Alternative pre-approved and novel therapies for the treatment of anthrax

BMC Infectious Diseases

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2016, Pages

  Head, Breanne M ^a   Rubinstein, Ethan ^a   Meyers, Adrienne F A ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^b PUBLIC HEALTH AGENCY OF CANADA   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI   (Kenya)

Author keywords

Anthrax; Anti toxins; Antibiotics; Bacillus anthracis; Spore; Therapeutics; Toxin

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; ANTHRACIMYCIN; ANTHRAX TOXIN; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AURANOFIN; BAULAMYCIN A; BAULAMYCIN B; CATHELICIDIN ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDE LL 37; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLINDAMYCIN; CLOMIPRAMINE; CURCUMIN; DAPTOMYCIN; DOXYCYCLINE; GARENOXACIN; IDEBENONE; LEVOFLOXACIN; LINEZOLID; MEROPENEM; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; MOXIFLOXACIN; OBILTOXAXIMAB; OFLOXACIN; PENFLURIDOL; PENICILLIN G; RAXIBACUMAB; RIFAMPICIN; TELITHROMYCIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALORTIN; ALPHA GLOBULIN; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTINEOPLASTIC ANTIBIOTIC; ANTITOXIN; BACTERIAL ANTIGEN; BACTERIAL TOXIN; BAUMYCINS; DAUNORUBICIN; DNA HELICASE; DOXORUBICIN; INTER-ALPHA-INHIBITOR; INTERFERON INDUCING AGENT; POLYKETIDE; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE; SERINE PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; TILORONE;

ANAPHYLAXIS; ANTHRAX; ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ARTHRALGIA; BACILLUS ANTHRACIS; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; CELL DIVISION; DNA REPLICATION; DRUG ANTAGONISM; DRUG APPROVAL; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG SAFETY; HUMAN; INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS; LIMB PAIN; MYALGIA; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PRURITUS; RASH; REVIEW; RNA SYNTHESIS; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SKIN MANIFESTATION; SOMNOLENCE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TENDINITIS; TENDON RUPTURE; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; DRUG DEVELOPMENT; VIRULENCE;

ALPHA-GLOBULINS; ANTHRAX; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; ANTIBIOTICS, ANTINEOPLASTIC; ANTIBODIES, MONOCLONAL; ANTIBODIES, MONOCLONAL, HUMANIZED; ANTIGENS, BACTERIAL; ANTITOXINS; BACILLUS ANTHRACIS; BACTERIAL TOXINS; DAUNORUBICIN; DNA HELICASES; DOXORUBICIN; DRUG DISCOVERY; FLUOROQUINOLONES; HUMANS; INTERFERON INDUCERS; LEVOFLOXACIN; LINEZOLID; MOXIFLOXACIN; OFLOXACIN; POLYKETIDES; SERINE PROTEINASE INHIBITORS; TILORONE; VIRULENCE;

EID: 84994528985     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14712334     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-1951-y     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. Kolsto AB, Tourasse NJ, Okstad OA. What sets Bacillus anthracis apart from other bacillus species. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2009;63:451-76.
2. Inglesby T, O`Toole T, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, et al. Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002, updated recommendations for management. JAMA. 2002;287:2236-52.
3. Hicks CW, Sweeney DA, Cui X, Li Y, Eichacker PQ. An overview of anthrax infection including the recently identified form of disease in injection drug users. Intensive Care Med. 2012;38:1092-104.
4. Dugdale D, Vyas JM, Zieve D. Anthrax. A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. 2015. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001325.htm. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.
5. Doganay M, Metan G, Alp E. A review of cutaneous anthrax and its outcome. J Infect Public Health. 2010;3:98-105.
6. Demirdag K, Ozden M, Saral Y, Kalkan A, Kilic SS, Ozdarendeli A. Cutaneous anthrax in adults: A review of 25 cases in the Eastern Anatolian Region of Turkey. Infection. 2003;31:327-30.
7. Kanafani ZA, Ghossain A, Sharara AI, Hatem JM, Kanj SS. Endemic gastrointestinal anthrax in 1960s Lebanon: Clinical manifestations and surgical findings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;9:520-5.
8. Onerci M, Ergin NT. Oropharyngealer Milzbrand (Oropharyngeal anthrax). Laryngorhinootologie. 1993;72:350-1.
9. Barakat LA, Quentzel HL, Jernigan JA, Kirschke DL, Griffith K, Spear SM, et al. Fatal inhalational anthrax in a 94-year-old connecticut woman. JAMA. 2002;287:863-8.
