Continuous and arrested morphological diversification in sister clades of characiform fishes: A phylomorphospace approach

Evolution

Volumn 62, Issue 12, 2008, Pages 3135-3156

  Sidlauskas, Brian ^a,b  

^a NATIONAL EVOLUTIONARY SYNTHESIS CENTER   (United States)

^b DEPARTMENT OF PALEOBIOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Comparative methods; Disparity; Morphological evolution; Morphometrics; Phylogenetics; Tempo and mode

Indexed keywords

CLADISTICS; COMPARATIVE STUDY; EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; MORPHOLOGY; MORPHOMETRY; PHYLOGENY; POLYMORPHISM; SKULL; TELEOST;

ADAPTATION; ANIMAL; ARTICLE; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; COMPUTER SIMULATION; EVOLUTION; FISH; GENETICS; HISTOLOGY; PHYLOGENY; PHYSIOLOGY; SKULL; SPECIES DIFFERENCE;

ADAPTATION, BIOLOGICAL; ANIMALS; COMPUTER SIMULATION; EVOLUTION; FISHES; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; PHYLOGENY; SKULL; SPECIES SPECIFICITY;

PISCES;

EID: 57249105410     PISSN: 00143820     EISSN: 15585646     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00519.x     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Ackerly, D. D., and R. Nyffeler. 2004. Evolutionary diversification of continuous traits: phylogenetic tests and application to seed size in the California flora. Evol. Ecol. 18 : 249 272.
2. Allender, C. J., O. Seehausen, M. E. Knight, G. F. Turner, and N. Maclean. 2003. Divergent selection during speciation of Lake Malawi cichlid fishes inferred from parallel radiations in nuptial coloration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100 : 14074 14079.
3. Bambach, R. K., A. H. Knoll, and J. J. J. Sepkoski. 2002. Anatomical and ecological constraints on Phanerozoic animal diversity in the marine realm. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99 : 6854 6859.
4. Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P., ed. 2004. Phylogenetic supertrees. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
5. Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P., and M. J. Sanderson. 2001. Assessment of the accuracy of matrix representation with parsimony analysis supertree construction. Syst. Biol. 50 : 565 579.
6. Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P., M. Cardillo, K. E. Jones, R. D. E. MacPhee, R. M. D. Beck, R. Grenyer, S. A. Price, R. A. Vos, J. L. Gittleman, and A. Purvis. 2007. The delayed rise of present-day mammals. Nature 446 : 507 512.
7. Blomberg, S. P., and T. Garland. 2002. Tempo and mode in evolution: phylogenetic inertia, adaptation and comparative methods. J. Evol. Biol. 15 : 899 910.
8. Bookstein, F. L., B. Chernoff, R. L. Elder, J. M. Humphries, G. R. Smith, and R. E. Strauss. 1985. Morphometrics in evolutionary biology: the geometry of size and shape change. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
9. Bowen, S. H. 1979. A nutritional constraint in detritivory by fishes: the stunted population of Sarotherodon mossambicus in Lake Sibaya, South Africa. Ecol. Monogr. 49 : 17 31.
10. Bowen, S. H. 1981. Digestion and assimilation of periphytic detrital aggregate by Tilapia mossambica. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 110 : 239 245.
11. Bowen, S. H. 1983. Detritivory in Neotropical fish communities. Environ. Biol. Fishes 9 : 137 144.
12. Bowen, S. H. 1988. Detritivory and herbivory. Pp. 243 247 in C. Lévêque, M. N. Bruton, and G. W. Ssentongo, eds. Biology and ecology of African freshwater fishes. ORSTOM, Paris.
13. Bowen, S. H., A. A. Bonetto, and M. O. Ahlgren. 1984. Microorganisms and detritus in the diet of a typical neotropical riverine detritivore, Prochilodus platensis (Pisces: Prochilodontidae). Limnolog. Oceanogr. 29 : 1120 1122.
