Speech-language dissociations, distractibility, and childhood stuttering

American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 480-503

  Clark, Chagit E ^a   Conture, Edward G ^a   Walden, Tedra A ^a,b   Lambert, Warren E ^c  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATTENTION; COHORT ANALYSIS; FEMALE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE TEST; MALE; MASS SCREENING; OBSERVER VARIATION; PRESCHOOL CHILD; SPEECH ANALYSIS; STATISTICS; STUTTERING;

ATTENTION; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COHORT STUDIES; FEMALE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE TESTS; MALE; MASS SCREENING; OBSERVER VARIATION; SPEECH ARTICULATION TESTS; SPEECH PRODUCTION MEASUREMENT; STATISTICS AS TOPIC; STUTTERING;

EID: 84940664140     PISSN: 10580360     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1044/2015_AJSLP-14-0198     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Anderson, J. D. (2007). Phonological neighborhood and word frequency effects in the stuttered disfluencies of children who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 229-247.
3. Anderson, J. D., & Conture, E. G. (2000). Language abilities of children who stutter: A preliminary study. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 25, 283-304.
4. Anderson, J. D., & Conture, E. G. (2004). Sentence-structure priming in young children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 552-571.
5. Anderson, J. D., Pellowski, M., & Conture, E. G. (2005). Linguisticvariables in childhood stuttering: Speech-language dissociations. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 30, 219-253.
6. Anderson, J. D., Pellowski, M. W., Conture, E. G., & Kelly, E. M. (2003). Temperamental characteristics of young children who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 1221-1233.
7. Anderson, J. D., & Wagovich, S. A. (2010). Relationships among linguistic processing speed, phonological working memory, and attention in children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 35, 216-234.
8. Arends, N., Povel, D. J., & Kolk, H. (1988). Stuttering as an attentional phenomenon. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 13, 141-151.
9. Arndt, J., & Healy, E. C. (2001). Concomitant disorders in school-age children who stutter. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32, 68-78.
10. Arnold, H. S., Conture, E. G., Key, A. P., & Walden, T. (2011). Emotional reactivity, regulation and childhood stuttering: A behavioral and electrophysiological study. Journal of Communication Disorders, 44, 276-293.
11. Bates, E., Appelbaum, M., Salcedo, J., Saygin, A. P., & Pizzamiglio, L. (2003). Quantifying dissociations in neuropsychological research. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 1128-1153.
12. Bates, E., Bretherton, I., & Snyder, L. (1988). From first words to grammar: Individual differences and dissociable mechanisms. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
13. Bates, E., Dale, P. S., & Thal, D. (1995). Individual differences and their implications for theories of language development. In P. Fletcher & B. MacWhinney (Eds.), The handbook of child language (pp. 96-151). New York, NY: Blackwell.
14. Bates, E., Thal, D., Whitesell, K., Fenson, L., & Oakes, L. (1989). Integrating language and gesture in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 25, 1004-1019.
15. Baydar, N. (1995). Reliability and validity of temperament scales of the NSLY child assessments. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 339-370.
16. Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B, 57, 289-300.
17. Berger, A., Kofman, O., Livneh, U., & Henik, A. (2007). Multidisciplinary perspectives on attention and the development of self-regulation. Progress in Neurobiology, 82, 256-286.
18. Bernstein Ratner, N., & Sih, C. C. (1987). The effects of gradual increases in sentence length and complexity on children’s disfluency. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 52, 278-287.
19. Bernstein Ratner, N., & Silverman, S. W. (2000). Parental perceptions of children’s communicative development at stuttering onset. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 1252-1263.
20. Blair, C., Granger, D., & Peters Razza, R. (2005). Cortisol reactivity is positively related to executive function in preschool children attending Head Start. Child Development, 76, 554-567.
21. Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647-663.
22. Blood, G. W., Ridenour, V. J., Jr., Qualls, C. D., & Hammer, C. S. (2003). Co-occuring disorders in children who stutter. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36, 427-448.
