Pattern and process in the comparative study of convergent evolution

American Naturalist

Volumn 190, Issue , 2017, Pages S13-S28

  Mahler, D Luke ^a   Weber, Marjorie G ^b   Wagner, Catherine E ^c   Ingram, Travis ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Adaptation; Adaptive radiation; Convergence; Evolutionary process; Phylogenetic comparative methods

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; EVOLUTION; FOSSIL; PHYLOGENY;

BIODIVERSITY; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; FOSSILS; PHYLOGENY;

EID: 85026912446     PISSN: 00030147     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/692648     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Abrams, P. A. 1987. Alternative models of character displacement and niche shift. I.Adaptive shifts in resource use when there is competition for nutritionally nonsubstitutable resources. Evolution 41:651–661.
2. Alberch, P. 1982. Developmental constraints in evolutionary processes. Pages 313–332 in J. T. Bonner, ed. Evolution and development. Springer, Berlin.
3. Arbuckle, K., C. M. Bennett, and M. P. Speed. 2014. A simple measure of the strength of convergent evolution. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 5:685–693.
4. Arbuckle, K., and M. P. Speed. 2016. Analyzing convergent evolution: a practical guide to methods. Pages 23–36 in P. Pontarotti, ed. Evolutionary biology. Springer, Switzerland.
5. Arendt, J., and D. Reznick. 2008a. Convergence and parallelism reconsidered: what have we learned about the genetics of adaptation? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23:26–32.
6. Arendt, J., and D. Reznick. 2008b. Moving beyond phylogenetic assumptions about evolutionary convergence: response to Leander. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23:483–484.
7. Arnold, S. J. 1992. Constraints on phenotypic evolution. American Naturalist 140(suppl.):S85–S107.
8. Bartoszek, K., J. Pienaar, P. Mostad, S. Andersson, and T. F. Hansen. 2012. A phylogenetic comparative method for studying multivariate adaptation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 314:204–215.
9. Beaulieu, J.M., D.-C. Jhwueng, C. Boettiger, and B. C. O’Meara. 2012. Modeling stabilizing selection: expanding the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model of adaptive evolution. Evolution 66:2369–2383.
10. Beaulieu, J. M., B. C. O’Meara, and M. J. Donoghue. 2013. Identifying hidden rate changes in the evolution of a binary morphological character: the evolution of plant habit in campanulid angiosperms. Systematic Biology 62:725–737.
11. Bell, M. A. 1987. Interacting evolutionary constraints in pelvic reduction of threespine sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus (Pisces, Gasterosteidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 31:347–382.
12. Boettiger, C., G. Coop, and P. Ralph. 2012. Is your phylogeny informative? measuring the power of comparative methods. Evolution 66:2240–2251.
13. Boucher, F. C., and V. Démery. 2016. Inferring bounded evolution in phenotypic characters from phylogenetic comparative data. Systematic Biology 65:651–661.
14. Brakefield, P. M. 2011. Evo-devo and accounting for Darwin’s endless forms. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366:2069–2075.
15. Bright, J. A., J. Marugán-Lobón, S. N. Cobb, and E. J. Rayfield. 2016. The shapes of bird beaks are highly controlled by nondietary factors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 113:5352–5357.
16. Brooks, D. R., and D. A. McLennan. 1991. Phylogeny, ecology, and behavior: a research program in comparative biology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
17. Butler, M. A., and A. A. King. 2004. Phylogenetic comparative analysis: a modeling approach for adaptive evolution. American Naturalist 164:683–695.
18. Chapleau, F., P. H. Johansen, and M. Williamson. 1988. The distinction between pattern and process in evolutionary biology: the use and abuse of the term “strategy.” Oikos 53:136–138.
19. Chesson, P. 2000. Mechanisms of maintenance of species diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31:343–366.
20. Clarke, M., G. H. Thomas, and R. P. Freckleton. 2017. Trait evolution in adaptive radiations: modeling and measuring interspecific competition on phylogenies. American Naturalist 189:121–137.
21. Collar, D. C., J. S. Reece, M. E. Alfaro, P. C. Wainwright, and R. S. Mehta. 2014. Imperfect morphological convergence: variable changes in cranial structures underlie transitions to durophagy in moray eels. American Naturalist 183:E168–E184.