14. Briggs, D. E. G., R. A. Fortey, and M. A. Wills. 1992. Morphological disparity in the Cambrian. Science 256 : 1670 1673.
15. Buckup, P. A. 1998. Relationships of the Characidiinae and phylogeny of characiform fishes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi). Pp. 123 144 in L. R. Malabarba, R. E. Reis, R. P. Vari, Z. M. S. Lucena, and C. A. S. Lucena, eds. Phylogeny and classification of Neotropical fishes. EDIPUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brasil.
16. Butler, M. A., and A. A. King. 2004. Phylogenetic comparative analysis: a modeling approach for adaptive evolution. Am. Nat. 164 : 683 (613).
17. Calcagnotto, D., S. A. Schaefer, and R. DeSalle. 2005. Relationships among characiform fishes inferred from analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 36 : 135 153.
18. Castro, R. M. C., and R. P. Vari. 2003. Family prochilodontidae. Pp. 65 70 in R. E. Reis, S. O. Kullander, and C. J. Ferraris, eds. Jr. Check list of the freshwater fishes of South and Central America. EDIPUCRS, Porto Alegre.
19. Castro, R. M. C., and R. P. Vari. 2004. Detritivores of the South American fish family Prochilodontidae (Ostariophysi: Characiformes): a phylogenetic and revisionary study. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 622 : 1 190.
20. Catalán, P., E. A. Kellogg, and R. G. Olmstead. 1997. Phylogeny of Poaceae subfamily Pooideae based on Chloroplast ndhF gene sequences. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 8 : 150 166.
21. Ciampaglio, C. N. 2002. Determining the role that ecological and developmental constraints play in controlling disparity: examples from the crinoid and blastozoan fossil record. Evol. Dev. 4 : 170 188.
22. Ciampaglio, C. N. 2004. Measuring changes in articulate brachiopod morphology before and after the Permian mass extinction event: do developmental constraints limit morphological innovation Evol. Dev. 6 : 260 274.
23. Ciampaglio, C. N., M. Kemp, and D. W. McShea. 2001. Detecting changes in morphospace occupation patterns in the fossil record: characterization and analysis of measures of disparity. Paleobiology 27 : 695 715.
24. Clabaut, C., P. M. Bunje, W. Salzburger, and A. Meyer. 2007. Geometric morphometric analyses provide evidence for the adaptive character of the Tanganyikan cichlid fish radiations. Evolution 61 : 560 578.
25. Collar, D. C., and P. C. Wainwright. 2006. Discordance between morphological and mechanical diversity in the feeding mechanism of centrarchid fishes. Evolution 60 : 2575 2584.
26. Collar, D. C., T. J. Near, and P. C. Wainwright. 2005. Comparative analysis of morphological diversity: does disparity accumulate at the same rate in two lineages of centrarchid fishes Evolution 59 : 1783 1794.
27. Cunningham, C. W. 1998. Reconstructing ancestral character states: a critical reappraisal. Trends Ecol. Evol 13 : 361 366.
28. Daget, J. 1962a. Le genre Citharidium (Poissons, Characiformes). Bulletin d'Institut Français de l'Afrique Noire A 24 : 505 522.
29. Daget, J. 1962b. Le genre Citharinus (Poissons, Characiformes). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 66 : 81 106.
30. de Queiroz, A., and J. Gatesy. 2007. The supermatrix approach to systematics. Trends Ecol. Evol. 22 : 34 41.
31. Derrickson, E. M., and R. E. Ricklefs. 1988. Taxon-dependent diversification of life-history traits and the perception of phylogenetic constraints. Funct. Ecol. 2 : 417 423.
32. Diaz-Uriarte, R., and T. J. Garland. 1996. Testing hypotheses of correlated evolution using phylogenetically independent contrasts: sensitivity to deviations from Brownian motion. Syst. Biol. 45 : 27 47.