23. Bloodstein, O., & Bernstein Ratner, N. (2008). A handbook on stuttering. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson/Delmar.
24. Bonelli, P., Dixon, M., Bernstein Ratner, N., & Onslow, M. (2000). Child and parent speech and language following the Lidcombe Programme of early stuttering intervention. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 14, 427-446.
25. Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C. S., & Haynes, O. M. (2004). Specific and general language performance across early childhood: Stability and gender considerations. First Language, 24, 267-304.
26. Boscolo, B., Bernstein Ratner, N., & Rescorla, L. (2002). Fluency of school-aged children with a history of specific expressive language impairment: An exploratory study. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11, 41-49.
27. Bosshardt, H. G. (2002). Effects of concurrent cognitive processing on the fluency of word repetition: Comparison between persons who do and do not stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 27, 93-114.
28. Bosshardt, H. G., Ballmer, W., & de Nil, L. F. (2002). Effects of category and rhyme decisions on sentence production. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 844-857.
29. Buhr, A., & Zebrowski, P. (2009). Sentence position and syntactic complexity of stuttering in early childhood: A longitudinal study. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 34, 155-172.
30. Bush, A. L. (2006). Effects of childhood stuttering on attention regulation in emotionally arousing situations. Vanderbilt Undergraduate Research Journal, 2, 1-14.
31. Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley InterScience.
32. Choi, D., Conture, E. G., Walden, T. A., Lambert, W., & Tumanova, V. (2013). Behavioral inhibition and childhood stuttering. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38, 171-183.
33. Civier, O., Tasko, S. M., & Guenther, F. H. (2010). Overreliance on auditory feedback may lead to sound/syllable repetitions: Simulations of stuttering and fluency-inducing conditions with a neural model of speech production. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 35, 246-279.
34. Clark, C. E., Conture, E. G., Frankel, C. B., & Walden, T. A. (2012). Communicative and psychological dimensions of the KiddyCAT. Journal of Communication Disorders, 45, 223-234.
35. Clark, C. E., Conture, E. G., Walden, T. A., & Lambert, W. E. (2013). Speech sound articulation abilities of preschool-age children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38, 325-341.
36. Cohen, J. (1968). Multiple regression as a general data-analytic system. Psychological Bulletin, 70, 426-443.
37. Cohen, J. (1973). Eta-squared and partial eta-squared in fixed factor ANOVA designs. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 33, 107-112.
38. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155-159.
40. Conture, E. G. (2001). Stuttering: Its nature, diagnosis, and treatment. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
41. Conture, E. G., Kelly, E. M., & Walden, T. A. (2013). Temperament, speech and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 46, 125-142.
42. Coulter, C., Anderson, J. D., & Conture, E. G. (2009). Childhood stuttering and dissociation across linguistic domains: Replication and extension. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 34, 257-278.
43. Cumming, G., & Finch, S. (2005). Inference by eye: Confidence intervals and how to read pictures of data. American Psychologist, 60, 170-180.
44. Dixon, W., & Shore, C. (1997). Temperamental predictors of linguistic style during multiword acquisition. Infant Behavioral Development, 20, 99-103.
45. Dixon, W., & Smith, P. (2000). Links between early temperament and language acquisition. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, 417-440.
46. Dunn, L., & Dunn, L. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- Third Edition. Circle Pines, MN: AGS.
47. Efron, B. T. R. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC.
48. Eggers, K., De Nil, L. F., & Van den Bergh, B. R. (2010). Temperament dimensions in stuttering and typically developing children. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 35, 355-372.
49. Eggers, K., De Nil, L., & Van den Bergh, B. R. (2012). The efficiency of attentional networks in children who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55, 946-959.
50. Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33-72.
51. Embrechts, M., Ebben, H., Franke, P., & van de Poel, C. (2000). Temperament: A comparison between children who stutter and children who do not stutter. In H. G. Bosshardt, J. S. Yaruss, & H. F. M. Peters (Eds.), Proceedings of the Third World Congress on Fluency Disorders: Theory, research, treatment, and self-help (pp. 557-562). Nijmegen, the Netherlands: University of Nijmegen Press.
52. Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340-347.
53. Felsenfeld, S., van Beijsterveldt, C., & Boomsma, D. (2010). Attentional regulation in young twins with probable stuttering, high nonfluency, and typical fluency. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53, 1147-1166.
54. Ferguson, C. J. (2009). An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40, 532-538.
55. Gardner, W., Mulvey, E. P., & Shaw, E. C. (1995). Regression analyses of counts and rates: Poisson, overdispersed Poisson, and negative binomial models. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 392-404.
56. Goldman, R., & Fristoe, M. (2000). Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation-Second Edition. Circle Pines, MN: AGS.
57. Häge, A. (2001). Is there a link between the development of cognitivelinguistic abilities in children and the course of stuttering? In H. G. Bosshardt, J. S. Yaruss, & H. F. M. Peters (Eds.), Proceedings of the Third World Congress on Fluency Disorders: Theory, research, treatment, and self-help (pp. 190-194). Nijmegen, The Netherlands: University of Nijmegen Press.
58. Hakim, H. B., & Ratner, N. B. (2004). Nonword repetition abilities of children who stutter: An exploratory study. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 29, 179-199.
59. Hall, N. E. (1996). Language and fluency in child language disorders: Changes over time. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 21, 1-32.
60. Hall, N. E. (1999). Speech disruptions in pre-school children with specific language impairment and phonological impairment. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 13, 295-307.
61. Hall, N. E. (2004). Lexical development and retrieval in treating children who stutter. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 35, 57-69.
62. Hall, N. E., & Burgess, S. D. (2000). Exploring developmental changes in fluency as related to language acquisition: A case study. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 25, 119-141.
63. Hall, N. E., Yamashita, T. S., & Aram, D. M. (1993). Relationship between language and fluency in children with developmental language disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 568-579.
64. Henderson, H. A., & Wachs, T. D. (2007). Temperament theory and the study of cognition-emotion interactions across development. Developmental Review, 27, 396-427.
65. Hepburn, S. L., & Stone, W. L. (2006). Using Carey Temperament Scales to assess behavioral style in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 637-642.
66. Hintze, J. (2008). PASS 2008 [Computer software]. Kaysville, UT: NCSS Statistical Software.
67. Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (1991). Language comprehension: A new look at some old themes. In N. A. Krasnegor, D. M. Rumbaugh, R. L. Schiefelbusch, & M. Studdert-Kennedy (Eds.), Biological and behavioral determinants of language development (pp. 301-320). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
68. Hochberg, Y. (1988). A sharper Bonferroni procedure for multiple significance testing. Biometrika, 75, 800-803.
69. Hollingshead, A. (1975). Four factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
70. Howell, P., & Au-Yeung, J. (1995). Syntactic determinants of stuttering in the spontaneous speech of normally fluent and stuttering children. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 20, 317-330.
71. Howell, P., Bailey, E., & Kothari, N. (2010). Changes in the pattern of stuttering over development for children who recover or persist. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 24, 556-575.
72. Hresko, W., Reid, D., & Hammill, D. (1999). Test of Early Language Development-Third Edition. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
73. Ingham, J. C., & Riley, G. (1998). Guidelines for documentation of treatment efficacy for young children who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 753-770.
74. Jiang, J., Lu, C., Peng, D., Zhu, C., & Howell, P. (2012). Classification of types of stuttering symptoms based on brain activity. PLOS ONE, 7(6), e39747.
75. Johnson, K. N., Conture, E., & Walden, T. (2012). Efficacy of attention regulation in preschool-age children who stutter: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Communication Disorders, 45, 263-278.
76. Johnson, K. N., Karrass, J., Conture, E. G., & Walden, T. (2009). Influence of stuttering variation on talker group classification in preschool children: Preliminary findings. Journal of Communication Disorders, 42, 195-210.