10. Jon E, Holty C, Bravata DM, Hau L, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, et al. Systematic Review: A century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:270-80.
11. Jernigan JA, Stephens DS, Ashford DA, Omenaca C, Topiel MS, Galbraith M, et al. Bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax: the first 10 cases reported in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:933-44.
12. Ringertz SH, Høiby EA, Jensenius M, Mæhlen I, Caugant DA, Myklebust A, et al. Injectional anthrax in a heroin skin-popper. Lancet. 2000;356:1574-5.
13. Ramsay CN, Stirling A, Smith J, Hawkins G, Brooks T, Hood J, et al. An outbreak of infection with Bacillus anthracis in injecting drug users in Scotland. Euro Surveill. 2010;15:19465.
14. Powell AG, Crozier JE, Hodgson H, Galloway DJ. A case of septicemic anthrax in an intravenous drug user. BMC Infect Dis. 2011. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-21.
15. Radun D, Bernard H, Altmann M, Schoneberg I, Bochat V, Van T, et al. Preliminary case report of fatal anthrax in an injecting drug user in North-Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, December 2009. Euro Surveill. 2010;15:19464.
16. Keim P, Smith KL, Keys C, Takahashi H, Kurata T, Kaufmann A. Molecular investigation of the Aum Shinrikyo anthrax release in Kameido, Japan. J Clin Microbiol. 2001;39:4566-7.
17. Jernigan DB, Raghunathan PL, Bell BP, Brechner R, Bresnitz EA, Butler JC, et al. Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1019-28.
18. Abramova FA, Grinberg LM, Yampolskaya OV, Walker DH. Pathology of inhalational anthrax in 42 cases from the Sverdlovsk outbreak of 1979. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90:2291-4.
19. Doganay M, Metan G. Human anthrax in Turkey from 1990 to 2007. Vector Borne Zoonotic Diseases. 2009;9:131-40.
20. Ozkurt Z, Parlak M, Tastan R, Dinler U, Saglam YS, Ozyurek SF. Anthrax in eastern Turkey, 1992-2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:1939-41.
21. Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine: World Anthrax Data Site. http://www.vetmed.lsu.edu/whocc/mp_world.html. 2003. Accessed 3 March 2014
22. Hugh-Jones M. 1996-97 global anthrax report. J Appl Microbiol. 1991;87:189-91.
23. Velimirovic B. Bacillus anthracis in Europe. Rev Sci Tech. 1984;3:527-59.
24. Chakraborty A, Khan SU, Hasnat MA, Parveen S, Islam SM, Mikolon A, et al. Anthrax Outbreaks in Bangladesh, 2009-2010. Am J Trop Mede Hyg. 2012;86:703-10.
25. Del Giudice P. Cutaneous complications of intravenous drug abuse. Br J Derm. 2004;150:1-10.
26. Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, Langmuir A, Popova I, Shelokov A, et al. The sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979. Science. 1994;266:1202-8.
27. Bourgogne A, Drysdale M, Hilsenbeck SG, Peterson SN, Koehler TM. Global Effects of Virulence Gene Regulators in a Bacillus anthracis Strain with both Virulence Plasmids. Infect Immun. 2003;71:2736-43.
28. Chitlaru T, Altboum Z, Reuveny S, Shafferman A. Progress and novel strategies in vaccine development and treatment of anthrax. Immunol Rev. 2010;239:221-36.
29. Park JM, Greten FR, Li ZW, Karin M. Macrophage Apoptosis by Anthrax Lethal Factor through p38 MAP Kinase Inhibition. Science. 2002;297:2048-51.
30. Carson-Walter EB, Watkins DN, Nanda A, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, St Croix B. Cell surface tumor endothelial markers are conserved in mice and humans. Cancer Res. 2001;61:6649-55.
31. Scobie HM, Rainey GJ, Bradley KA, Young JA. Human capillary morphogenesis protein 2 functions as an anthrax toxin receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100:5170-4.
32. Klimpel KR, Molloy SS, Thomas G, Leppla SH. Anthrax toxin protective antigen is activated by a cell surface protease with the sequence specificity and catalytic properties of furin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89:10277-81.