22. Conway Morris, S. 2010. Evolution: like any other science it is predictable. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365:133–145.
23. Cooper, N., G. H. Thomas, and R. G. FitzJohn. 2016a. Shedding light on the “dark side” of phylogenetic comparative methods. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 7:693–699.
24. Cooper, N., G. H. Thomas, C. Venditti, A. Meade, and R. P. Freckleton. 2016b. A cautionary note on the use of Ornstein-Uhlenbeckmodels in macroevolutionary studies. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 118:64–77.
25. Cressler, C. E., M. A. Butler, and A. A. King. 2015. Detecting adaptive evolution in phylogenetic comparative analysis using the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model. Systematic Biology 64:953–968.
26. Cunningham, C. W., K. E. Omland, and T. H. Oakley. 1998. Reconstructing ancestral character states: a critical reappraisal. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13:361–366.
27. Donoghue, M. J. 1989. Phylogenies and the analysis of evolutionary sequences, with examples from seed plants. Evolution 43:1137–1156.
28. Drummond, A. J., and T. Stadler. 2016. Bayesian phylogenetic estimation of fossil ages. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 371:20150129.
29. Drury, J., J. Clavel, M. Manceau, and H. Morlon. 2016. Estimating the effect of competition on trait evolution using maximum likelihood inference. Systematic Biology 65:700–710.
30. Eastman, J. M., D. Wegmann, C. Leuenberger, and L. J. Harmon. 2013. Simpsonian “evolution by jumps” in an adaptive radiation of Anolis lizards. arXiv:1305.4216.
31. Eldredge, N., and J. Cracraft. 1980. Phylogenetic patterns and the evolutionary process: method and theory in comparative biology. Columbia University Press, New York.
32. Elliot, M. G., and A. Ø. Mooers. 2014. Inferring ancestral states without assuming neutrality or gradualism using a stable model of continuous character evolution. BMC Evolutionary Biology 14:226.
33. Elmer, K. R., and A. Meyer. 2011. Adaptation in the age of ecological genomics: insights from parallelism and convergence. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26:298–306.
34. Endler, J. A. 1981. An overview of the relationships between mimicry and crypsis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 16:25–31.
35. Esquerré, D., and J. S. Keogh. 2016. Parallel selective pressures drive convergent diversification of phenotypes in pythons and boas. Ecology Letters 19:800–809.
36. Estes, S., and S. J. Arnold. 2007. Resolving the paradox of stasis: models with stabilizing selection explain evolutionary divergence on all timescales. American Naturalist 169:227–244.
37. Felsenstein, J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. American Naturalist 125:1–15.
38. Felsenstein, J. 1988. Phylogenies and quantitative characters. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 19:445–471.
39. Fox, J. W., and D. A. Vasseur. 2008. Character convergence under competition for nutritionally essential resources. American Naturalist 172:667–680.
40. Freckleton, R. P., N. Cooper, and W. Jetz. 2011. Comparative methods as a statistical fix: the dangers of ignoring an evolutionary model. American Naturalist 178:E10–E17.
41. Freckleton, R. P., and P. H. Harvey. 2006. Detecting non-Brownian trait evolution in adaptive radiations. PLoS Biology 4:e373.
42. Frédérich, B., L. Sorenson, F. Santini, G. J. Slater, and M. E. Alfaro. 2013. Iterative ecological radiation and convergence during the evolutionary history of damselfishes (Pomacentridae). American Naturalist 181:94–113.
43. Futuyma, D. J. 2005. Evolution. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA. Gould, S. J. 1980. The evolutionary biology of constraint. Daedalus 1980:39–52.
44. Gould, S. J. 2002. The structure of evolutionary theory. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
45. Gould, S. J., and R. C. Lewontin. 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 205:581–598.
46. Gould, S. J., and E. S. Vrba. 1982. Exaptation—a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4–15.
47. Grundler, M. C., and D. L. Rabosky. 2014. Trophic divergence despite morphological convergence in a continental radiation of snakes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281:20140413.
48. Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. The causes of evolution. Longman, London.