33. Driskell, A., C. Ane, J. Burleigh, M. McMahon, B. O'Meara, and M. Sanderson. 2004. Prospects for building the tree of life from large sequence databases. Science 306 : 1172 1174.
34. Dyreson, E., and W. P. Maddison. 2003. Rhetenor package for morphometrics for the Mesquite system.
35. Erwin, D. H. 2007. Disparity: morphological pattern and developmental context. Paleontology 50 : 57 73.
36. Felsenstein, J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. Am. Nat. 125 : 1 15.
37. Flatt, T. 2005. The evolutionary genetics of canalization. Q. Rev. Biol. 80 : 287 316.
38. Flecker, A. S. 1996. Ecosystem engineering by a dominant detritivore in a diverse tropical stream. Ecology 77 : 1845 1854.
39. Foote, M. 1990. Nearest-neighbor analysis of trilobite morphospace. Syst. Zool. 39 : 371 382.
40. Foote, M. 1994. Morphological disparity in Ordovician-Devonian crinoids and the early saturation of morphological space. Paleobiology 20 : 320 344.
41. Foote, M. 1996a. Ecological controls on the evolutionary recovery of post-Paleozoic crinoids. Science 274 : 1492 1494.
42. Foote, M. 1996b. Models of morphological diversification. Pp. 62 86 in D. Jablonski, D. H. Erwin, and J. Lipps, eds. Evolutionary paleobiology. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
43. Foote, M. 1997. The evolution of morphological diversity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 28 : 129 152.
44. Freckleton, R. P., and P. H. Harvey. 2006. Detecting non-Brownian trait evolution in adaptive radiations. PLoS Biol. 4 : 2104 2111.
45. Futuyma, D. J. 2003. Accounting for biological diversity. Evolution 57 : 1216 1220.
46. Garland, T. 1992. Rate tests for phenotypic evolution using phylogenetically independent contrasts. Am. Nat. 140 : 509 519.
47. Garland, T., A. W. Dickerman, C. M. Janis, and J. A. Jones. 1993. Phylogenetic analysis of covariance by computer simulation. Syst. Biol. 42 : 265 292.
48. Gatesy, J., C. Matthee, R. DeSalle, and C. Hayashi. 2002. Resolution of a supertree/supermatrix paradox. Syst. Biol. 51 : 652 664.
49. Geary, D. H. 1990. Patterns of evolutionary tempo and mode in the radiation of Melanopsis (Gastropoda, Melanopsidae). Paleobiology 16 : 492 511.
50. Géry, J., P. Planquette, and P.-Y. Le Bail. 1988. Nomenclature des espèces du groupe Leporinus maculatus et formes affines des Guyanes (Pisces, Characoidei, Anostomidae). Rev. Suisse Zool. 95 : 699 713.
51. Gittenberger, E. 1991. What about non-adaptive radiation Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 43 : 263 272.
52. Goloboff, P. A. 1999. Analyzing large data sets in reasonable times: solutions for composite optima. 15 : 415 428.
53. Goulding, M., M. Leal Carvalho, and E. Ferreira. 1988. Rio Negro, rich life in poor water. Amazonian diversity and foodchain ecology as seen through fish communities. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague.
54. Hansen, T. F. 1997. Stabilizing selection and the comparative analysis of adaptation. Evolution 51 : 1341 1351.
55. Harmon, L. J., J. A. Schulte, A. Larson, and J. B. Losos. 2003. Tempo and mode of evolutionary radiation in iguanian lizards. Science 301 : 961 964.
56. Harmon, L. J., J. T. Weir, C. D. Brock, R. E. Glor, and W. Challenger. 2008. GEIGER: investigating evolutionary radiations. Bioinformatics 24 : 129 131.
57. Harvey, P. H., and A. Rambaut. 2000. Comparative analyses for adaptive radiations. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 355 : 1599 1605.
