The gut sensor as regulator of body weight

Endocrine

Volumn 49, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 35-50

  Reinehr, Thomas ^a   Roth, Christian L ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WITTEN HERDECKE   (Germany)

^b SEATTLE CHILDREN S RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Bariatric surgery; GI hormones; Gut brain axis; Lifestyle intervention; Microbiome; Satiety and hunger signals

Indexed keywords

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONE;

BODY WEIGHT; FOOD INTAKE; HUMAN; INTESTINE FLORA; PHYSIOLOGY;

APPETITE REGULATION; BODY WEIGHT; GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; HUMANS;

EID: 84939934840     PISSN: 1355008X     EISSN: 15590100     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12020-014-0518-1     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. C.L. Roth, T. Reinehr, Roles of gastrointestinal and adipose tissue peptides in childhood obesity and changes after weight loss due to lifestyle intervention. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 164(2), 131–138 (2010)
2. P.V. Berghe, P. Janssen, S. Kindt, R. Vos, J. Tack, Contribution of different triggers to the gastric accommodation reflex in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver. Physiol. 297(5), G902–G906 (2009)
3. M. Kojima, H. Hosoda, Y. Date, M. Nakazato, H. Matsuo, K. Kangawa, Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 402(6762), 656–660 (1999)
4. M. Goebel-Stengel, T. Hofmann, U. Elbelt et al., The ghrelin activating enzyme ghrelin-O-acyltransferase (GOAT) is present in human plasma and expressed dependent on body mass index. Peptides 43, 13–19 (2013)
5. M.C. Garin, C.M. Burns, S. Kaul, A.R. Cappola, Clinical review: the human experience with ghrelin administration. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98(5), 1826–1837 (2013)
6. T.D. Muller, A. Muller, C.X. Yi et al., The orphan receptor Gpr83 regulates systemic energy metabolism via ghrelin-dependent and ghrelin-independent mechanisms. Nat. Commun. 4, 1968 (2013)
7. A.M. Wren, L.J. Seal, M.A. Cohen et al., Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86(12), 5992 (2001)
8. D.L. Williams, H.J. Grill, D.E. Cummings, J.M. Kaplan, Overfeeding-induced weight gain suppresses plasma ghrelin levels in rats. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 29(10), 863–868 (2006)
9. L. Soriano-Guillen, V. Barrios, A. Campos-Barros, J. Argente, Ghrelin levels in obesity and anorexia nervosa: effect of weight reduction or recuperation. J. Pediatr. 144(1), 36–42 (2004)
10. W.A. Blom, A. Lluch, S. Vinoy et al., Effects of gastric emptying on the postprandial ghrelin response. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 290(2), E389–E395 (2006)
11. C. Feinle-Bisset, M. Patterson, M.A. Ghatei, S.R. Bloom, M. Horowitz, Fat digestion is required for suppression of ghrelin and stimulation of peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide secretion by intraduodenal lipid. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 289(6), E948–E953 (2005)
12. D.E. Cummings, Ghrelin and the short- and long-term regulation of appetite and body weight. Physiol. Behav. 89(1), 71–84 (2006)
13. K.E. Foster-Schubert, J. Overduin, C.E. Prudom et al., Acyl and total ghrelin are suppressed strongly by ingested proteins, weakly by lipids, and biphasically by carbohydrates. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93(5), 1971–1979 (2008)
14. J.V. Zhang, P.G. Ren, O. Avsian-Kretchmer et al., Obestatin, a peptide encoded by the ghrelin gene, opposes ghrelin’s effects on food intake. Science 310(5750), 996–999 (2005)
15. A. Stengel, M. Goebel, L. Wang, Y. Tache, Ghrelin, des-acyl ghrelin and nesfatin-1 in gastric X/A-like cells: role as regulators of food intake and body weight. Peptides 31(2), 357–369 (2010)
16. Z.F. Guo, X. Zheng, Y.W. Qin, J.Q. Hu, S.P. Chen, Z. Zhang, Circulating preprandial ghrelin to obestatin ratio is increased in human obesity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92(5), 1875–1880 (2007)
17. L. Trovato, D. Gallo, F. Settanni, I. Gesmundo, E. Ghigo, R. Granata, Obestatin: is it really doing something? Front. Horm. Res. 42, 175–185 (2014)