49. Hansen, T. F. 1997. Stabilizing selection and the comparative analysis of adaptation. Evolution 51:1341–1351.
50. Hansen, T. F. 2012. Adaptive landscapes and macroevolutionary dynamics. Pages 205–226 in E. Svensson and R. Calsbeek, eds. The adaptive landscape in evolutionary biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
51. Hansen, T. F. 2014. Use and misuse of comparative methods in the study of adaptation. Pages 351–379 in L. Z. Garamszegi, ed. Modern phylogenetic comparative methods and their application in evolutionary biology. Springer, Berlin.
52. Hansen, T. F., and E. P. Martins. 1996. Translating between microevolutionary process and macroevolutionary patterns: the correlation structure of interspecific data. Evolution 50:1404–1417.
53. Harmon, L. J., J. B. Losos, T. J. Davies, R. G. Gillespie, J. L. Gittleman, W. B. Jennings, K. H. Kozak, et al. 2010. Early bursts of body size and shape evolution are rare in comparative data. Evolution 64:2385–2396.
54. Harvey, P. H., and M. D. Pagel. 1991. The comparative method in evolutionary biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
55. Heath, T. A., J. P. Huelsenbeck, and T. Stadler. 2014. The fossilized birth-death process for coherent calibration of divergence-time estimates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 111:E2957–E2966.
56. Ho, L. S. T., and C. Ané. 2014. Intrinsic inference difficulties for trait evolution with Ornstein-Uhlenbeck models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 5:1133–1146.
57. Hoekstra, H. E., R. J. Hirschmann, R. A. Bundey, P. A. Insel, and J. P. Crossland. 2006. A single amino acid mutation contributes to adaptive beach mouse color pattern. Science 313:101–104.
58. Hoyal Cuthill, J. F., and M. Charleston. 2015. Wing patterning genes and coevolution of Müllerian mimicry in Heliconius butterflies: support from phylogeography, cophylogeny, and divergence times. Evolution 69:3082–3096.
59. Hubbell, S. P. 2001. The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Monographs in Population Biology 32. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
60. Hunt, G. 2012. Measuring rates of phenotypic evolution and the inseparability of tempo and mode. Paleobiology 38:351–373.
61. Hunt, G., and G. Slater. 2016. Integrating paleontological and phylogenetic approaches to macroevolution. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 47:189–213.
62. Ingram, T., and Y. Kai. 2014. The geography of morphological convergence in the radiations of Pacific Sebastes rockfishes. American Naturalist 184:E115–E131.
63. Ingram, T., and D. L. Mahler. 2013. SURFACE: detecting convergent evolution from comparative data by fitting Ornstein-Uhlenbeck models with stepwise Akaike information criterion. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4:416–425.
64. Khabbazian, M., R. Kriebel, K. Rohe, and C. Ané. 2016. Fast and accurate detection of evolutionary shifts in Ornstein-Uhlenbeck models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 7:811–824.
65. Kozak, K. H., R. W. Mendyk, and J. J. Wiens. 2009. Can parallel diversification occur in sympatry? repeated patterns of body-size evolution in coexisting clades of North American salamanders. Evolution 63:1769–1784
66. Lande, R. 1976. Natural selection and random genetic drift in phenotypic evolution. Evolution 30:314–334.
67. Landis, M. J., J. G. Schraiber, and M. Liang. 2013. Phylogenetic analysis using Lévy processes: finding jumps in the evolution of continuous traits. Systematic Biology 62:193–204.
68. Leal, M., J. A. Rodríguez-Robles, and J. B. Losos. 1998. An experimental study of interspecific interactions between two Puerto Rican Anolis lizards. Oecologia 117:273–278.
69. Leander, B. S. 2008. Different modes of convergent evolution reflect phylogenetic distances: a reply to Arendt and Reznick. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23:481–482.
70. Losos, J. B. 1992. The evolution of convergent structure in Caribbean Anolis communities. Systematic Biology 41:403–420.
71. Losos, J. B. 2009. Lizards in an evolutionary tree: ecology and adaptive radiation of anoles. University of California Press, Berkeley.
72. Losos, J. B. 2011a. Convergence, adaptation and constraint. Evolution 65:1827–1840.
73. Losos, J. B. 2011b. Seeing the forest for the trees: the limitations of phylogenies in comparative biology. American Naturalist 177:709–727.
