Monoclonal antibody therapies against anthrax

Toxins

Volumn 3, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 1004-1019

  Chen, Zhaochun ^a   Moayeri, Mahtab ^a   Purcell, Robert ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ALLERGY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES   (United States)

Author keywords

A cocktail of mAbs; Anti capsule mAbs; Anti EF mAbs; Anti LF mAbs; Anti PA mAbs; Bacillus anthracis; Post exposure treatment of anthrax

Indexed keywords

ANTHRAX IMMUNE GLOBULIN; ANTHRAX VACCINE; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; AVP 21D9; BACTERIAL PROTEIN; BOTULINUM TOXIN A; EF 13D; ETI 204; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G1; IQNLF; IQNPA; LF 10E; LF 11H; MDX 1303; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; RAXIBACUMAB; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VALORTIN; W1;

ANTHRAX; ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; BINDING AFFINITY; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG PROTEIN BINDING; DRUG SAFETY; EDEMA; EDITORIAL; HUMAN; LETHAL GENE; MONOTHERAPY; NONHUMAN; PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; SINGLE DRUG DOSE;

ANIMALS; ANTHRAX; ANTIBODIES, BACTERIAL; ANTIBODIES, MONOCLONAL; ANTIGENS, BACTERIAL; ANTITOXINS; BACILLUS ANTHRACIS; BACTERIAL TOXINS; EPITOPES; HUMANS; IMMUNOTHERAPY;

BACILLUS ANTHRACIS; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 80052155168     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726651     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/toxins3081004     Document Type: Editorial

References (86)

1. Jernigan, D.B.; Raghunathan, P.L.; Bell, B.P.; Brechner, R.; Bresnitz, E.A.; Butler, J.C.; Cetron, M.; Cohen, M.; Doyle, T.; Fischer, M.; et al. Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 1019-1028.
2. Inglesby, T.V.; O'Toole, T.; Henderson, D.A.; Bartlett, J.G.; Ascher, M.S.; Eitzen, E.; Friedlander, A.M.; Gerberding, J.; Hauer, J.; Hughes, J.; et al. Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002: updated recommendations for management. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2002, 287, 2236-2252.
3. van der Goot, G.; Young, J.A. Receptors of anthrax toxin and cell entry. Mol. Aspects Med. 2009, 30, 406-412.
4. Duesbery, N.S.; Webb, C.P.; Leppla, S.H.; Gordon, V.M.; Klimpel, K.R.; Copeland, T.D.; Ahn, N.G.; Oskarsson, M.K.; Fukasawa, K.; Paull, K.D.; et al. Proteolytic inactivation of MAP-kinase-kinase by anthrax lethal factor. Science 1998, 280, 734-737.
5. Vitale, G.; Bernardi, L.; Napolitani, G.; Mock, M.; Montecucco, C. Susceptibility of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase family members to proteolysis by anthrax lethal factor. Biochem. J. 2000, 352, 739-745.
6. Leppla, S.H. Anthrax toxin edema factor: a bacterial adenylate cyclase that increases cyclic AMP concentrations of eukaryotic cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1982, 79, 3162-3166.
7. Moayeri, M.; Leppla, S.H. Cellular and systemic effects of anthrax lethal toxin and edema toxin. Mol. Aspects Med. 2009, 30, 439-455.
8. Moayeri, M.; Leppla, S.H. The roles of anthrax toxin in pathogenesis. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2004, 7, 19-24.
9. Candela, T.; Fouet, A. Poly-gamma-glutamate in bacteria. Mol. Microbiol. 2006, 60, 1091-1098.
10. Drysdale, M.; Heninger, S.; Hutt, J.; Chen, Y.; Lyons, C.R.; Koehler, T.M. Capsule synthesis by Bacillus anthracis is required for dissemination in murine inhalation anthrax. EMBO J. 2005, 24, 221-227.