33. Cunningham K, Lacy DB, Mogridge J, Collier RJ. Mapping the lethal factor and edema factor binding sites on oligomeric anthrax protective antigen. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99:7049-53.
34. Lacy DB, Mourez M, Fouassier A, Collier RJ. Mapping the anthrax protective antigen binding site on the lethal and edema factors. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:3006-10.
35. Miller CJ, Elliott JL, Collier RJ. Anthrax protective antigen: prepore-to-pore conversion. Biochem. 1999;38:10432-41.
36. Barth H, Aktories K, Popoff MR, Stiles BG. Binary bacterial toxins: Biochemistry, biology, and applications of common clostridium and bacillus proteins. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2004;68:373-402.
37. Leppla SH. Anthrax toxin edema factor: a bacterial adenylate cyclase that increases cyclic AMP concentrations in eukaryotic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982;79:3162-6.
38. John AT, Collier J. Anthrax toxin: receptor binding, internalization, pore formation, and translocation. Annu Rev Biochem. 2007;76:243-65.
39. Molloy S, Bresnahan P, Leppla S, Klimpel KR, Thomas G. Human furin is a calcium-dependent serine endoprotease that recognizes the sequence Argx-x-arg and efficiently cleaves anthrax toxin protective antigen. J Biol Chem. 2002;267:16396-402.
40. Tournuer JN, Paccani SR, Quesnel-Hellmann A, Baldari CT. Anthrax Toxins: A weapon to systematically dismantle the host immune defenses. Mol Aspects Med. 2009;30:456-66.
41. Moayeri M, Leppla SH. Cellular and systemic effects of anthrax lethal toxin and edema toxin. Mol Aspects Med. 2009;30:439-55.
42. Moayeri M, Leppla SH, Vrentas C, Pomerantsev AP, Liu S. Anthrax Pathogenesis. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2015;69:185-208.
43. Firoved AM, Miller GF, Moayeri M, Kakkar R, Shen Y, Wiggins JF, et al. Bacillus anthracis edema toxin causes extensive tissue lesions and rapid lethality in mice. Am J Pathol. 2005;167:1309-20.
44. Liu S, Zhang Y, Moayeri M, Liu J, Crown D, Fattah RJ, et al. Key tissue targets responsible for anthrax-toxin-induced lethality. Nature. 2013;501:63-8.
45. Suffredini DA, Sampath-Kumar H, Li Y, Ohanjanian L, Remy KE, Cui X, Eichacker PQ. Does Bacillus anthracis Lethal Toxin Directly Depress Myocardial Function? A Review of Clinical Cases and Preclinical Studies. Toxins. 2015;7:5417-34.
46. Department of Health and Human Services. Prescription drug products; doxycycline and penicillin G procaine administration for inhalational anthrax (post-exposure). Food and Drug Administration. 2001;66:55679-82.
47. U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Ciprofloxacin [Fact sheet]. 2013. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/019857s062lbl.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2014.
48. Henderson DW, Peacock S, Belton FC. Observations on the prophylaxis of experimental pulmonary anthrax in the monkey. J Hygiene. 1956;54:28-36.
49. Friedlander AM, Welkos SL, Pitt ML, Ezzell JW, Worsham PL, Rose KJ, et al. Postexposure prophylaxis against experimental inhalation anthrax. J Infect Dis. 1993;167:1239-43.
50. Kao LM, Bush K, Barnewall R, Estep J, Thalacker FW, Olson PH, et al. Pharmacokinetic considerations and efficacy of levofloxacin in an inhalational anthrax (postexposure) rhesus monkey model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;50:3535-42.
51. Louie A, VanScoy BD, Brown DL, Kulawy RW, Heine HS, Drusanoa GL. Impact of spores on the comparative efficacies of five antibiotics for treatment of Bacillus anthracis in an in vitro hollow fiber pharmacodynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:1229-39.
52. Louie A, VanScoy BD, Heine III HS, Liu W, Abshire T, Holman K, et al. Differential effects of linezolid and ciprofloxacin on toxin production by Bacillus anthracis in an in vitro pharmacodynamic system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;56:513-7.
53. Shepard CW, Soriano-Gabarro M, Zell ER, Hayslett J, Lukacs S, Goldstein S, et al. Antimicrobial postexposure prophylaxis for anthrax: Adverse events and adherence. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1124-32.
54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax and adverse events from antimicrobial prophylaxis. MMWR. 2001;50:973-6.