18. C.L. Roth, T. Reinehr, G.H. Schernthaner, H.P. Kopp, S. Kriwanek, G. Schernthaner, Ghrelin and obestatin levels in severely obese women before and after weight loss after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery. Obes. Surg. 19(1), 29–35 (2009)
19. P. Wali, J. King, Z. He, D. Tonb, K. Horvath, Ghrelin and obestatin levels in children with failure to thrive and obesity. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 58(3), 376–381 (2014)
20. M. Goebel, A. Stengel, L. Wang, Y. Tache, Central nesfatin-1 reduces the nocturnal food intake in mice by reducing meal size and increasing inter-meal intervals. Peptides 32(1), 36–43 (2011)
21. A. Stengel, T. Hofmann, M. Goebel-Stengel et al., Ghrelin and NUCB2/nesfatin-1 are expressed in the same gastric cell and differentially correlated with body mass index in obese subjects. Histochem. Cell Biol. 139(6), 909–918 (2013)
22. C. Posovszky, M. Wabitsch, Regulation of appetite, satiation and body weight by enteroendocrine cells. Horm. Res. Pediatr. (2014)
23. J. Gibbs, R.C. Young, G.P. Smith, Cholecystokinin decreases food intake in rats. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 84(3), 488–495 (1973)
24. M.E. Carter, M.E. Soden, L.S. Zweifel, R.D. Palmiter, Genetic identification of a neural circuit that suppresses appetite. Nature 503(7474), 111–114 (2013)
25. Y. Wang, R. Chandra, L.A. Samsa et al., Amino acids stimulate cholecystokinin release through the Ca2 + -sensing receptor. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 300(4), G528–G537 (2011)
26. A.C. Gerspach, R.E. Steinert, L. Schonenberger, A. Graber-Maier, C. Beglinger, The role of the gut sweet taste receptor in regulating GLP-1, PYY, and CCK release in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 301(2), E317–E325 (2011)
27. H.R. Kissileff, F.X. Pi-Sunyer, J. Thornton, G.P. Smith, C-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin decreases food intake in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34(2), 154–160 (1981)
28. X. Pi-Sunyer, H.R. Kissileff, J. Thornton, G.P. Smith, C-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin decreases food intake in obese men. Physiol. Behav. 29(4), 627–630 (1982)
29. R.L. Batterham, M.A. Cohen, S.M. Ellis et al., Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N. Engl. J. Med. 349(10), 941–948 (2003)
30. E. Karra, K. Chandarana, R.L. Batterham, The role of peptide YY in appetite regulation and obesity. J. Physiol. 587(Pt 1), 19–25 (2009)
31. R.L. Batterham, S.R. Bloom, The gut hormone peptide YY regulates appetite. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 994, 162–168 (2003)
32. R.L. Batterham, M.A. Cowley, C.J. Small et al., Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature 418(6898), 650–654 (2002)
33. C.L. Roth, K.D. Bongiovanni, B. Gohlke, J. Woelfle, Changes in dynamic insulin and gastrointestinal hormone secretion in obese children. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 23(12), 1299–1309 (2010)
34. E. Doucet, M. Laviolette, P. Imbeault, I. Strychar, R. Rabasa-Lhoret, D. Prud’homme, Total peptide YY is a correlate of postprandial energy expenditure but not of appetite or energy intake in healthy women. Metabolism 57(10), 1458–1464 (2008)
35. T.D. Heden, Y. Liu, L. Sims et al., Liquid meal composition, postprandial satiety hormones, and perceived appetite and satiety in obese women during acute caloric restriction. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 168(4), 593–600 (2013)
36. M.A. Nauck, J. Siemsgluss, C. Orskov, J.J. Holst, Release of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1 [7-36 amide]), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) and insulin in response to oral glucose after upper and lower intestinal resections. Z. Gastroenterol. 34(3), 159–166 (1996)
37. J.J. Holst, Incretin hormones and the satiation signal. Int. J. Obes. 37(9), 1161–1168 (2013)
38. A. Wettergren, M. Wojdemann, S. Meisner, F. Stadil, J.J. Holst, The inhibitory effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) 7-36 amide on gastric acid secretion in humans depends on an intact vagal innervation. Gut 40(5), 597–601 (1997)