74. MacArthur, R., and R. Levins. 1967. The limiting similarity, convergence, and divergence of coexisting species. American Naturalist 101:377–385.
75. Maddison, W. P., and R. G. FitzJohn. 2015. The unsolved challenge to phylogenetic correlation tests for categorical characters. Systematic Biology 64:127–136.
76. Mahler, D. L., and T. Ingram. 2014. Phylogenetic comparative methods for studying clade-wide convergence. Pages 425–450 in L. Z. Garamszegi, ed. Modern phylogenetic comparative methods and their application in evolutionary biology. Springer, Berlin.
77. Mahler, D. L., T. Ingram, L. J. Revell, and J. B. Losos. 2013. Exceptional convergence on the macroevolutionary landscape in island lizard radiations. Science 341:292–295.
78. Mahler, D. L., L. J. Revell, R. E. Glor, and J. B. Losos. 2010. Ecological opportunity and the rate of morphological evolution in the diversification of Greater Antillean anoles. Evolution 64:2731–2745.
79. Maraun, M., G. Erdmann, G. Schulz, R. A. Norton, S. Scheu, and K. Domes. 2009. Multiple convergent evolution of arboreal life in oribatid mites indicates the primacy of ecology. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276:3219–3227.
80. Marazzi, B., C. Ané, M. F. Simon, A. Delgado-Salinas, M. Luckow, and M. J. Sanderson. 2012. Locating evolutionary precursors on a phylogenetic tree. Evolution 66:3918–3930.
81. Maynard Smith, J., R. Burian, S. Kauffman, P. Alberch, J. Campbell, B. Goodwin, R. Lande, et al. 1985. Developmental constraints and evolution: a perspective from the Mountain Lake conference on development and evolution. Quarterly Review of Biology 60:265–287.
82. McCune, A. R. 1987. Lakes as laboratories of evolution: endemic fishes and environmental cyclicity. Palaios 2:446–454.
83. McCune, A. R., and R. L. Carlson. 2004. Twenty ways to lose your bladder: common natural mutants in zebrafish and widespread convergence of swim bladder loss among teleost fishes. Evolution and Development 6:246–259.
84. Meyer, J. R., D. T. Dobias, J. S. Weitz, J. E. Barrick, R. T. Quick, and R. E. Lenski. 2012. Repeatability and contingency in the evolution of a key innovation in phage lambda. Science 335:428–432.
85. Mitchell, J. S. 2015. Extant-only comparative methods fail to recover the disparity preserved in the bird fossil record. Evolution 69:2414–2424.
86. Moen, D. S., H. Morlon, and J. J. Wiens. 2016. Testing convergence versus history: convergence dominates phenotypic evolution for over 150 million years in frogs. Systematic Biology 65:146–160.
87. Morlon, H. 2014. Phylogenetic approaches for studying diversification. Ecology Letters 17:508–525.
88. Muschick, M., A. Indermaur, and W. Salzburger. 2012. Convergent evolution within an adaptive radiation of cichlid fishes. Current Biology 22:2362–2368.
89. Nevo, E. 1979. Adaptive convergence and divergence of subterranean mammals. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 10:269–308.
90. Nuismer, S. L., and L. J. Harmon. 2015. Predicting rates of interspecific interaction from phylogenetic trees. Ecology Letters 18:17–27.
91. Oakley, T. H., and C. W. Cunningham. 2000. Independent contrasts succeed where ancestor reconstruction fails in a known bacteriophage phylogeny. Evolution 54:397–405.
92. O’Meara, B. C., C. Ané, M. J. Sanderson, and P. C. Wainwright. 2006. Testing for different rates of continuous trait evolution using likelihood. Evolution 60:922–933.
93. O’Meara, B. C., and J. M. Beaulieu. 2014. Modelling stabilizing selection: the attraction of Ornstein-Uhlenbeck models. Pages 381–393 in L. Z. Garamszegi, ed. Modern phylogenetic comparative methods and their application in evolutionary biology. Springer, Berlin.
94. Oster, G., and P. Alberch. 1982. Evolution and bifurcation of developmental programs. Evolution 1982:444–459.
95. Pacala, S., and J. Roughgarden. 1982. Resource partitioning and interspecific competition in two two-species insular Anolis lizard communities. Science 217:444–446.