55. Athamna A, Athamna M, Abu-Rashed N, Medlej B, Bast DJ, Rubinstein E. Selection of Bacillus anthracis isolates resistant to antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54:424-8.
56. Brook I, Elliott TB, Pryor II HI, Sautter TE, Gnade BT, Thakar JH, et al. In vitro resistance of Bacillus anthracis Sterne to doxycycline, macrolides and quinolones. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2001;18:559-62.
57. Pomerantsev AP, Shishkova NA, Marinin LI. Comparison of therapeutic effects of antibiotics of the tetracycline group in the treatment of anthrax caused by a strain inheriting tet-gene of plasmid pBC16. Antibiot Khimioter. 1992;37:31-4.
58. Chen Y, Tenover FC, Koehler TM. β-Lactamase Gene Expression in a Penicillin-Resistant Bacillus anthracis Strain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:4873-7.
59. Lalitha MK, Thomas MK. Penicillin resistance in Bacillus anthracis. Lancet. 1997;349:1522-4.
60. Price LB, Vogler A, Pearson T, Busch JD, Schupp JM, Keim P. In vitro selection and characterization of Bacillus anthracis mutants with high-level resistance to ciprofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:2362-5.
61. Baillie L, Hebdon R, Flick-Smith H, Williamson D. Characterisation of the immune response to the UK human anthrax vaccine. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2004;42:267-70.
62. Crowe SR, Garman L, Engler RJM, Farris AD, Ballard JD, Harley JB, et al. Anthrax vaccination induced anti-lethal factor IgG: Fine specificity and neutralizing capacity. Vaccine. 2011;29:3670-8.
63. Stern EJ, Uhde KB, Shadomy SV, Messonnier N. Conference report on public health and clinical guidelines for anthrax. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008. doi: 10.3201/eid1404.070969.
64. Rynkiewicz D, Rathkopf M, Sim I, Waytes AT, Hopkins RJ, Girid L, et al. Marked enhancement of the immune response to BioThrax®(Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed) by the TLR9 agonist CPG 7909 in healthy volunteers. Vaccine. 2011;29:6313-20.
65. Roy J, Kumar UC, Machiraju PK, Muttineni RK, Kumar S, Gundla R, et al. In silico studies on anthrax lethal factor inhibitors: Pharmacophore modeling and virtual screening approaches towards designing of novel inhibitors for a killer. J Mol Graph Model. 2010;29:256-65.
66. Ionin B, Hopkins RJ, Pleune B, Sivko GS, Reid FM, Clement KH, et al. Evaluation of immunogenicity and efficacy of anthrax vaccine adsorbed for postexposure prophylaxis. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2013;20:1016-26.
67. Gorse GJ, Keitel W, Keyserling H, Taylor DN, Lock M, Alves K, et al. Immunogenicity and tolerance of ascending doses of a recombinant protective antigen (rPA102) anthrax vaccine: a randomized, double-blinded, controlled, multi-center trial. Vaccine. 2006;24:5950-9.
68. Campbell JD, Clement KH, Wasserman SS, Donegan S, Chrisley L, Kotloff KL. Safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of a recombinant protective antigen anthrax vaccine given to healthy adults. Hum Vacc Immunother. 2007;3:205-11.
69. Wasserman GM, Grabenstein JD, Pittman PR, Rubertone MV, Gibbs PP, Wang LZ, et al. Analysis of adverse events after anthrax immunization in US Army medical personnel. J Occup Environ Med. 2003;45:222-33.
70. Ryan MAK, Smith TC, Sevick CJ, Honner WK, Loach RA, Moore CA, et al. Birth defects among infants born to women who received anthrax vaccine in pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168:434-42.
71. Tross D, Klinma DM. Effect of CpG oligonucleotides on vaccine-induced B cell memory. J Immunol. 2008;181:5785-90.
72. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Guidance for industry product development under the animal rule. 2014. http://www.fdanews.com/ext/resources/files/06/06-02-14-AnimalRule.pdf. Accessed 3 July 2014.
73. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Guidance for industry inhalational anthrax (post-exposure)- developing antimicrobial drugs. 2002. http://ocw.jhsph.edu/courses/DrugDevelopment/PDFs/DD0FDAGuidance:InhalationalAnthrax.pdf. Accessed 3 July 2014.
74. U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Floxin tablets [Fact sheet]. 2008. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/019735s059lbl.pdf. Accessed 3 July 2014.