39. A. Flint, A. Raben, A. Astrup, J.J. Holst, Glucagon-like peptide 1 promotes satiety and suppresses energy intake in humans. J. Clin. Invest. 101(3), 515–520 (1998)
40. G. van Dijk, T.E. Thiele, Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide: a central regulator of satiety and interoceptive stress. Neuropeptides 33(5), 406–414 (1999)
41. E.B. Ruttimann, M. Arnold, J.J. Hillebrand, N. Geary, W. Langhans, Intrameal hepatic portal and intraperitoneal infusions of glucagon-like peptide-1 reduce spontaneous meal size in the rat via different mechanisms. Endocrinology 150(3), 1174–1181 (2009)
42. E. Renner, N. Puskas, A. Dobolyi, M. Palkovits, Glucagon-like peptide-1 of brainstem origin activates dorsomedial hypothalamic neurons in satiated rats. Peptides 35(1), 14–22 (2012)
43. N.A. Rhee, S.H. Ostoft, J.J. Holst, C.F. Deacon, T. Vilsboll, F.K. Knop, The impact of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibition on incretin effect, glucose tolerance, and gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal in healthy subjects. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 171(3), 353–362 (2014)
44. M.D. Turton, D. O’Shea, I. Gunn et al., A role for glucagon-like peptide-1 in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 379(6560), 69–72 (1996)
45. D.L. Williams, Minireview: finding the sweet spot: peripheral versus central glucagon-like peptide 1 action in feeding and glucose homeostasis. Endocrinology 150(7), 2997–3001 (2009)
46. S.E. Kanoski, S.M. Fortin, M. Arnold, H.J. Grill, M.R. Hayes, Peripheral and central GLP-1 receptor populations mediate the anorectic effects of peripherally administered GLP-1 receptor agonists, liraglutide and exendin-4. Endocrinology 152(8), 3103–3112 (2011)
47. A. Rotondo, A. Amato, S. Baldassano, L. Lentini, F. Mule, Gastric relaxation induced by glucagon-like peptide-2 in mice fed a high-fat diet or fasted. Peptides 32(8), 1587–1592 (2011)
48. D.G. Burrin, Y. Petersen, B. Stoll, P. Sangild, Glucagon-like peptide 2: a nutrient-responsive gut growth factor. J. Nutr. 131(3), 709–712 (2001)
49. A. Maida, J.A. Lovshin, L.L. Baggio, D.J. Drucker, The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist oxyntomodulin enhances beta-cell function but does not inhibit gastric emptying in mice. Endocrinology 149(11), 5670–5678 (2008)
50. M.A. Cohen, S.M. Ellis, C.W. le Roux et al., Oxyntomodulin suppresses appetite and reduces food intake in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88(10), 4696–4701 (2003)
51. C.L. Dakin, C.J. Small, R.L. Batterham et al., Peripheral oxyntomodulin reduces food intake and body weight gain in rats. Endocrinology 145(6), 2687–2695 (2004)
52. K. Wynne, A.J. Park, C.J. Small et al., Oxyntomodulin increases energy expenditure in addition to decreasing energy intake in overweight and obese humans: a randomised controlled trial. Int. J. Obes. 30(12), 1729–1736 (2006)
53. J. Kolic, A. Spigelman, A. Smith, J. Manning, P. MacDonald, Insulin Secretion Induced by Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide Requires PI3 Kinase-y in Rodent and Human ß-Cells. J. Biol. Chem. 289(46), 32109–32120 (2014)
54. M.A. Nauck, B. Baller, J.J. Meier, Gastric inhibitory polypeptide and glucagon-like peptide-1 in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 53(Suppl 3), S190–S196 (2004)
55. N.N. Rudovich, V.J. Nikiforova, B. Otto et al., Metabolomic linkage reveals functional interaction between glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and ghrelin in humans. Am. J. Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 301(4), E608–E617 (2011)
56. K. Miyawaki, Y. Yamada, N. Ban et al., Inhibition of gastric inhibitory polypeptide signaling prevents obesity. Nat. Med. 8(7), 738–742 (2002)
57. A. Leckstrom, E.R. Kim, D. Wong, T.M. Mizuno, Xenin, a gastrointestinal peptide, regulates feeding independent of the melanocortin signaling pathway. Diabetes 58(1), 87–94 (2009)