11. Ivins, B.E.; Ezzell, J.W., Jr.; Jemski, J.; Hedlund, K.W.; Ristroph, J.D.; Leppla, S.H. Immunization studies with attenuated strains of Bacillus anthracis. Infect. Immun. 1986, 52, 454-458.
12. Spencer, R.C. Bacillus anthracis. J. Clin. Pathol. 2003, 56, 182-187.
13. Stern, E.J.; Uhde, K.B.; Shadomy, S.V.; Messonnier, N. Conference report on public health and clinical guidelines for anthrax. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, e1.
14. Athamna, A.; Athamna, M.; Abu-Rashed, N.; Medlej, B.; Bast, D.J.; Rubinstein, E. Selection of Bacillus anthracis isolates resistant to antibiotics. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2004, 54, 424-428.
15. Price, L.B.; Vogler, A.; Pearson, T.; Busch, J.D.; Schupp, J.M.; Keim, P. In vitro selection and characterization of Bacillus anthracis mutants with high-level resistance to ciprofloxacin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2003, 47, 2362-2365.
16. Williams, J.L.; Noviello, S.S.; Griffith, K.S.; Wurtzel, H.; Hamborsky, J.; Perz, J.F.; Williams, I.T.; Hadler, J.L.; Swerdlow, D.L.; Ridzon, R. Anthrax postexposure prophylaxis in postal workers, Connecticut, 2001. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 1133-1137.
17. Shepard, C.W.; Soriano-Gabarro, M.; Zell, E.R.; Hayslett, J.; Lukacs, S.; Goldstein, S.; Factor, S.; Jones, J.; Ridzon, R.; Williams, I.; et al. Antimicrobial postexposure prophylaxis for anthrax: adverse events and adherence. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 1124-1132.
18. Casadevall, A. Passive antibody administration (immediate immunity) as a specific defense against biological weapons. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 833-841.
19. Clement, K.H.; Rudge, T.L., Jr.; Mayfield, H.J.; Carlton, L.A.; Hester, A.; Niemuth, N.A.; Sabourin, C.L.; Brys, A.M.; Quinn, C.P. Vaccination of rhesus macaques with the anthrax vaccine adsorbed vaccine produces a serum antibody response that effectively neutralizes receptor-bound protective antigen in vitro. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2010, 17, 1753-1762.
20. Little, S.F.; Ivins, B.E.; Fellows, P.F.; Pitt, M.L.; Norris, S.L.; Andrews, G.P. Defining a serological correlate of protection in rabbits for a recombinant anthrax vaccine. Vaccine 2004, 22, 422-430.
21. Pitt, M.L.; Little, S.F.; Ivins, B.E.; Fellows, P.; Barth, J.; Hewetson, J.; Gibbs, P.; Dertzbaugh, M.; Friedlander, A.M. In vitro correlate of immunity in a rabbit model of inhalational anthrax. Vaccine 2001, 19, 4768-4773.
22. Reuveny, S.; White, M.D.; Adar, Y.Y.; Kafri, Y.; Altboum, Z.; Gozes, Y.; Kobiler, D.; Shafferman, A.; Velan, B. Search for correlates of protective immunity conferred by anthrax vaccine. Infect. Immun. 2001, 69, 2888-2893.
23. Fellows, P.F.; Linscott, M.K.; Ivins, B.E.; Pitt, M.L.; Rossi, C.A.; Gibbs, P.H.; Friedlander, A.M. Efficacy of a human anthrax vaccine in guinea pigs, rabbits, and rhesus macaques against challenge by Bacillus anthracis isolates of diverse geographical origin. Vaccine 2001, 19, 3241-3247.
24. Ivins, B.E.; Pitt, M.L.; Fellows, P.F.; Farchaus, J.W.; Benner, G.E.; Waag, D.M.; Little, S.F.; Anderson, G.W., Jr.; Gibbs, P.H.; Friedlander, A.M. Comparative efficacy of experimental anthrax vaccine candidates against inhalation anthrax in rhesus macaques. Vaccine 1998, 16, 1141-1148.