75. U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Levaquin [Fact sheet]. 2008. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/021721s020_020635s57_020634s52_lbl.pdf. Accessed 3 July 2014.
76. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA- approved medication guide avelox. 2014. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/UCM231731.pdf. Accessed 3 July 2014.
77. Hooper DC. Mode of action of fluoroquinolones. Drugs. 1999;58:6-10.
78. Turnidge J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones. Drugs. 1999;58 Suppl 2:29-36.
79. Li F, Nandy P, Chien S, Noel GJ, Tornoe CW. Pharmacometrics-based dose selection of levofloxacin as a treatment for post-exposure inhalational anthrax in children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:375-9.
80. Schadd UB. Use of quinolones in pediatrics. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1991;10:355-60.
81. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Zyvox [Fact sheet]. Pfizer Pharmacia and Upjohn Company. 2005. http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/06/briefing/2006-4254b_02_05_KP%20LinezolidFDAlabel52005.pdf. Accessed 4 July 2014.
82. Diekema DJ, Jones RN. Oxazolidinone antibiotics. Lancet. 2001;385:1975-82.
83. Swaney SM, Aoki H, Ganoza MC, Shinabarger DL. The oxazolidinone linezolid inhibits initiation of protein synthesis in bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:3251-5.
84. Stevens DL, Ma Y, Salmi DB, McIndoo E, Wallace RJ, Bryant AE. Impact of antibiotics on expression of virulence-associated exotoxin genes in methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:202-11.
85. Louie A, Heine HS, Kim K, Brown DL, VanScoy B, Liu W, et al. Use of in vitro pharmacodynamics model to derive a linezolid regimen that optimizes bacterial kill and prevents emergence of resistance in Bacillus anthracis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:2486-96.
86. Physicians' Desk Reference. Physician's desk reference. 61st ed. Montvale: Thomson PDR; 2007. p. 2652-60.
87. Canada Drugs. Zyvox. 2013. https://www.canadadrugs.com/products/zyvox/600mg. Accessed 12 July 2013.
88. Canada Drugs. Ciprofloxacin. 2013. https://www.canadadrugs.com/products/cipro/500mg. Accessed 12 July 2013.
89. Canada Drugs. Vibramycin. 2013. https://www.canadadrugs.com/products/vibramycin-caps/100mg. Accessed 12 July 2013.
90. Canada Drugs. Levaquin. 2013. https://www.canadadrugs.com/products/levaquin/500mg. Accessed 12 July 2013.
91. Bishop E, Melvani S, Howden BP, Charles PGP, Grayson ML. Good clinical outcomes but high rates of adverse reactions during linezolid therapy for serious infections: a proposed protocol for monitoring therapy in complex patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;50:1599-602.
92. Stalker DJ, Wajszczuk CP, Batts DH. Linezolid safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetics following oral dosing twice daily for 14.5 days [abstract A-115]. In: Program and abstracts of the 37th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (Toronto). Washington: American Society for Microbiology; 1997. p. 23.
93. Stalker DJ, Wajszczuk CP, Batts DH. Linezolid safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetics after intravenous dosing twice daily for 7.5 days. In: 37th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Toronto, Canada: 1997. p. abstr A-116.
94. Rubinstein E, Isturiz R, Standiford C, Smith G, Oliphant TH, Cammarata S, et al. Worldwide assessment of linezolid's clinical safety and tolerability: comparator-controlled phase III studies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:1824-31.
95. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Cubicin. Cubist Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 2011. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/021572s038lbl.pdf. Accessed 4 Feb 2015.
96. Hein HS, Bassett J, Miller L, Purcell BK, Byrne WR. Efficacy of Daptomycin against Bacillus anthracis in a Murine Model of Anthrax spore inhalation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:4471.
97. Xing Y, Wang W, Dai S, Lio T, Tan J, Qu G, et al. Daptomycin exerts rapid bactericidal activity against Bacillus anthracis without disrupting membrane integrity. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2014;35:211-8.
98. Athamna A, Athamna M, Nura A, Shlyakov E, Bast DJ, Farrell D, Rubinstein E. Is in vitro antibiotic combination more effective than single-drug therapy against Anthrax? Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49:1323-5.
99. Karginov VA, Robinson TM, Riemenschneider J, Golding B, Kennedy M, Shiloach J, Alibek K. Treatment of anthrax infection with combination of cipro£oxacin and antibodies to protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2004;40:71-4.