58. Hunt, G. 2007. Evolutionary divergence in directions of high phenotypic variance in the ostracode genus Poseidonamicus. Evolution 61 : 1560 1576.
59. Hunter, J. P. 1998. Key innovations and the ecology of macroevolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13 : 31 36.
60. Hunter, J. P., and J. Jernvall. 1995. The hypocone as a key innovation in mammalian evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92 : 10718 10722.
61. Jablonski, D. 2000. Micro- and macroevolution: scale and hierarchy in evolutionary biology and paleobiology. Pp. 15 52 in D. H. Erwin, and S. L. Wing., eds. Deep time: paleobiology's perspective. The Paleontological Society.
62. Klingenberg, C. P., and W. Ekau. 1996. A combined morphometric and phylogenetic analysis of an ecomorphological trend: pelagization in Antarctic fishes (Perciformes: Notothenidae). Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 59 : 143 177.
63. Kozak, K. H., D. W. Weisrock, and A. Larson. 2006. Rapid lineage accumulation in a non-adaptive radiation: phylogenetic analysis of diversification rates in eastern North American woodland salamanders (Plethodontidae: Plethodon). Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 273 : 539 546.
64. Losos, J. B. 1999. Uncertainty in the reconstruction of ancestral character states and limitations on the use of phylogenetic comparative methods. Anim. Behav. 58 : 1319 1324.
65. Lovette, I. J., E. Bermingham, and R. E. Ricklefs. 2002. Clade-specific morphological diversification and adaptive radiation in Hawaiian songbirds. Proc. R. Soc. Biol. Sci. Ser. B 269 : 37 42.
66. Lundberg, J. G. 1997. Freshwater fishes and their paleobiotic implications. Pp. 67 91 in R. F. Kay, R. H. Madden, R. L. Cifelli, and J. G. Flynn, eds. Vertebrate paleontology in the Neotropics. The Miocene fauna of La Venta, Colombia. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
67. Macholán, M. 2006. A geometric morphometric analysis of the shape of the first upper molar in mice of the genus Mus (Muridae, Rodentia). J. Zool. (Lond.) 270 : 672 681.
68. Maddison, W. P. 1991. Squared-change parsimony reconstructions of ancestral states for continuous-valued characters on a phylogenetic tree. Syst. Biol. 40 : 304 314.
69. Maddison, W. P., and D. R. Maddison. 2006. Mesquite: a modular system for evolutionary analysis. Version 1.12. Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.
70. Maechler, M. 2008. The Cluster Package. Reference manual. Available at http://cran.r-project.org (accessed September 21, 2008).
71. Maechler, M., P. Rousseeuw, A. Struyf, and M. Hubert. 2005. Cluster analysis basics and extensions. unpublished.
72. Martins, E. P. 1999. Estimation of ancestral states of continuous characters: a computer simulation study. Syst. Biol. 48 : 642 650.
73. McGhee, G. R. 1999. Theoretical morphology: the concept and its application. Columbia Univ. Press, New York, NY.
74. McGowan, A. 2004. Ammonoid taxonomic and morphologic recovery patterns after the Permian-Triassic. Geology 32 : 665 668.
75. McShea, D. W. 1994. Mechanisms of large-scale evolutionary trends. Evolution 48 : 1747 1763.
76. Nixon, K. C. 1999. The parsimony ratchet, a new method for rapid parsimony analysis. Cladistics 15 : 407 414.
77. Nixon, K. C., and J. M. Carpenter. 1996. On simultaneous analysis. Cladistics 12 : 221 241.
78. O'Leary, M. A., and J. Gatesy. 2007. Impact of increased character sampling on the phylogeny of Cetartiodactyla (Mammalia): combined analysis including fossils. 23 : 1 46.
79. O'Meara, B., C. Ané, M. J. Sanderson, and P. C. Wainwright. 2006. Testing for different rates of evolution using likelihood. Evolution 50 : 922 933.