25. Singh, Y.; Ivins, B.E.; Leppla, S.H. Study of immunization against anthrax with the purified recombinant protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis. Infect. Immun. 1998, 66, 3447-3448.
26. Welkos, S.L.; Friedlander, A.M. Comparative safety and efficacy against Bacillus anthracis of protective antigen and live vaccines in mice. Microb. Pathog. 1988, 5, 127-139.
27. Beedham, R.J.; Turnbull, P.C.; Williamson, E.D. Passive transfer of protection against Bacillus anthracis infection in a murine model. Vaccine 2001, 19, 4409-4416.
28. Kobiler, D.; Gozes, Y.; Rosenberg, H.; Marcus, D.; Reuveny, S.; Altboum, Z. Efficiency of protection of guinea pigs against infection with Bacillus anthracis spores by passive immunization. Infect. Immun. 2002, 70, 544-560.
29. Little, S.F.; Ivins, B.E.; Fellows, P.F.; Friedlander, A.M. Passive protection by polyclonal antibodies against Bacillus anthracis infection in guinea pigs. Infect. Immun. 1997, 65, 5171-5175.
30. Walsh, J.J.; Pesik, N.; Quinn, C.P.; Urdaneta, V.; Dykewicz, C.A.; Boyer, A.E.; Guarner, J.; Wilkins, P.; Norville, K.J.; Barr, J.R.; et al. A case of naturally acquired inhalation anthrax: clinical care and analyses of anti-protective antigen immunoglobulin G and lethal factor. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2007, 44, 968-971.
31. Little, S.F.; Novak, J.M.; Lowe, J.R.; Leppla, S.H.; Singh, Y.; Klimpel, K.R.; Lidgerding, B.C.; Friedlander, A.M. Characterization of lethal factor binding and cell receptor binding domains of protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis using monoclonal antibodies. Microbiology 1996, 142, 707-715.
32. Rosenfeld, R.; Marcus, H.; Ben-Arie, E.; Lachmi, B.E.; Mechaly, A.; Reuveny, S.; Gat, O.; Mazor, O.; Ordentlich, A. Isolation and chimerization of a highly neutralizing antibody conferring passive protection against lethal Bacillus anthracis infection. PLoS One 2009, 4, e6351.
33. Staats, H.F.; Alam, S.M.; Scearce, R.M.; Kirwan, S.M.; Zhang, J.X.; Gwinn, W.M.; Haynes, B.F. In vitro and in vivo characterization of anthrax anti-protective antigen and anti-lethal factor monoclonal antibodies after passive transfer in a mouse lethal toxin challenge model to define correlates of immunity. Infect. Immun. 2007, 75, 5443-5452.
34. Brossier, F.; Levy, M.; Landier, A.; Lafaye, P.; Mock, M. Functional analysis of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen by using neutralizing monoclonal antibodies. Infect. Immun. 2004, 72, 6313-6317.
35. Albrecht, M.T.; Li, H.; Williamson, E.D.; LeButt, C.S.; Flick-Smith, H.C.; Quinn, C.P.; Westra, H.; Galloway, D.; Mateczun, A.; Goldman, S.; et al. Human monoclonal antibodies against anthrax lethal factor and protective antigen act independently to protect against Bacillus anthracis infection and enhance endogenous immunity to anthrax. Infect. Immun. 2007, 75, 5425-5433.
36. Chen, Z.; Moayeri, M.; Zhou, Y.H.; Leppla, S.; Emerson, S.; Sebrell, A.; Yu, F.; Svitel, J.; Schuck, P.; Claire, M., St.; et al. Efficient neutralization of anthrax toxin by chimpanzee monoclonal antibodies against protective antigen. J. Infect. Dis. 2006, 193, 625-633.