77. Johnson, K. N., Walden, T. A., Conture, E. G., & Karrass, J. (2010). Spontaneous regulation of emotions in preschool children who stutter: Preliminary findings. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53, 1478-1495.
78. Jones, R., Buhr, A., Conture, E., Walden, T., Porges, S., & Tumanova, V. (2014). Autonomic activity of preschool-age children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 41, 12-31.
79. Kagan, J. (1998). Biology and the child. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional and personality development (5th ed., pp. 177-235). New York, NY: Wiley.
80. Karrass, J., Walden, T., Conture, E., Graham, C., Arnold, H., Hartfield, K., & Schwenk, K. (2006). Relation of emotional reactivity and regulation to childhood stuttering. Journal of Communication Disorders, 39, 402-423.
81. Kraemer, H. C., Mintz, J., Noda, A., Tinklenberg, J., & Yesavage, J. A. (2006). Caution regarding the use of pilot studies to guide power calculations for study proposals. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 484-489.
82. Kraft, S. J., Ambrose, N., & Chon, H. C. (2014). Temperament and environmental contributions to stuttering severity in children: The role of effortful control. Seminars in Speech and Language, 35(2), 80-94.
83. Leve, L. D., DeGarmo, D. S., Bridgett, D. J., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Harold, G. T.,... Reiss, D. (2013). Using an adoption design to separate genetic, prenatal, and temperament influences on toddler executive function. Developmental Psychology, 49, 1045-1057.
84. Levelt, W. J. (1983). Monitoring and self-repair in speech. Cognition, 14, 41-104.
85. Levelt, W. J. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
86. Levelt, W. J., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. S. (1999). A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(1), 1-38.
87. Locke, J. L., & Goldstein, J. I. (1973). Children’s attention and articulation. Language and Speech, 16, 156-168.
88. Logan, K. J., & Conture, E. G. (1995). Length, grammatical complexity, and rate differences in stuttered and fluent conversational utterances of children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 20, 35-61.
89. Logan, K. J., & Conture, E. G. (1997). Selected temporal, grammatical and phonological characteristics of conversational utterances produced by children who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 107-120.
90. McDevitt, S. C., & Carey, W. B. (1978). The measurement of temperament in 3-7 year old children. Journal of Child Psychology, 19, 245-253.
91. McDevitt, S. C., & Carey, W. B. (1996). Manual for the Behavioral Style Questionnaire. Scottsdale, AZ: Behavioral-Developmental Initiatives.
92. McGraw, K. O., & Wong, S. P. (1996). Forming inferences about some intraclass correlation coefficients. Psychological Methods, 1, 30-46.
93. Melnick, K. S., & Conture, E. G. (2000). Relationship of length and grammatical complexity to the systematic and nonsystematic speech errors and stuttering of children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 25, 21-45.
94. Millager, R., Conture, E., Walden, T., & Kelly, E. (2014). Expressive language intratest scatter of preschool-age children who stutter. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 41, 110-119.
95. Morales, M., Mundy, P., Delgado, C., Yale, M., Messinger, D., Neal, R., & Neal-Beevers, A. R. (2000). Responding to joint attention across the 6- through 24-month age period and early language acquisition. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21, 283-298.
96. Morales, M., Mundy, P., Delgado, C., Yale, M., Neal, R., & Schwartz, R. (2000). Gaze following, temperament and language development in 6-month-olds: A replication and extension. Infant Behavior and Development, 23, 231-236.
97. Murray, H. L., & Reed, C. G. (1977). Language abilities of preschool stuttering children. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 2, 171-176.
98. Natke, U., Sandrieser, P., van Ark, M., Pietrowsky, R., & Kalveram, K. T. (2004). Linguistic stress, within-word position, and grammatical class in relation to early childhood stuttering. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 29, 109-122.
99. Nelder, J. A., & Wedderburn, R. W. M. (1972). Generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A, 135, 370-384.
100. Nippold, M. A. (2001). Phonological disorders and stuttering in children: What is the frequency of co-occurrence? Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 15, 219-228.
