 7136–7141. [PubMed]
37. Mollica, A.; Zengin, G.; Locatelli, M.; Stefanucci, A.; Mocan, A.; Macedonio, G.; Carradori, S.; Onaolapo, O.; Onaolapo, A.; Adegoke, J.; et al. Anti-diabetic and anti-hyperlipidemic properties of Capparis spinosa L.: In vivo and in vitro evaluation of its nutraceutical potential. J. Funct. Foods 2017, 35, 32–42. [CrossRef]
38. Vahid, H.; Rakhshandeh, H.; Ghorbani, A. Antidiabetic properties of Capparis spinosa L. and its components. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2017, 92, 293–302. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Tlili, N.; Khaldi, A.; Triki, S.; Munné-Bosch, S. Phenolic compounds and vitamin antioxidants of caper (Capparis spinosa). Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2010, 65, 260–265. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Dekanski, D.; Ristić, S.; Radonjić, N.V.; Petronijević, N.D.; Dekanski, A.; Mitrović, D.M. Olive leaf extract modulates cold restraint stress-induced oxidative changes in rat liver. J. Serb. Chem. Soc. 2011, 76, 1207–1218. [CrossRef]
41. Nijveldt, R.J.; van Nood, E.; van Hoorn, D.E.; Boelens, P.G.; van Norren, K.; van Leeuwen, P.A. Flavonoids: A review of probable mechanisms of action and potential applications. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 74, 418–425. [PubMed]
42. Korkmaz, A.; Kolankaya, D. Protective effect of rutin on the ischemia/reperfusion induced damage in rat kidney. J. Surg. Res. 2010, 164, 309–315. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43. Milde, J.; Elstner, E.F.; Grassmann, J. Synergistic inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation by rutin, gamma-terpinene, and ascorbic acid. Phytomedicine 2004, 11, 105–113. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Gupta, A.; Birhman, K.; Raheja, I.; Sharma, S.K.; Kar, H.K. Quercetin: A wonder bioflavonoid with therapeutic potential in disease management. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis. 2016, 6, 248–252. [CrossRef]
45. Yang, T.; Wang, C.; Chou, G.; Wu, T.; Cheng, X.; Wang, Z. New alkaloids from Capparis spinosa: Structure and X-ray crystallographic analysis. Food Chem. 2010, 123, 705–710. [CrossRef]
46. Zhang, S.; Hu, D.B.; He, J.B.; Guan, K.Y.; Zhu, H.J. A novel tetrahydroquinoline acid and a new racemic benzofuranone from Capparis spinosa L., a case study of absolute configuration determination using quantum methods. Tetrahedron 2014, 70, 869–873. [CrossRef]
47. Zhou, H.F.; Xie, C.; Jian, R.; Kang, J.; Li, Y.; Zhuang, C.L.; Yang, F.; Zhang, L.L.; Lai, L.; Wu, T.; et al. Biflavonoids from caper (Capparis spinosa L.) fruits and their effects in inhibiting NF-kappa B activation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 3060–3065. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Sharaf, M.; El-Ansari, M.A.; Saleh, N.A.M. Flavonoids of four cleome and three Capparis species. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 1997, 25, 161–166. [CrossRef]
49. Matthaus, B.; Ozcan, M. Glucosinolate composition of young shoots and flower buds of capers (Capparis species) growing wild in turkey. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 7323–7325. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Yu, Y.; Gao, H.; Tang, Z.; Song, X.; Wu, L. Several phenolic acids from the fruit of Capparis spinosa. Asian J. Tradit. Med. 2006, 1, 101–104.