100. Head BM, Alfa M, Sitar DS, Rubinstein E, Meyers FA. The in vitro evaluation of the effect of linezolid and levofloxacin on Bacillus anthracis toxin production, spore formation and cell growth. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkw427.
101. McKay GA, Reddy R, Arhin F, Belley A, Lehoux D, Moeck G, et al. Triaminotriazine DNA helicase inhibitors with antibacterial activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2006;16:1286-90.
102. Zhang Y, Yang F, Kao YC, Kurilla MG, Pompliano DL, Dicker IB. Homogenous assays for Escherichia coli DnaB-stimulated DnaG primase and DnaB helicase and their use in screening for chemical inhibitors. Anal Biochem. 2002;304:174-9.
103. Earnshaw DL, Moore KJ, Greenwood CJ, Djaballah H, Jurewicz AJ, Murray KJ, et al. Time-resolved fluorescence energy transfer DNA helicase assays for high throughput screening. J Biomol Screen. 1999;4:239-48.
104. Aiello D, Barnes MH, Biswas EE, Biswas SB, Gu S, Williams JD, et al. Discovery, characterization and comparison of inhibitors of Bacillus anthracis and staphylococcus aureus replicative DNA helicases. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2009;17:4466-76.
105. Li B, Pai R, Di M, Aiello D, Barnes MH, Butler MM, et al. Coumarin-Based Inhibitors of Bacillus anthracis and Staphylococcus aureus replicative DNA helicase: chemical optimization, biological evaluation, and antibacterial activities. J Med Chem. 2012;55:10896-908.
106. Li B, Pai R, Aiello D, Di M, Barnes MH, Peet NP, et al. Optimization of a novel potent and selective bacterial DNA helicase inhibitor scaffold from a high throughput screening hit. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2013;23:3481-6.
107. Biswas T, Green KD, Garneau-Tsodikova S, Tsodikov OV. Discovery of Inhibitors of Bacillus anthracis Primase DnaG. Biochem. 2013;52:6905-10.
108. Kuchta RD, Stengel G. Mechanism and evolution of DNA primases. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1804;2010:1180-9.
109. Sanyal G, Doig P. Bacterial DNA replication enzymes as targets for antibacterial drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Dis. 2012;7:327-39.
110. Jang KH, Nam SJ, Locke JB, Kauffman CA, Beatty DS, Paul LA, et al. Anthracimycin, a Potent Anthrax Antibiotic from a Marine-Derived Actinomycete. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2013;52:7822-4.
111. Hensler ME, Jang KH, Thienphrapa W, Vuong L, Tran DN, Soubih E, et al. Anthracimycin activity against contemporary methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus. J antibiotics. 2014;67:549-53.
112. Sakoulas G, Bayer AS, Pogliano J, Tsuji BT, Yang SJ, Mishra NN, et al. Ampicillin enhances daptomycin-and cationic host defense peptide-mediated killing of ampicillin-and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:838-44.
113. Finlay BB, Hancock RE. Can innate immunity be enhanced to treat microbial infections. Nature Rev Microbiol. 2004;2:497-504.
114. Hancock RE, Diamond G. The role of cationic antimicrobial peptides in innate host defenses. Trends Microbiol. 2000;8:402-10.
115. Lisanby MW, Swiecki MK, Dizon BLP, Pflughoeft KJ, Koehler TM, Kearney JF. Cathelicidin administration protects mice from Bacillus anthracis spore challenge. J Immunol. 2008;181:4989-5000.
116. Jones MB, Jani R, Ren D, Wood TK, Blaser MJ. Inhibition of Bacillus anthracis growth and virulence-gene expression by inhibitors of quorum-sensing. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1881-8.
117. Foss MH, Weibel DB. Oligochlorophens Are Potent Inhibitors of Bacillus anthracis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:3988-90.
118. Tripathi A, Schofield MM, Chlipala GE, Schultz PJ, Yim I, Newmister SA, et al. Baulamycins A and B, Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics Identified as Inhibitors of Siderophore Biosynthesis in Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus anthracis. J Am Chem Soc. 2014;136:1579-86.
119. Turnbull PC, Sirianni NM, LeBron CI, Samaan MN, Sutton FN, Reyes AE, et al. MICs of selected antibiotics for Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus mycoides from a range of clinical and environmental sources as determined by the Etest. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42:3626-34.