58. S. Sande-Lee, A.R. Cardoso, C.R. Garlipp et al., Cerebrospinal fluid xenin levels during body mass reduction: no evidence for obesity-associated defective transport across the blood-brain barrier. Int. J. Obes. 37(3), 416–419 (2013)
59. G.M. Leinninger, D.M. Opland, Y.H. Jo et al., Leptin action via neurotensin neurons controls orexin, the mesolimbic dopamine system and energy balance. Cell Metab. 14(3), 313–323 (2011)
60. W.C. Mustain, P.G. Rychahou, B.M. Evers, The role of neurotensin in physiologic and pathologic processes. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 18(1), 75–82 (2011)
61. D. Opland, A. Sutton, H. Woodworth et al., Loss of neurotensin receptor-1 disrupts the control of the mesolimbic dopamine system by leptin and promotes hedonic feeding and obesity. Mol. Metab. 2(4), 423–434 (2013)
62. V. Stolakis, K. Kalafatakis, J. Botis, A. Zarros, C. Liapi, The regulatory role of neurotensin on the hypothalamic-anterior pituitary axons: emphasis on the control of thyroid-related functions. Neuropeptides 44(1), 1–7 (2010)
63. M.J. Low, Clinical endocrinology and metabolism. The somatostatin neuroendocrine system: physiology and clinical relevance in gastrointestinal and pancreatic disorders. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 18(4), 607–622 (2004)
64. Z. Stepanyan, A. Kocharyan, M. Behrens, C. Koebnick, M. Pyrski, W. Meyerhof, Somatostatin, a negative-regulator of central leptin action in the rat hypothalamus. J. Neurochem. 100(2), 468–478 (2007)
65. A. Foxx-Orenstein, M. Camilleri, D. Stephens, D. Burton, Effect of a somatostatin analogue on gastric motor and sensory functions in healthy humans. Gut 52(11), 1555–1561 (2003)
66. F. Cremonini, M. Camilleri, J. Gonenne et al., Effect of somatostatin analog on postprandial satiation in obesity. Obes. Res. 13(9), 1572–1579 (2005)
67. D.D. Lam, M.J. Przydzial, S.H. Ridley et al., Serotonin 5-HT2C receptor agonist promotes hypophagia via downstream activation of melanocortin 4 receptors. Endocrinology 149(3), 1323–1328 (2008)
68. S.C. Nigro, D. Luon, W.L. Baker, Lorcaserin: a novel serotonin 2C agonist for the treatment of obesity. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 29(7), 839–848 (2013)
69. C.Y. Cheng, J.Y. Chu, B.K. Chow, Central and peripheral administration of secretin inhibits food intake in mice through the activation of the melanocortin system. Neuropsychopharmacology 36(2), 459–471 (2011)
70. J.Y. Chu, C.Y. Cheng, R. Sekar, B.K. Chow, Vagal afferent mediates the anorectic effect of peripheral secretin. PLoS One 8(5), e64859 (2013)
71. M.W. Schwartz, S.C. Woods, D. Porte Jr, R.J. Seeley, D.G. Baskin, Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 404(6778), 661–671 (2000)
72. G.J. Morton, M.W. Schwartz, Leptin and the central nervous system control of glucose metabolism. Physiol. Rev. 91(2), 389–411 (2011)
73. K.A. Posey, D.J. Clegg, R.L. Printz et al., Hypothalamic proinflammatory lipid accumulation, inflammation, and insulin resistance in rats fed a high-fat diet. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 296(5), E1003–E1012 (2009)
74. R.L. Batterham, C.W. le Roux, M.A. Cohen et al., Pancreatic polypeptide reduces appetite and food intake in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88(8), 3989–3992 (2003)
75. Y. Iwasaki, M. Kakei, H. Nakabayashi et al., Pancreatic polypeptide and peptide YY3-36 induce Ca2 + signaling in nodose ganglion neurons. Neuropeptides 47(1), 19–23 (2013)
76. J.A. Kanaley, T.D. Heden, Y. Liu et al., Short-term aerobic exercise training increases postprandial pancreatic polypeptide but not peptide YY concentrations in obese individuals. Int. J. Obes. 38(2), 266–271 (2014)
77. T.A. Lutz, Control of food intake and energy expenditure by amylin-therapeutic implications. Int. J. Obes. 33(Suppl 1), S24–S27 (2009)
78. T.A. Lutz, P.E. Del, E. Scharrer, Reduction of food intake in rats by intraperitoneal injection of low doses of amylin. Physiol. Behav. 55(5), 891–895 (1994)
79. T.A. Lutz, N. Geary, M.M. Szabady, P.E. Del, E. Scharrer, Amylin decreases meal size in rats. Physiol. Behav. 58(6), 1197–1202 (1995)
80. S.E. Kahn, S. Andrikopoulos, C.B. Verchere, Islet amyloid: a long-recognized but underappreciated pathological feature of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 48(2), 241–253 (1999)