51. Gadgoli, C.; Mishra, S.H. Antihepatotoxic activity of p-methoxy benzoic acid from Capparis spinosa. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1999, 66, 187–192. [CrossRef]
52. Ascrizzi, R.; Cioni, P.L.; Giusti, G.; Pistelli, L.; Flamini, G. Patterns in volatile emission of different aerial parts of caper (Capparis spinosa L.). Chem. Biodivers. 2016, 13, 904–912. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. Fu, X.P.; Wu, T.; Abdurahim, M.; Su, Z.; Hou, X.L.; Aisa, H.A.; Wu, H. New spermidine alkaloids from Capparis spinosa roots. Phytochem. Lett. 2008, 1, 59–62. [CrossRef]
54. Ma, Z.F.; Zhang, H. Phytochemical constituents, health benefits, and industrial applications of grape seeds: A mini-review. Antioxidants 2017, 6, 71. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Ma, Z.F.; Lee, Y.Y. Virgin coconut oil and its cardiovascular health benefits. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2016, 11, 1151–1152.
56. Willett, W.C. Dietary fats and coronary heart disease. J. Intern. Med. 2012, 272, 13–24. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Eddouks, M.; Lemhadri, A.; Michel, J.B. Hypolipidemic activity of aqueous extract of Capparis spinosa L. in normal and diabetic rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 98, 345–350. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
58. Lemhadri, A.; Eddouks, M.; Sulpice, T.; Burcelin, R. Anti-hyperglycaemic and anti-obesity effects of Capparis spinosa and Chamaemelumnobile aqueous extracts in HFD mice. Am. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2007, 2, 106–110.
59. Huseini, H.F.; Hasani-Rnjbar, S.; Nayebi, N.; Heshmat, R.; Sigaroodi, F.K.; Ahvazi, M.; Alaei, B.A.; Kianbakht, S. Capparis spinosa L. (caper) fruit extract in treatment of type 2 diabetic patients: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Complement. Ther. Med. 2013, 21, 447–452. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
60. Jalali, M.T.; Mohammadtaghvaei, N.; Larky, D.A. Investigating the effects of Capparis spinosa on hepatic gluconeogenesis and lipid content in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2016, 84, 1243–1248. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
61. Ali, Z.N.; Eddouks, M.; Michel, J.B.; Sulpice, T.; Hajji, L. Cardiovascular effect of Capparis spinosa aqueous extract. Part III: Antihypertensive effect in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Am. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2007, 2, 111–115. [CrossRef]
62. Gull, T.; Sultana, B.; Bhatti, I.A.; Jamil, A. Antibacterial potential of Capparis spinosa and Capparis decidua extracts. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 2015, 17, 727–733. [CrossRef]
63. Masadeh, M.M.; Alkofahi, A.S.; Alzoubi, K.H.; Tumah, H.N.; Bani-Hani, K. Anti-Helicobactor pylori activity of some jordanian medicinal plants. Pharm. Biol. 2014, 52, 566–569. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. El Azhary, K.; Tahiri Jouti, N.; El Khachibi, M.; Moutia, M.; Tabyaoui, I.; El Hou, A.; Achtak, H.; Nadifi, S.; Habti, N.; Badou, A. Anti-inflammatory potential of Capparis spinosa L. in vivo in mice through inhibition of cell infiltration and cytokine gene expression. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2017, 17, 81. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Moutia, M.; Azhary, K.; Elouaddari, A.; Jahid, A.; Jamal Eddine, J.; Seghrouchni, F.; Habti, N.; Badou, A. Capparis spinosa L. promotes anti-inflammatory response in vitro through the control of cytokine gene expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. BMC Immunol. 2016, 17, 26. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Maresca, M.; Micheli, L.; Di Cesare Mannelli, L.; Tenci, B.; Innocenti, M.; Khatib, M.; Mulinacci, N.; Ghelardini, C. Acute effect of Capparis spinosa root extracts on rat articular pain. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 193, 456–465. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Hamuti, A.; Li, J.; Zhou, F.; Aipire, A.; Ma, J.; Yang, J.; Li, J. Capparis spinosa fruit ethanol extracts exert different effects on the maturation of dendritic cells. Molecules 2017, 22, 97. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Kazemian, M.; Abad, M.; Haeri, M.R.; Ebrahimi, M.; Heidari, R. Anti-diabetic effect of Capparis spinosa L. root extract in diabetic rats. Avicenna J. Phytomed. 2015, 5, 325–332. [PubMed]