37. Migone, T.S.; Subramanian, G.M.; Zhong, J.; Healey, L.M.; Corey, A.; Devalaraja, M.; Lo, L.; Ullrich, S.; Zimmerman, J.; Chen, A.; et al. Raxibacumab for the treatment of inhalational anthrax. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 361, 135-144.
38. Peterson, J.W.; Comer, J.E.; Baze, W.B.; Noffsinger, D.M.; Wenglikowski, A.; Walberg, K.G.; Hardcastle, J.; Pawlik, J.; Bush, K.; Taormina, J.; et al. Human monoclonal antibody AVP-21D9 to protective antigen reduces dissemination of the Bacillus anthracis Ames strain from the lungs in a rabbit model. Infect. Immun. 2007, 75, 3414-3424.
39. Vitale, L.; Blanset, D.; Lowy, I.; O'Neill, T.; Goldstein, J.; Little, S.F.; Andrews, G.P.; Dorough, G.; Taylor, R.K.; Keler, T. Prophylaxis and therapy of inhalational anthrax by a novel monoclonal antibody to protective antigen that mimics vaccine-induced immunity. Infect. Immun. 2006, 74, 5840-5847.
40. Mohamed, N.; Clagett, M.; Li, J.; Jones, S.; Pincus, S.; D'Alia, G.; Nardone, L.; Babin, M.; Spitalny, G.; Casey, L. A high-affinity monoclonal antibody to anthrax protective antigen passively protects rabbits before and after aerosolized Bacillus anthracis spore challenge. Infect. Immun. 2005, 73, 795-802.
41. Peterson, J.W.; Comer, J.E.; Noffsinger, D.M.; Wenglikowski, A.; Walberg, K.G.; Chatuev, B.M.; Chopra, A.K.; Stanberry, L.R.; Kang, A.S.; Scholz, W.W.; et al. Human monoclonal anti-protective antigen antibody completely protects rabbits and is synergistic with ciprofloxacin in protecting mice and guinea pigs against inhalation anthrax. Infect. Immun. 2006, 74, 1016-1024.
42. Radjainia, M.; Hyun, J.K.; Leysath, C.E.; Leppla, S.H.; Mitra, A.K. Anthrax toxin-neutralizing antibody reconfigures the protective antigen heptamer into a supercomplex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 14070-14074.
43. Sawada-Hirai, R.; Jiang, I.; Wang, F.; Sun, S.M.; Nedellec, R.; Ruther, P.; Alvarez, A.; Millis, D.; Morrow, P.R.; Kang, A.S. Human anti-anthrax protective antigen neutralizing monoclonal antibodies derived from donors vaccinated with anthrax vaccine adsorbed. J. Immun. Based Ther. Vaccines 2004, 2, 5.
44. Wang, F.; Ruther, P.; Jiang, I.; Sawada-Hirai, R.; Sun, S.M.; Nedellec, R.; Morrow, P.R.; Kang, A.S. Human monoclonal antibodies that neutralize anthrax toxin by inhibiting heptamer assembly. Hum. Antibodies 2004, 13, 105-110.
45. Lonberg, N. Human antibodies from transgenic animals. Nat. Biotechnol. 2005, 23, 1117-1125.
46. Altaweel, L.; Chen, Z.; Moayeri, M.; Cui, X.; Li, Y.; Su, J.; Fitz, Y.; Johnson, S.; Leppla, S.H.; Purcell, R.; et al. Delayed treatment with W1-mAb, a chimpanzee-derived monoclonal antibody against protective antigen, reduces mortality from challenges with anthrax edema or lethal toxin in rats and with anthrax spores in mice. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 39, 1439-1447.
47. Subramanian, G.M.; Cronin, P.W.; Poley, G.; Weinstein, A.; Stoughton, S.M.; Zhong, J.; Ou, Y.; Zmuda, J.F.; Osborn, B.L.; Freimuth, W.W. A phase 1 study of PAmAb, a fully human monoclonal antibody against Bacillus anthracis protective antigen, in healthy volunteers. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005, 41, 12-20.