81. M. Million, M. Maraninchi, M. Henry et al., Obesity-associated gut microbiota is enriched in Lactobacillus reuteri and depleted in Bifidobacterium animalis and Methanobrevibacter smithii. Int. J. Obes. 36(6), 817–825 (2012)
82. J.M. Evans, L.S. Morris, J.R. Marchesi, The gut microbiome: the role of a virtual organ in the endocrinology of the host. J. Endocrinol. 218(3), R37–R47 (2013)
83. H. Tilg, A.R. Moschen, A. Kaser, Obesity and the microbiota. Gastroenterology 136(5), 1476–1483 (2009)
84. P. Kovatcheva-Datchary, T. Arora, Nutrition, the gut microbiome and the metabolic syndrome. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 27(1), 59–72 (2013)
85. A. Trompette, E.S. Gollwitzer, K. Yadava et al., Gut microbiota metabolism of dietary fiber influences allergic airway disease and hematopoiesis. Nat. Med. 20(2), 159–166 (2014)
86. P. Holzer, F. Reichmann, A. Farzi, Y. Neuropeptide, peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide in the gut-brain axis. Neuropeptides 46(6), 261–274 (2012)
87. R.D. Steele, Blood-brain barrier transport of the alpha-keto acid analogs of amino acids. Fed. Proc. 45(7), 2060–2064 (1986)
88. M. DeCastro, B.B. Nankova, P. Shah et al., Short chain fatty acids regulate tyrosine hydroxylase gene expression through a cAMP-dependent signaling pathway. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 142(1), 28–38 (2005)
89. A.J. Brown, S.M. Goldsworthy, A.A. Barnes et al., The Orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids. J. Biol. Chem. 278(13), 11312–11319 (2003)
90. Y. Xiong, N. Miyamoto, K. Shibata et al., Short-chain fatty acids stimulate leptin production in adipocytes through the G protein-coupled receptor GPR41. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 101(4), 1045–1050 (2004)
91. K.M. Maslowski, A.T. Vieira, A. Ng et al., Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature 461(7268), 1282–1286 (2009)
92. A. Everard, P.D. Cani, Diabetes, obesity and gut microbiota. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 27(1), 73–83 (2013)
93. F. Fava, S. Danese, Intestinal microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease: friend of foe? World J. Gastroenterol. 17(5), 557–566 (2011)
94. T. Reinehr, G. de Sousa, P. Niklowitz, C.L. Roth, Amylin and its relation to insulin and lipids in obese children before and after weight loss. Obesity 15(8), 2006–2011 (2007)
95. T. Reinehr, P.J. Enriori, K. Harz, M.A. Cowley, C.L. Roth, Pancreatic polypeptide in obese children before and after weight loss. Int. J. Obes. 30(10), 1476–1481 (2006)
96. M. Salera, P. Giacomoni, L. Pironi et al., Gastric inhibitory polypeptide release after oral glucose: relationship to glucose intolerance, diabetes mellitus, and obesity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 55(2), 329–336 (1982)
97. N. Arslan, O. Sayin, Y. Tokgoz, Evaluation of serum xenin and ghrelin levels and their relationship with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and insulin resistance in obese adolescents. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 37(11), 1091–1097 (2014)
98. C.L. Roth, P.J. Enriori, K. Harz, J. Woelfle, M.A. Cowley, T. Reinehr, Peptide YY is a regulator of energy homeostasis in obese children before and after weight loss. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90(12), 6386–6391 (2005)
99. C. Verdich, S. Toubro, B. Buemann, M.J. Lysgard, H.J. Juul, A. Astrup, The role of postprandial releases of insulin and incretin hormones in meal-induced satiety–effect of obesity and weight reduction. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25(8), 1206–1214 (2001)
100. J. Le Beyec, A.L. Pelletier, K. Arapis et al., Overexpression of gastric leptin precedes adipocyte leptin during high-fat diet and is linked to 5HT-containing enterochromaffin cells. Int. J. Obes. 38(10), 1357–1364 (2014)
101. K. Hermansen, L.S. Mortensen, Bodyweight changes associated with antihyperglycaemic agents in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drug Saf. 30(12), 1127–1142 (2007)