69. Ness, G.C. Physiological feedback regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis: Role of translational control of hepatic HMG-CoA reductase and possible involvement of oxylanosterols. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2015, 1851, 667–673. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. Iwaniak, A.; Minkiewicz, P.; Darewicz, M. Food-originating ACE inhibitors, including antihypertensive peptides, as preventive food components in blood pressure reduction. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2014, 13, 114–134. [CrossRef]
71. Mazarei, F.; Jooyandeh, H.; Noshad, M.; Hojjati, M. Polysaccharide of caper (Capparis spinosa L.) leaf: Extraction optimization, antioxidant potential and antimicrobial activity. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017, 95, 224–231. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
72. Mahasneh, A.M. Screening of some indigenous Qatari medicinal plants for antimicrobial activity. Phytother. Res. 2002, 16, 751–753. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Ma, Z.F.; Majid, N.A.; Yamaoka, Y.; Lee, Y.Y. Food allergy and Helicobacter pylori infection: A systematic review. Front. Microbiol. 2016, 7, 368. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
74. Panico, A.; Cardile, V.; Garufi, F.; Puglia, C.; Bonina, F.; Ronsisvalle, G. Protective effect of Capparis spinosa on chondrocytes. Life Sci. 2005, 77, 2479–2488. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
75. Feng, X.; Lu, J.; Xin, H.; Zhang, L.; Wang, Y.; Tang, K. Anti-arthritic active fraction of Capparis spinosa L. fruits and its chemical constituents. Yakugaku Zasshi 2011, 131, 432–439. [CrossRef]
76. Tel, J.; Benitez-Ribas, D.; Janssen, E.M.; Smits, E.L.J.; Jacobs, J.F.M. Dendritic cells as vaccines: Key regulators of tolerance and immunity. Mediators Inflamm. 2016, 2016, 5789725. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
77. Chu, C.C.; Di Meglio, P.; Nestle, F.O. Harnessing dendritic cells in inflammatory skin diseases. Semin. Immunol. 2011, 23, 28–41. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Goel, A.; Digvijaya; Garg, A.; Kumar, A. Effect of Capparis spinosa Linn. extract on lipopolysaccharide-induced cognitive impairment in rats. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2016, 54, 126–132. [PubMed]
79. Mohebali, N.; Shahzadeh Fazeli, S.A.; Ghafoori, H.; Farahmand, Z.; MohammadKhani, E.; Vakhshiteh, F.; Ghamarian, A.; Farhangniya, M.; Sanati, M.H. Effect of flavonoids rich extract of Capparis spinosa on inflammatory involved genes in amyloid-beta peptide injected rat model of Alzheimer’s disease. Nutr. Neurosci. 2016, 21, 143–150. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
80. D-galactose in mice via inhibition of oxidative stress. Turk. J. Med. Sci. 2015, 45, 1127–1136. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Majd, S.; Power, J.H.; Grantham, H.J.M. Neuronal response in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease: The effect of toxic proteins on intracellular pathways. BMC Neurosci. 2015, 16, 69. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Lam, S.K.; Ng, T.B. A protein with antiproliferative, antifungal and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activities from caper (Capparis spinosa) seeds. Phytomedicine 2009, 16, 444–450. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Sher, H.; Alyemeni, M.N. Ethnobotanical and pharmaceutical evaluation of Capparis spinosa L., validity of local folk and unani system of medicine. J. Med. Plants Res. 2010, 4, 1751–1756.
84. Espin, J.C.; Gonzalez-Sarrias, A.; Tomas-Barberan, F.A. The gut microbiota: A key factor in the therapeutic effects of (poly)phenols. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2017, 139, 82–93. [CrossRef] [PubMed]