80. Omland, K. E. 1999. The assumptions and challenges of ancestral state reconstructions. Syst. Biol. 48 : 604 611.
81. Pagel, M. 1997. Inferring evolutionary processes from phylogenies. Zool. Scr. 26 : 331 348.
82. Pagel, M. 1999. Inferring the historical patterns of biological evolution. Nature 401 : 877.
83. Paradis, E., J. Claude, and K. Strimmer. 2004. APE: analyses of phylogenetics and evolution in R language. Bioinformatics (Oxf.) 20 : 289 290.
84. Patiño R. A. 1973. Cultivo experimental de peces en estanques. Cespedesia 2 : 75 125.
85. Pie, M. R., and J. S. Weitz. 2005. A null model of morphospace occupation. Am. Nat. 166 : E1 E13.
86. Pieczyńska, E. 1993. Detritus and nutrient dynamics in the shore zone of lakes: a review. Hydrobiologia 251 : 49 58.
87. Raup, D. M. 1966. Geometric analysis of shell coiling. J. Paleontol. 40 : 1178 1190.
88. Raup, D. M. 1977. Stochastic models in evolutionary paleontology. Pp. 59 78 in A. Hallam, ed. Patterns of evolution. Elsevier.
89. Raup, D. M. 1985. Mathematical models of cladogenesis. Paleobiology 11 : 42 52.
90. Raup, D. M. 1994. The role of extinction in evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91 : 6758 6763.
91. Raup, D. M., and S. J. Gould. 1974. Stochastic simulation and evolution of morphology - towards a nomothetic paleontology. Syst. Zool. 23 : 305 322.
92. Reis, R. E., S. O. Kullander, and C. J. Ferraris Jr. 2003. Check list of the freshwater fishes of South and Central America. EDIPUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brasil.
93. Ricklefs, R. E. 2006. Time, species, and the generation of trait variance in clades. Syst. Biol. 55 : 1 9.
94. Roberts, T. R. 1975. Characoid fish teeth from Miocene deposits in the Cuenca basin. J. Zool. (Lond.) 175 : 259 271.
95. Rohlf, F. J. 1993. Relative warp analysis and an example of its application to mosquito wings. Pp. 132 159 in L. F. Marcus, E. Bello, and A. Garcia-Valdecasas, eds. Contributions to morphometrics. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid.
96. Rohlf, F. J. 2002. Geometric morphometrics and phylogeny. Pp. 175 193 in N. MacLeod, and P. L. Forey, eds. Morphology, shape and phylogeny. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
97. Rohlf, F. J. 2003. tpsSmall v. 1.20. SUNY, Stony Brook.
98. Rohlf, F. J. 2006. tpsDig v 2.10. SUNY, Stony Brook.
99. Rohlf, F. J. 2007. tpsRelw v. 1.45. SUNY, Stony Brook.
100. Rohlf, F. J., and D. Slice. 1990. Extensions of the Procrustes method for the optimal superimposition of landmarks. Syst. Zool. 39 : 40 59.
101. Rosenzweig, M. L., and R. D. McCord. 1991. Incumbent replacement: evidence for long-term evolutionary progress. Paleobiology 17 : 202 213.
102. Roy, K. 1996. The roles of mass extinction and biotic interaction in large-scale replacements: a reexamination using the fossil record of stromboidean gastropods. Paleobiology 22 : 436 452.
103. Salisbury, B. A., and J. Kim. 2001. Ancestral state estimation and taxon sampling density. Syst. Biol. 50 : 557 564.
104. Sanderson, M. J., A. Purvis, and C. Henze. 1998. Phylogenetic supertrees: assembling the trees of life. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13 : 105 109.
105. Santos, G. M. D. 1980. Aspectos de sistemática e morfologia de Schizodon fasciatus Agassiz 1829, Rhytiodus microlepis Kner 1859 e Rhytiodus argenteofuscus Kner, 1829 (Osteichthyes, Characoidei, Anostomidae) do lago Janauacá-Amazonas. Acta Amazonica 10 : 635 649.