48. Maynard, J.A.; Maassen, C.B.; Leppla, S.H.; Brasky, K.; Patterson, J.L.; Iverson, B.L.; Georgiou, G. Protection against anthrax toxin by recombinant antibody fragments correlates with antigen affinity. Nat. Biotechnol. 2002, 20, 597-601.
49. Deshpande, A.; Hammon, R.J.; Sanders, C.K.; Graves, S.W. Quantitative analysis of the effect of cell type and cellular differentiation on protective antigen binding to human target cells. FEBS Lett. 2006, 580, 4172-4175.
50. Wigelsworth, D.J.; Krantz, B.A.; Christensen, K.A.; Lacy, D.B.; Juris, S.J.; Collier, R.J. Binding stoichiometry and kinetics of the interaction of a human anthrax toxin receptor, CMG2, with protective antigen. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 23349-23356.
51. Liu, S.; Leung, H.J.; Leppla, S.H. Characterization of the interaction between anthrax toxin and its cellular receptors. Cell Microbiol. 2007, 9, 977-987.
52. Singh, Y.; Chaudhary, V.K.; Leppla, S.H. A deleted variant of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen is non-toxic and blocks anthrax toxin action in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 1989, 264, 19103-19107.
53. Liu, S.; Miller-Randolph, S.; Crown, D.; Moayeri, M.; Sastalla, I.; Okugawa, S.; Leppla, S.H. Anthrax toxin targeting of myeloid cells through the CMG2 receptor is essential for establishment of Bacillus anthracis infections in mice. Cell Host Microbe 2010, 8, 455-462.
54. Chen, Z.; Moayeri, M.; Crown, D.; Emerson, S.; Gorshkova, I.; Schuck, P.; Leppla, S.H.; Purcell, R.H. Novel chimpanzee/human monoclonal antibodies that neutralize anthrax lethal factor, and evidence for possible synergy with anti-protective antigen antibody. Infect. Immun. 2009, 77, 3902-3908.
55. Zhao, P.; Liang, X.; Kalbfleisch, J.; Koo, H.M.; Cao, B. Neutralizing monoclonal antibody against anthrax lethal factor inhibits intoxication in a mouse model. Hum. Antibodies 2003, 12, 129-135.
56. Little, S.F.; Leppla, S.H.; Friedlander, A.M. Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against the lethal factor component of Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin. Infect. Immun. 1990, 58, 1606-1613.
57. Lim, N.K.; Kim, J.H.; Oh, M.S.; Lee, S.; Kim, S.Y.; Kim, K.S.; Kang, H.J.; Hong, H.J.; Inn, K.S. An anthrax lethal factor-neutralizing monoclonal antibody protects rats before and after challenge with anthrax toxin. Infect. Immun. 2005, 73, 6547-6551.
58. Little, S.F.; Leppla, S.H.; Burnett, J.W.; Friedlander, A.M. Structure-function analysis of Bacillus anthracis edema factor by using monoclonal antibodies. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1994, 199, 676-682.
59. Chen, Z.; Moayeri, M.; Zhao, H.; Crown, D.; Leppla, S.H.; Purcell, R.H. Potent neutralization of anthrax edema toxin by a humanized monoclonal antibody that competes with calmodulin for edema factor binding. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 13487-13492.
60. Winterroth, L.; Rivera, J.; Nakouzi, A.S.; Dadachova, E.; Casadevall, A. Neutralizing monoclonal antibody to edema toxin and its effect on murine anthrax. Infect. Immun. 2010, 78, 2890-2898.
61. Pezard, C.; Berche, P.; Mock, M. Contribution of individual toxin components to virulence of Bacillus anthracis. Infect. Immun. 1991, 59, 3472-3477.