101. Nippold, M. A. (2004). Phonological and language disorders in children who stutter: Impact on treatment recommendations. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 18, 145-159.
102. Nippold, M. A. (2012). Stuttering and language ability in children: Questioning the connection. American Journal of SpeechLanguage Pathology, 21, 183-196.
103. Nippold, M. A., Schwarz, I. E., & Jescheniak, J. (1991). Narrative ability in school-age stuttering boys: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 16, 289-308.
104. Ntourou, K., Conture, E. G., & Lipsey, M. W. (2011). Language abilities of children who stutter. American Journal of SpeechLanguage Pathology, 20, 163-180.
105. Ntourou, K., Conture, E. G., & Walden, T. A. (2013). Emotional reactivity and regulation in preschool-age children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38, 260-274.
106. Oomen, C. C., & Postma, A. (2001). Effects of time pressure on mechanisms of speech production and self-monitoring. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 30, 163-184.
107. Pellowski, M. W., & Conture, E. G. (2005). Lexical priming in picture naming of young children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 278-294.
108. Postma, A., & Kolk, H. (1993). The covert repair hypothesis: Prearticulatory repair processes in normal and stuttered disfluencies. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 36, 472-487.
109. Preacher, K. J. (2002). Calculation for the Test of the Difference Between Two Independent Correlation Coefficients [Computer software]. Retrieved from http://quantpsy.org
110. Putnam, S. P., & Rothbart, M. K. (2006). Development of short and very short forms of the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 87(1), 102-112.
111. Reilly, S., Onslow, M., Packman, A., Cini, E., Conway, L., Ukoumunne, O. C.,... Wake, M. (2013). Natural history of stuttering to 4 years of age: A prospective community-based study. Pediatrics, 132, 460-467.
112. Reilly, S., Onslow, M., Packman, A., Wake, M., Bavin, E., Prior, M.,... Ukoumunne, O. (2009). Predicting stuttering onset by the age of 3 years: A prospective, community cohort study. Pediatrics, 123, 270-277.
113. Richels, C., Buhr, A., Conture, E., & Ntourou, K. (2010). Utterance complexity and stuttering on function words in preschoolage children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 35, 314-331.
114. Richels, C., Johnson, K., Conture, E., & Walden, T. (2013). Socioeconomic status, parental education, vocabulary and language skills of children who stutter. Journal of Communication Disorders, 46, 361-374.
115. Riley, G. D. (1994). Stuttering Severity Instrument for children and adults (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
116. Rispoli, M., & Hadley, P. (2001). The leading-edge: The significance of sentence disruptions in the development of grammar. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1131-1143.
117. Rothbart, M. K. (1981). Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child Development, 52, 569-578.
118. Rothbart, M. K. (2011). Becoming who we are: Temperament and personality in development. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
119. Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children’s Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394-1408.
120. Rothbart, M. K., & Rueda, M. R. (2005). The development of effortful control. In U. Mayr, E. Awh, & S. W. Keele (Eds.), Developing individuality in the human brain: A tribute to Michael I. Posner (pp. 167-188). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
121. Rueda, M. R., Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Halparin, J. D., Gruber, D. B., Lercari, L. P., & Posner, M. I. (2004). Development of attentional networks in childhood. Neuropsychologia, 42, 1029-1040.
122. Rueda, M. R., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005). The development of executive attention: Contributions to the emergence of self-regulation. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 573-594.
123. Sall, J., Creighton, L., & Lehman, A. (2005). JMP start statistics: A guide to statistics and data analysis using JMP and JMP IN software. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
124. Salley, B. J., & Dixon, W. E., Jr. (2007). Temperamental and joint attentional predictors of language development. Merrill- Palmer Quarterly, 53, 131-154.
125. Sawyer, J., Chon, H., & Ambrose, N. G. (2008). Influences of rate, length, and complexity on speech disfluency in a single-speech sample in preschool children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 33, 220-240.
126. Saygin, A. P., Dick, F., Wilson, S. W., Dronkers, N. F., & Bates, E. (2003). Neural resources for processing language and environmental sounds: Evidence from aphasia. Brain, 126, 928-945.