120. Lock RL, Harry EJ. Cell-division inhibitors: new insights for future antibiotics. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2008;7:324-38.
121. Michie KA, Lowe J. Dynamic filaments of the bacterial cytoskeleton. Annu Rev Biochem. 2006;75:467-92.
122. Shih YL, Rothfield L. The bacterial cytoskeleton. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2006;70:729-54.
123. Moir DT, Opperman TJ, Butler MM, Bowlin TL. New classes of antibiotics. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2012;12:535-44.
124. Quadri LE. Strategic paradigm shifts in the antimicrobial drug discovery process of the 21st century. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2007;7:230-7.
125. Miethke M, Marahiel MA. Sideophore-based iron acquisition and pathogen control. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2007;71:413-51.
126. Ren D, Sims JJ, Wood TK. Inhibition of biofilm formation and swarming of Escherichia coli by(5Z)-4-bromo-5-(bromomethylene)-3-butyl-2(5H)-furanone. Environ Microbiol. 2001;3:731-6.
127. Chen Z, Moayeri M, Purcell R. Monoclonal Antibody Therapies against Anthrax. Toxins. 2011;3:1004-19.
128. Kummerfeldt CE. Raxibacumab: potential role in the treatment of inhalational anthrax. Infect Drug Resist. 2014;7:101-9.
129. Mazumdar S. Raxibacumab. MAbs. 2009;1:531-8.
130. U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Raxibacumab. Human Genome Sciences. 2012. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2012/125349s000lbl.pdf. Accessed 26 Aug 2016
131. U. S. Food and Drug Administration. ANTHIM® (obiltoxaximab) injection. Elusys Therapeutics, Inc. 2016. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2016/125509lbl.pdf. Accessed 26 Aug 2016.
132. Opal SM, Lim YP, Cristofaro P, Artenstein AW, Kessimian N, DelSesto D, et al. Inter-α inhibitor proteins: a novel therapeutics strategy for experimental anthrax infection. Shock. 2011;35:42-4.
133. Opal SM, Artenstein AW, Cristofaro PA, Jhung JW, Palardy JE, Parejo NA, et al. Inter-alpha-inhibitor proteins are endogenous furin inhibitors and provide protection against experimental anthrax intoxication. Infect Immun. 2005;73:5101-5.
134. Ying Z, Chen H, Li YM, Zheng SS, Chen YG, Li LJ, et al. Thymosin alpha1-and ulinastatin-based immunomodulatory strategy for sepsis arising from intra-abdominal infection due to carbapenem-resistant bacteria. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:723-30.
135. Yumin L, Hao C, Xun L, Wence Z, Minyan H, Chiriva-Internati M, et al. A new immunomodulatory therapy for severe sepsis: ulinastatin plus thymosin. J Intensive Care Med. 2009;24:47-53.
136. Ammon HP, Wahl MA. Pharmacology of Curcuma longa. Planta Med. 1991;57:1-7.
137. Kurup PNV. Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Lucknow. India: Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha;1979; p 78.
138. Zhang Y, Gu Y, Lee HM, Hambardjieva E, Vrankova K, Golub LM, et al. Design, synthesis and biological activity of new polyenolic inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases: a focus on chemically-modified curcumins. Curr Med Chem. 2012;19:4348-58.
139. Antonelli AC, Zhang Y, Golub LM, Johnson F, Simon SR. Inhibition of anthrax lethal factor by curcumin and chemically modified curcumin derivatives. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2014;29:663-9.
140. Gupta SC, Prasad S, Kim JH, Patchva S, Webb LJ, Priyadarsini IK, et al. Multitargeting by curcumin as revealed by molecular interaction studies. Nat Prod Rep. 2011;28:1937-55.
141. Zhang Y, Golub LM, Johnson F, Wishnia A. pKa, zinc-and serum albumin-binding of curcumin and two novel biologically-active chemically-modified curcumins. Curr Med Chem. 2012;19:4367-75.
142. Calugi C, Trabocchi A, Lalli C, Guarna A. D-Proline-based peptidomimetic inhibitors of anthrax lethal factor. Eur J Med Chem. 2012;56:96-107.
143. Li F, Chvyrkova I, Terzyan S, Wakeham N, Turner R, Ghosh AK, et al. Inhibition of anthrax lethal factor, lability of hydroxamate as a chelating group. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2012;94:1041-9.