62. Taft, S.C.; Weiss, A.A. Neutralizing activity of vaccine-induced antibodies to two Bacillus anthracis toxin components, lethal factor and edema factor. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2008, 15, 71-75.
63. Wang, T.T.; Lucas, A.H. The capsule of Bacillus anthracis behaves as a thymus-independent type 2 antigen. Infect. Immun. 2004, 72, 5460-5463.
64. Joyce, J.; Cook, J.; Chabot, D.; Hepler, R.; Shoop, W.; Xu, Q.; Stambaugh, T.; Aste-Amezaga, M.; Wang, S.; Indrawati, L.; Bruner, M.; Friedlander, A.; Keller, P.; Caulfield, M. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of Bacillus anthracis poly-gamma-D-glutamic acid capsule covalently coupled to a protein carrier using a novel triazine-based conjugation strategy. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 4831-4843.
65. Schneerson, R.; Kubler-Kielb, J.; Liu, T.Y.; Dai, Z.D.; Leppla, S.H.; Yergey, A.; Backlund, P.; Shiloach, J.; Majadly, F.; Robbins, J.B. Poly(gamma-D-glutamic acid) protein conjugates induce IgG antibodies in mice to the capsule of Bacillus anthracis: a potential addition to the anthrax vaccine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 8945-8950.
66. Rhie, G.E.; Roehrl, M.H.; Mourez, M.; Collier, R.J.; Mekalanos, J.J.; Wang, J.Y. A dually active anthrax vaccine that confers protection against both bacilli and toxins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 10925-10930.
67. Wang, T.T.; Fellows, P.F.; Leighton, T.J.; Lucas, A.H. Induction of opsonic antibodies to the gamma-D-glutamic acid capsule of Bacillus anthracis by immunization with a synthetic peptide-carrier protein conjugate. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 2004, 40, 231-237.
68. Kozel, T.R.; Murphy, W.J.; Brandt, S.; Blazar, B.R.; Lovchik, J.A.; Thorkildson, P.; Percival, A.; Lyons, C.R. mAbs to Bacillus anthracis capsular antigen for immunoprotection in anthrax and detection of antigenemia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 5042-5047.
69. Kozel, T.R.; Thorkildson, P.; Brandt, S.; Welch, W.H.; Lovchik, J.A.; AuCoin, D.P.; Vilai, J.; Lyons, C.R. Protective and immunochemical activities of monoclonal antibodies reactive with the Bacillus anthracis polypeptide capsule. Infect. Immun. 2007, 75, 152-163.
70. Chen, Z.; Schneerson, R.; Lovchik, J.; Lyons, C.R.; Zhao, H.; Dai, Z.; Kubler-Kielb, J.; Leppla, S.H.; Purcell, R.H. Pre-and postexposure protection against virulent anthrax infection in mice by humanized monoclonal antibodies to Bacillus anthracis capsule. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 739-744.
71. Nowakowski, A.; Wang, C.; Powers, D.B.; Amersdorfer, P.; Smith, T.J.; Montgomery, V.A.; Sheridan, R.; Blake, R.; Smith, L.A.; Marks, J.D. Potent neutralization of botulinum neurotoxin by recombinant oligoclonal antibody. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2002, 99, 11346-11350.
72. Ziegler-Heitbrock, H.W.; Reiter, C.; Trenkmann, J.; Futterer, A.; Riethmuller, G. Protection of mice against tetanus toxin by combination of two human monoclonal antibodies recognizing distinct epitopes on the toxin molecule. Hybridoma 1986, 5, 21-31.
73. Besselaar, T.G.; Blackburn, N.K. The synergistic neutralization of Rift Valley fever virus by monoclonal antibodies to the envelope glycoproteins. Arch. Virol. 1992, 125, 239-250.