106. Scharcansky, A., and C. A. S. D. Lucena. 2007. Caenotropus schizodon, a new chilodontid fish from the Rio Tapajós drainage, Brazil (Ostariophysi: Characiformes: Chilodontidae). Zootaxa 1557 : 59 66.
107. Schluter, D. 2000. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.
108. Schluter, D., T. D. Price, A. Ø. Mooers, and D. Ludwig. 1997. Likelihood of ancestor states in adaptive radiation. Evolution 51 : 1699 1711.
109. Schopf, J. W. 1994. Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91 : 6735 6742.
110. Schultz, T. R., R. B. Cocroft, and G. A. Churchill. 1996. The reconstruction of ancestral character states. Evolution 50 : 504 511.
111. Sears, K. 2004. Constraints on the morphological evolution of marsupial shoulder girdles. Evolution 58 : 2353 2370.
112. Shen, B., L. Dong, S. Xiao, and M. Kowalewski. 2008. The Avalon explosion: evolution of Ediacara morphospace. Science 319 : 81 84.
113. Sidlauskas, B. L. 2007. Testing for unequal rates of morphological diversification in the absence of a detailed phylogeny: a case study from characiform fishes. Evolution 61 : 299 316.
114. Sidlauskas, B. L., and R. P. Vari. 2008. Phylogenetic relationships within the South American fish family Anostomidae (Teleostei, Ostariophysi, Characiformes). Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 154 : 70 210.
115. Sidlauskas, B., J. C. Garavello, and J. Jellen. 2007. A new Schizodon (Characiformes: Anostomidae) from the Río Orinoco system, with a redescription of S. isognathus from the Rio Paraguay system. Copeia 2007 : 711 725.
116. Sikes, D. S., and P. O. Lewis. 2001. PAUPRat: PAUP* implementation of the parsimony ratchet.
117. Simpson, G. G. 1944. Tempo and mode in evolution. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
118. Smith, L. H., and P. M. Bunje. 1999. Morphologic diversity of inarticulate brachiopods through the Phanerozoic. Paleobiology 25 : 396 408.
119. Stayton, C. T. 2005. Morphological evolution of the lizard skull: a geometric morphometrics survey. J. Morphol. 263 : 47 59.
120. Stayton, C. T., and M. Ruta. 2006. Geometric morphometrics of the skull roof of stereospondylls (Amphibia: Temnospondyli). Paleontology 49 : 307 337.
121. Stone, J. R. 2003. Mapping cladograms into morphospaces. Acta Zoologica 84 : 63 68.
122. Swofford, D. 2002. PAUP: phylogenetic analysis using parsimony. Sinauer Associates, Inc, Sunderland, MA.
123. Taylor, B. W., A. S. Flecker, and R. O. Hall. 2006. Loss of a harvested fish species disrupts carbon flow in a diverse tropical river. Science 313 : 833 836.
124. Van Valen, L. M. 1974. Multivariate structural statistics in natural history. J. Theor. Biol. 45 : 235 247.
125. Vari, R. P. 1982. Systematics of the Neotropical characoid genus Curimatopsis (Pisces, Characoidei). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 373 : iii+1 28.
126. Vari, R. P. 1983. Phylogenetic relationships of the families Curimatidae, Prochilodontidae, Anostomidae, and Chilodontidae (Pisces: Characiformes). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 378 : iii+1 60.
127. Vari, R. P. 1984. Systematics of the Neotropical characiform genus Potamorhina (Pisces: Characiformes). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 400 : iii+1 36.
128. Vari, R. P. 1989a. A phylogenetic study of the Neotropical characiform family Curimatidae (Pisces: Ostariophysi). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 471 : iv+1 71.
129. Vari, R. P. 1989b. Systematics of the Neotropical characiform genus Curimata Bosc (Pisces: Characiformes). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 474 : iii+1 63.