127. Schwenk, K., Conture, E., & Walden, T. (2007). Reaction to background stimulation of preschool children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Communication Disorders, 40, 129-141.
128. Seery, C. H., Watkins, R. V., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Shigeto, A. (2007). Subtyping stuttering II: Contributions from language and temperament. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 32, 197-217.
129. Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 420-428.
130. Silverman, E. M. (1971). Situational variability of preschoolers’ disfluency: Preliminary study. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 33, 1021-1022.
131. Slomkowski, C. L., Nelson, K., Dunn, J., & Plomin, R. (1992). Temperament and language: Relations from toddlerhood to middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1090-1095.
132. Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
133. Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1980). The dynamics of psychological development. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
134. Tumanova, V., Conture, E. G., Walden, T. A., & Lambert, E. W. (2014). Speech disfluencies of preschool-age children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Communication Disorders, 49, 25-41.
135. UCLA Statistical Consulting Group. (n.d.). Introduction to SAS. Retrieved from http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/faq/effectsize. htm
136. Van den Bergh, B. R., & Ackx, M. (2003). Een Nederlandse versie van Rothbarts “Children’s Behavior Questionnaire” [A Dutch version of Rothbarts “Children’s Behavior Questionnaire”]. Kind en Adolescent, 24(2), 53-57.
137. Vasiç, N., & Wijnen, F. (2001, August 29-31). Stuttering and speech monitoring. Paper presented at the International Speech Communication Association (ICSA) Tutorial and Research Workshop (IRTW) on Disfluency in Spontaneous Speech (DiSS), Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
138. Volker, M. A. (2006). Reporting effect size estimates in school psychology research. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 653-672.
139. Wagovich, S. A., Hall, N. E., & Clifford, B. A. (2009). Speech disruptions in relation to language growth in children who stutter: An exploratory study. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 34, 242-256.
140. Walden, T. A., Frankel, C. B., Buhr, A. P., Johnson, K. N., Conture, E. G., & Karrass, J. M. (2012). Dual diathesis-stressor model of emotional and linguistic contributions to developmental stuttering. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 633-644.
141. Watkins, R. (2005). Language abilities of young children who stutter. In E. Yairi & N. Ambrose (Eds.), Early childhood stuttering: For clinicians by clinicians (pp. 235-252). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
142. Watkins, R., Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. G. (1999). Early childhood stuttering III: Initial status of expressive language abilities. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1125-1135.
143. Westby, C. E. (1974). Language performance of stuttering and nonstuttering children. Journal of Communication Disorders, 12, 133-145.
144. Westfall, P., Tobias, R., & Wolfinger, R. D. (1999). Multiple comparisons and multiple tests using the SAS system. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
145. Williams, K. T. (1997). Expressive Vocabulary Test. Circle Pines, MN: AGS.
146. Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. G. (1999). Early childhood stuttering I: Persistency and recovery rates. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1097-1112.
147. Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. G. (2005). Early childhood stuttering for clinicians by clinicians. Austin, TX: Pro Ed.
148. Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. (2013). Epidemiology of stuttering: 21st century advances. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38, 66-87.
149. Yaruss, J. S. (1997). Clinical implications of situational variability in preschool children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 22, 187-203.
150. Yaruss, J. S. (1998). Real-time analysis of speech fluency: Procedures and reliability training. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 7, 25-37.
151. Yaruss, J. S. (1999). Utterance length, syntactic complexity, and childhood stuttering. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 329-344.
152. Yaruss, J. S., LaSalle, L. R., & Conture, E. G. (1998). Evaluating stuttering in young children: Diagnostic data. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 7, 62-76.
153. Yoder, P., & Symons, F. (2010). Observational measurement of behavior. New York, NY: Springer.
154. Zackheim, C. T., & Conture, E. G. (2003). Childhood stuttering and speech disfluencies in relation to children’s mean length of utterance: A preliminary study. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 28, 115-142.