96. Pagel, M. D., and P. H. Harvey. 1989. Comparative methods for examining adaptation depend on evolutionary models. Folia Primatologica 53:203–220.
97. Pascoal, S., T. Cezard, A. Eik-Nes, K. Gharbi, J. Majewska, E. Payne, M. G. Ritchie, et al. 2014. Rapid convergent evolution in wild crickets. Current Biology 24:1369–1374.
98. Pennell, M. W. 2014. Modern phylogenetic comparative methods and their application in evolutionary biology: concepts and practice. Systematic Biology 64:161–163.
99. Pennell, M. W., R. G. FitzJohn, W. K. Cornwell, and L. J. Harmon. 2015. Model adequacy and the macroevolution of angiosperm functional traits. American Naturalist 186:E33–E50.
100. Pennell, M. W., and L. J. Harmon. 2013. An integrative view of phylogenetic comparative methods: connections to population genetics, community ecology, and paleobiology. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1289:90–105.
101. Pennell, M. W., L. J. Harmon, and J. C. Uyeda. 2014. Is there room for punctuated equilibrium in macroevolution? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 29:23–32.
102. Posada, D., and K. A. Crandall. 1998. Modeltest: testing the model of DNA substitution. Bioinformatics 14:817–818.
103. Rabosky, D. L. 2012. Testing the time-for-speciation effect in the assembly of regional biotas. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 3:224–233.
104. Rabosky, D. L., and E. E. Goldberg. 2015. Model inadequacy and mistaken inferences of trait-dependent speciation. Systematic Biology 64:340–355.
105. Revell, L. J., L. J. Harmon, and D. C. Collar. 2008. Phylogenetic signal, evolutionary process, and rate. Systematic Biology 57:591–601.
106. Ronquist, F., S. Klopfstein, L. Vilhelmsen, S. Schulmeister, D. L. Murray, and A. P. Rasnitsyn. 2012. A total-evidence approach to dating with fossils, applied to the early radiation of the Hymenoptera. Systematic Biology 61:973–999.
107. Rosenblum, E. B., C. E. Parent, and E. E. Brandt. 2014. The molecular basis of phenotypic convergence. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 45:203–226.
108. Rosenblum, E. B., H. Römpler, T. Schöneberg, and H. E. Hoekstra. 2010. Molecular and functional basis of phenotypic convergence in white lizards at White Sands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 107:2113–2117.
109. Rosindell, J., L. J. Harmon, and R. S. Etienne. 2015. Unifying ecology and macroevolution with individual-based theory. Ecology Letters 18:472–482.
110. Scheffer, M., and E. H. van Nes. 2006. Self-organized similarity, the evolutionary emergence of groups of similar species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 103:6230–6235.
111. Schluter, D. 1996. Adaptive radiation along genetic lines of least resistance. Evolution 50:1766–1774.
112. Schluter, D. 2000. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
113. Schluter, D., T. Price, A. Ø. Mooers, and D. Ludwig. 1997. Likelihood of ancestor states in adaptive radiation. Evolution 51:1699–1711.
114. Scotland, R. W. 2011. What is parallelism? Evolution and Development 13:214–227.
115. Sidlauskas, B. 2008. Continuous and arrested morphological diversification in sister clades of characiform fishes: a phylomorphospace approach. Evolution 62:3135–3156.
116. Siepielski, A. M., and C. W. Benkman. 2007. Convergent patterns in the selection mosaic for two North American bird-dispersed pines. Ecological Monographs 77:203–220.
117. Slater, G. J. 2015. Iterative adaptive radiations of fossil canids show no evidence for diversity-dependent trait evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 112:4897–4902.
118. Slater, G. J., and L. J. Harmon. 2013. Unifying fossils and phylogenies for comparative analyses of diversification and trait evolution. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4:699–702.
119. Slater, G. J., L. J. Harmon, and M. E. Alfaro. 2012. Integrating fossils with molecular phylogenies improves inferences of trait evolution. Evolution 66:3931–3944.