102. B.C. Field, A.M. Wren, D. Cooke, S.R. Bloom, Gut hormones as potential new targets for appetite regulation and the treatment of obesity. Drugs 68(2), 147–163 (2008)
103. S. Polakof, Diabetes therapy: novel patents targeting the glucose-induced insulin secretion. Recent Pat. DNA Gene Seq. 4(1), 1–9 (2010)
104. R.A. DeFronzo, R.E. Ratner, J. Han, D.D. Kim, M.S. Fineman, A.D. Baron, Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control and weight over 30 weeks in metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 28(5), 1092–1100 (2005)
105. N.M. Neary, C.J. Small, M.R. Druce et al., Peptide YY3-36 and glucagon-like peptide-17-36 inhibit food intake additively. Endocrinology 146(12), 5120–5127 (2005)
106. S.R. Smith, W.A. Prosser, D.J. Donahue, M.E. Morgan, C.M. Anderson, W.R. Shanahan, Lorcaserin (APD356), a selective 5-HT(2C) agonist, reduces body weight in obese men and women. Obesity 17(3), 494–503 (2009)
107. F.Y. Enc, T. Ones, H.L. Akin et al., Orlistat accelerates gastric emptying and attenuates GIP release in healthy subjects. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 296(3), G482–G489 (2009)
108. C.N. Bernstein, Antibiotics, Probiotics and Prebiotics in IBD. Nestle Nutr. Inst. Workshop Ser. 79, 83–100 (2014)
109. P.J. Turnbaugh, R.E. Ley, M.A. Mahowald, V. Magrini, E.R. Mardis, J.I. Gordon, An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444(7122), 1027–1031 (2006)
110. M. Kalliomaki, M.C. Collado, S. Salminen, E. Isolauri, Early differences in fecal microbiota composition in children may predict overweight. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87(3), 534–538 (2008)
111. J.M. Lecerf, F. Depeint, E. Clerc et al., Xylo-oligosaccharide (XOS) in combination with inulin modulates both the intestinal environment and immune status in healthy subjects, while XOS alone only shows prebiotic properties. Br. J. Nutr. 108(10), 1847–1858 (2012)
112. J.A. Parnell, R.A. Reimer, Prebiotic fibres dose-dependently increase satiety hormones and alter Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes in lean and obese JCR:lA-cp rats. Br. J. Nutr. 107(4), 601–613 (2012)
113. P.D. Cani, S. Possemiers, T. Van de Wiele et al., Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-driven improvement of gut permeability. Gut 58(8), 1091–1103 (2009)
114. F. Cabreiro, C. Au, K.Y. Leung et al., Metformin retards aging in C. elegans by altering microbial folate and methionine metabolism. Cell 153(1), 228–239 (2013)
115. D. Rucker, R. Padwal, S.K. Li, C. Curioni, D.C. Lau, Long term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight: updated meta-analysis. BMJ 335(7631), 1194–1199 (2007)
116. A.S. Kelly, A.M. Metzig, K.D. Rudser et al., Exenatide as a weight-loss therapy in extreme pediatric obesity: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Obesity 20(2), 364–370 (2012)
117. S.R. Smith, N.J. Weissman, C.M. Anderson et al., Multicenter, placebo-controlled trial of lorcaserin for weight management. N. Engl. J. Med. 363(3), 245–256 (2010)
118. W. Huang, R. Liu, Y. Ou et al., Octreotide promotes weight loss via suppression of intestinal MTP and apoB48 expression in diet-induced obesity rats. Nutrition 29(10), 1259–1265 (2013)
119. T. Tzotzas, K. Papazisis, P. Perros, G.E. Krassas, Use of somatostatin analogues in obesity. Drugs 68(14), 1963–1973 (2008)
120. T. Reinehr, Lifestyle intervention in childhood obesity: changes and challenges. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 9(10), 607–614 (2013)
121. T. Reinehr, K. Widhalm, D. l’Allemand, S. Wiegand, M. Wabitsch, R.W. Holl, Two-year follow-up in 21,784 overweight children and adolescents with lifestyle intervention. Obesity 17(6), 1196–1199 (2009)
122. P. Sumithran, L.A. Prendergast, E. Delbridge et al., Long-term persistence of hormonal adaptations to weight loss. N. Engl. J. Med. 365(17), 1597–1604 (2011)
123. S.H. Jacobsen, S.C. Olesen, C. Dirksen et al., Changes in gastrointestinal hormone responses, insulin sensitivity, and beta-cell function within 2 weeks after gastric bypass in non-diabetic subjects. Obes. Surg. 22(7), 1084–1096 (2012)