130. Vari, R. P. 1989c. Systematics of the Neotropical characiform genus Psectrogaster Eigenmann and Eigenmann (Pisces,Characiformes). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 481 : iii + 1 43.
131. Vari, R. P. 1989d. Systematics of the Neotropical characiform genus Pseudocurimata Fernández-Yépez (Pisces: Ostariophysi). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 490 : iii+1 28.
132. Vari, R. P. 1991. Systematics of the Neotropical characiform genus Steindachnerina Fowler (Pisces: Ostariophysi). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 507 : iv+1 118.
133. Vari, R. P. 1992a. Systematics of the Neotropical characiform genus Cyphocharax Fowler (Pisces, Ostariophysi). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 529 : iv+1 137.
134. Vari, R. P. 1992b. Systematics of the Neotropical curimatid genus Curimatella Eigenmann and Eigenmann (Pisces, Ostariophysi), with summary comments on the Curimatidae. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 533 : iii+1 48.
135. Vari, R. P., and H. Nijssen. 1986. Curimata punctata, a new uniquely pigmented species of curimatid from the Marowijne River basin of Surinam and French Guiana (Pisces, Characiformes). Beaufortia 36 : 51 55.
136. Vari, R. P., and R. E. Reis. 1995. Curimata acutirostris, a new fish (Teleostei: Characiformes: Curimatidae) from the rio Araguaia, Brazil: description and phylogenetic relationships. Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters 6 : 297 304.
137. Vari, R. P., and T. A. Blackledge. 1996. New curimatid, Cyphocharax laticlavius (Ostariophysi, Characiformes) from Amazonian Ecuador, with a major range extension for C. gouldingi. Copeia 1996 : 109 113.
138. Vari, R. P., and F. Chang. 2006. Cyphocharax derhami, a new species (Ostariophysi: Characiformes: Curimatidae) from northeastern Peru. Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters 17 : 93 96.
139. Vari, R. P., and H. Ortega. 1997. A new Chilodus species from southeastern Peru (Ostariophysi: Characiformes: Chilodontidae): description, phylogenetic discussion and comments on the distribution of other chilodontids. Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters 8 : 71 80.
140. Vari, R. P., R. M. C. Castro, and S. J. Raredon. 1995. The Neotropical fish family Chilodontidae (Teleostei: Characiformes): a phylogenetic study and a revision of Caenotropus Günther. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 577 : iii+1 32.
141. Villier, L., and D. Korn. 2004. Morphological disparity of ammonoids and the mark of Permian mass extinctions. Science 306 : 264 266.
142. Wagner, P. J. 1995. Testing evolutionary constraint hypotheses with early Paleozoic gastropods. Paleobiology 21 : 248 272.
143. Wagner, G. P., and L. Altenberg. 1996. Complex adaptations and the evolution of evolvability. Evolution 50 : 967 976.
144. Warheit, K. I., J. D. Forman, J. B. Losos, and D. B. Miles. 1999. Morphological diversification and adaptive radiation: a comparison of two diverse lizard clades. Evolution 53 : 1226 1234.
145. Webster, A. J., and A. Purvis. 2002. Ancestral states and evolutionary rates of continuous characters. Pp. 247 268 in N. MacLeod, and P. L. Forey, eds. Morphology, shape and phylogeny. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
146. Wesley-Hunt, G. D. 2005. The morphological diversification of carnivores in North America. Paleobiology 31 : 35 55.
147. Winterbottom, R. 1980. Systematics, osteology and phylogenetic relationships of fishes of the ostariophysan subfamily Anostominae (Characoidei, Anostomidae). Life Sci. Contrib. R. Ontario Mus. 123 : 112.
148. Yang, Z., and B. Rannala. 1997. Bayesian phylogenetic inference using DNA sequences: a Markov chain monte carlo method. Mol. Biol. Evol. 14 : 717 724.