120. Slater, G. J., and M. W. Pennell. 2014. Robust regression and posterior predictive simulation increase power to detect early bursts of trait evolution. Systematic Biology 63:293–308.
121. Speed, M. P., and K. Arbuckle. 2016. Quantification provides a conceptual basis for convergent evolution. Biological Reviews 92:815–829.doi:10.1111/brv.12257.
122. Spor, A., D. J. Kvitek, T. Nidelet, J. Martin, J. Legrand, C. Dillmann, A. Bourgais, et al. 2014. Phenotypic and genotypic convergences are influenced by historical contingency and environment in yeast. Evolution 68:772–790.
123. Stayton, C. T. 2008. Is convergence surprising? an examination of the frequency of convergence in simulated datasets. Journal of Theoretical Biology 252:1–14.
124. Stayton, C. T. 2011. Biomechanics on the half shell: functional performance influences patterns of morphological variation in the emydid turtle carapace. Zoology 114:213–223.
125. Stayton, C. T. 2015a. The definition, recognition, and interpretation of convergent evolution, and two new measures for quantifying and assessing the significance of convergence. Evolution 69:2140–2153.
126. Stayton, C. T. 2015b. What does convergent evolution mean? the interpretation of convergence and its implications in the search for limits to evolution. Interface Focus 5:20150039.
127. Stern, D. L. 2013. The genetic causes of convergent evolution. Nature Reviews Genetics 14:751–764.
128. Streisfeld, M. A., and M. D. Rausher. 2011. Population genetics, pleiotropy, and the preferential fixation of mutations during adaptive evolution. Evolution 65:629–642.
129. Stuart, Y. E., T. S. Campbell, P. A. Hohenlohe, R. G. Reynolds, L. J. Revell, and J. B. Losos. 2014. Rapid evolution of a native species following invasion by a congener. Science 346:463–466.
130. Uyeda, J. C., T. F. Hansen, S. J. Arnold, and J. Pienaar. 2011. The million-year wait for macroevolutionary bursts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 108:15908–15913.
131. Uyeda, J. C., and L. J. Harmon. 2014. A novel Bayesian method for inferring and interpreting the dynamics of adaptive landscapes from phylogenetic comparative data. Systematic Biology 63:902–918.
132. Vellend, M. 2016. The theory of ecological communities. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
133. Venditti, C., A. Meade, and M. Pagel. 2011. Multiple routes to mammalian diversity. Nature 479:393–396.
134. Wagner, C. E., L. J. Harmon, and O. Seehausen. 2012. Ecological opportunity and sexual selection together predict adaptive radiation. Nature 487:366–369.
135. Wagner, P. J. 2000. Exhaustion of morphologic character states among fossil taxa. Evolution 54:365–386.
136. Wake, D. B. 1982. Functional and developmental constraints and opportunities in the evolution of feeding systems in urodeles. Pages 51–66 in D. Mossakowski and G. Roth, eds. Environmental adaptation and evolution. Fischer, New York
137. Wake, D. B., and A. Larson. 1987. Multidimensional analysis of an evolving lineage. Science 238:42–48.
138. Wake, D. B., M. H. Wake, and C. D. Specht. 2011. Homoplasy: from detecting pattern to determining process and mechanism of evolution. Science 331:1032–1035.
139. Weber, M. G., and A. A. Agrawal. 2012. Phylogeny, ecology, and the coupling of comparative and experimental approaches. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 27:394–403.
140. Williams, E. E. 1983. Ecomorphs, faunas, island size, and diverse end points in island radiations of Anolis. Pages 326–370 in R. B. Huey, E. R. Pianka, and T. W. Schoener, eds. Lizard ecology: studies of a model organism. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
141. Yeaman, S., K. A. Hodgins, K. E. Lotterhos, H. Suren, S. Nadeau, J. C. Degner, K. A. Nurkowski, et al. 2016. Convergent local adaptation to climate in distantly related conifers. Science 353:1431–1433.
142. Yoder, J. B., and S. L. Nuismer. 2010. When does coevolution promote diversification? American Naturalist 176:802–817.
143. Zhang, C., T. Stadler, S. Klopfstein, T. A. Heath, and F. Ronquist. 2016. Total-evidence dating under the fossilized birth-death process. Systematic Biology 65:228–249.