144. Schepetkin IA, Khlebnikov AI, Kirpotina LN, Quinn MT. Novel small-molecule inhibitors of anthrax lethal factor identified by high-throughput screening. J Med Chem. 2006;49:5232-44.
145. Turk BE, Wong TY, Schwarzenbacher R, Jarrell ET, Leppla SH, Collier RJ, et al. The structural basis for substrate and inhibitor selectivity of the anthrax lethal factor. Nat Structural Mol Biol. 2004;11:60-6.
146. Newman ZL, Sirianni N, Mawhinney C, Lee MS, Leppla SH, Moayeri M, et al. Auranofin Protects against Anthrax Lethal Toxin-Induced Activation of the Nlrp1b Inflammasome. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:1028-35.
147. Kean WF, Hart L, Buchanan WW. Auranofin. Br J Rheumatol. 1997;36:560-72.
148. Bondeson J. The mechanisms of action of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: a review with emphasis on macrophage signal transduction and the induction of proinflammatory cytokines. Gen Pharmacol. 1997;29:127-50.
149. Lingetti M, Porfido FA, Ciarimboli M, Oliviero U, Cocozza M, Coto V, et al. Evaluation of the clinical efficacy of idebenone in patients affected by chronic cerebrovascular disorders. Arch Gerontol Geriat. 1992;15:225-37.
150. Seifert R, Dove S. Inhibitors of Bacillus anthracis edema factor. Pharmacol Therap. 2013;140:200-12.
151. Lübker C, Seifert R. Effects of 39 Compounds on Calmodulin-Regulated Adenylyl Cyclases AC1 and Bacillus anthracis Edema Factor. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0124017.
152. Wolff J, Cook GH, Goldhammer AR, Berkowitz SA. Calmodulin activates prokaryotic adenylate cyclase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980;77:3841-4.
153. Tang WJ, Krupinski J, Gilman AG. Expression and characterization of calmodulin-activated (type I) adenylylcyclase. J Biol Chem. 1991;266:8595-603.
154. Levin RM, Weiss B. Mechanism by which psychotropic drugs inhibit adenosine cyclic 3',5'-monophosphate phosphodiesterase of brain. Mol Pharmacol. 1976;12:581-9.
155. Weiss B, Prozialeck WC, Wallace TL. Interaction of drugs with calmodulin. Biochemical, pharmacological and clinical implications. Biochem Pharmacol. 1982;31:2217-26.
156. Douglass PM, Salins LL, Dikici E, Daunert S. Class-selective drug detection: Fluorescently-labeled calmodulin as the biorecognition element for phenothiazines and tricyclic antidepressants. Bioconjug Chem. 2002;13:1186-92.
157. Dikici E, Deo SK, Daunert S. A whole-cell assay for the high throughput screening of calmodulin antagonists. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2008;390:2073-9.
158. Gietzen K, Wuthrich A, Bader H. R 24571: A new powerful inhibitor of red blood cell Ca2 + -transport ATPase and of calmodulin-regulated functions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1981;101:418-25.
159. Moen ST, Blumentritt CA, Slater TM, Patel SD, Tutt CB, Estrella-Jimenez ME, et al. Testing the efficacy and toxicity of adenylyl cyclase inhibitors against enteric pathogens using in vitro and in vivo models of infection. Infect Immun. 2010;78:1740-9.
160. Chen D, Martin ZS, Soto C, Schein CH. Computational selection of inhibitors of Abeta aggregation and neuronal toxicity. Bioorg Med Chem. 2009;17:5189-97.
161. Barekzi NA, Felts AG, Poelstra KA, Slunt JB, Grainger DW. Locally delivered polyclonal antibodies potentiate intravenous antibiotic efficacy against gram-negative infections. Pharm Res. 2002;19:1801-7.
162. Collins MS, Roby RE. Protective activity of an intravenous immune globulin (human) enriched in antibody against lipopolysaccharide antigens of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Am J Med. 1984;76:168-74.
163. El-Zaim HS, Chopra AK, Peterson JW, Vasil ML, Heggers JP. Protection against exotoxin A (ETA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in mice with ETA-specific antipeptide antibodies. Infect Immun. 1998;66:5551-4.
164. Cryz SJ, Cross AS, Furer E, Chariatte N, Sado¡ JC, Germanier R. Activity of intravenous globulins against Klebsiella. J Lab Clin Med. 1986;108:182-9.