74. Li, A.; Baba, T.W.; Sodroski, J.; Zolla-Pazner, S.; Gorny, M.K.; Robinson, J.; Posner, M.R.; Katinger, H.; Barbas, C.F., III; Burton, D.R.; et al. Synergistic neutralization of a chimeric SIV/HIV type 1 virus with combinations of human anti-HIV type 1 envelope monoclonal antibodies or hyperimmune globulins. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1997, 13, 647-656.
75. Xu, W.; Smith-Franklin, B.A.; Li, P.L.; Wood, C.; He, J.; Du, Q.; Bhat, G.J.; Kankasa, C.; Katinger, H.; Cavacini, L.A.; et al. Potent neutralization of primary human immunodeficiency virus clade C isolates with a synergistic combination of human monoclonal antibodies raised against clade B. J. Hum. Virol. 2001, 4, 55-61.
76. Beltramello, M.; Williams, K.L.; Simmons, C.P.; Macagno, A.; Simonelli, L.; Quyen, N.T.; Sukupolvi-Petty, S.; Navarro-Sanchez, E.; Young, P.R.; de Silva, A.M.; et al. The human immune response to Dengue virus is dominated by highly cross-reactive antibodies endowed with neutralizing and enhancing activity. Cell Host Microbe 2010, 8, 271-283.
77. Rosovitz, M.J.; Schuck, P.; Varughese, M.; Chopra, A.P.; Mehra, V.; Singh, Y.; McGinnis, L.M.; Leppla, S.H. Alanine-scanning mutations in domain 4 of anthrax toxin protective antigen reveal residues important for binding to the cellular receptor and to a neutralizing monoclonal antibody. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 30936-30944.
78. Price, B.M.; Liner, A.L.; Park, S.; Leppla, S.H.; Mateczun, A.; Galloway, D.R. Protection against anthrax lethal toxin challenge by genetic immunization with a plasmid encoding the lethal factor protein. Infect. Immun. 2001, 69, 4509-4515.
79. Pezard, C.; Weber, M.; Sirard, J.C.; Berche, P.; Mock, M. Protective immunity induced by Bacillus anthracis toxin-deficient strains. Infect. Immun. 1995, 63, 1369-1372.
80. Galloway, D.; Liner, A.; Legutki, J.; Mateczun, A.; Barnewall, R.; Estep, J. Genetic immunization against anthrax. Vaccine 2004, 22, 1604-1608.
81. Welkos, S.; Friedlander, A.; Weeks, S.; Little, S.; Mendelson, I. In-vitro characterisation of the phagocytosis and fate of anthrax spores in macrophages and the effects of anti-PA antibody. J. Med. Microbiol. 2002, 51, 821-831.
82. Welkos, S.; Little, S.; Friedlander, A.; Fritz, D.; Fellows, P. The role of antibodies to Bacillus anthracis and anthrax toxin components in inhibiting the early stages of infection by anthrax spores. Microbiology 2001, 147, 1677-1685.
83. Stepanov, A.V.; Marinin, L.I.; Pomerantsev, A.P.; Staritsin, N.A. Development of novel vaccines against anthrax in man. J. Biotechnol. 1996, 44, 155-160.
84. Karginov, V.A.; Robinson, T.M.; Riemenschneider, J.; Golding, B.; Kennedy, M.; Shiloach, J.; Alibek, K. Treatment of anthrax infection with combination of ciprofloxacin and antibodies to protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 2004, 40, 71-74.
85. Friedlander, A.M.; Welkos, S.L.; Pitt, M.L.; Ezzell, J.W.; Worsham, P.L.; Rose, K.J.; Ivins, B.E.; Lowe, J.R.; Howe, G.B.; Mikesell, P.; et al. Postexposure prophylaxis against experimental inhalation anthrax. J. Infect. Dis. 1993, 167, 1239-1243.
86. Meselson, M.; Guillemin, J.; Hugh-Jones, M.; Langmuir, A.; Popova, I.; Shelokov, A.; Yampolskaya, O. The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979. Science 1994, 266, 1202-1208.