124. K. Zwirska-Korczala, S.J. Konturek, M. Sodowski et al., Basal and postprandial plasma levels of PYY, ghrelin, cholecystokinin, gastrin and insulin in women with moderate and morbid obesity and metabolic syndrome. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 58(Suppl 1), 13–35 (2007)
125. R.V. Seimon, P. Taylor, T.J. Little et al., Effects of acute and longer-term dietary restriction on upper gut motility, hormone, appetite, and energy-intake responses to duodenal lipid in lean and obese men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 99(1), 24–34 (2014)
126. T. Reinehr, W. Kiess, T. Kapellen, W. Andler, Insulin sensitivity among obese children and adolescents, according to degree of weight loss. Pediatrics 114(6), 1569–1573 (2004)
127. T. Reinehr, C.L. Roth, U. Alexy, M. Kersting, W. Kiess, W. Andler, Ghrelin levels before and after reduction of overweight due to a low-fat high-carbohydrate diet in obese children and adolescents. Int. J. Obes. 29(4), 362–368 (2005)
128. T. Reinehr, C.L. Roth, G.H. Schernthaner, H.P. Kopp, S. Kriwanek, G. Schernthaner, Peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1 in morbidly obese patients before and after surgically induced weight loss. Obes. Surg. 17(12), 1571–1577 (2007)
129. T. Reinehr, G. de Sousa, C.L. Roth, Fasting glucagon-like peptide-1 and its relation to insulin in obese children before and after weight loss. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 44(5), 608–612 (2007)
130. T. Reinehr, G. de Sousa, C.L. Roth, Obestatin and ghrelin levels in obese children and adolescents before and after reduction of overweight. Clin. Endocrinol. 68(2), 304–310 (2008)
131. R.C. Vos, H. Pijl, J.M. Wit, E.W. van Zwet, C. van der Bent, E.C. Houdijk, The effect of multidisciplinary lifestyle intervention on the pre- and postprandial plasma gut Peptide concentrations in children with obesity. ISRN Endocrinol. 2011, 353756 (2011)
132. T.C. Adam, J. Jocken, M.S. Westerterp-Plantenga, Decreased glucagon-like peptide 1 release after weight loss in overweight/obese subjects. Obes. Res. 13(4), 710–716 (2005)
133. T. Reinehr, C.L. Roth, P.J. Enriori, K. Masur, Changes of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) in obese children with weight loss: relationships to peptide YY, pancreatic peptide, and insulin sensitivity. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 23(1–2), 101–108 (2010)
134. T. Reinehr, M. Kleber, N. Lass, A.M. Toschke, Body mass index patterns over 5 y in obese children motivated to participate in a 1-y lifestyle intervention: age as a predictor of long-term success. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 91(5), 1165–1171 (2010)
135. S.Y. Ueda, T. Yoshikawa, Y. Katsura, T. Usui, S. Fujimoto, Comparable effects of moderate intensity exercise on changes in anorectic gut hormone levels and energy intake to high intensity exercise. J. Endocrinol. 203(3), 357–364 (2009)
136. A. de Hollanda, A. Jimenez, R. Corcelles, A.M. Lacy, I. Patrascioiu, J. Vidal, Gastrointestinal hormones and weight loss response after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 10(5), 814–819 (2014)
137. C.W. le Roux, R. Welbourn, M. Werling et al., Gut hormones as mediators of appetite and weight loss after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Ann. Surg. 246(5), 780–785 (2007)
138. M.B. Mumphrey, L.M. Patterson, H. Zheng, H.R. Berthoud, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery increases number but not density of CCK-, GLP-1-, 5-HT-, and neurotensin-expressing enteroendocrine cells in rats. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 25(1), e70–e79 (2013)
139. W.J. Lee, C.Y. Chen, K.H. Ser et al., Differential influences of gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy on plasma nesfatin-1 and obestatin levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr. Pharm. Des. 19(32), 5830–5835 (2013)
140. F. Rubino, M. Gagner, P. Gentileschi et al., The early effect of the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass on hormones involved in body weight regulation and glucose metabolism. Ann. Surg. 240(2), 236–242 (2004)
141. T.P. Solomon, J.M. Haus, K.R. Kelly, M. Rocco, S.R. Kashyap, J.P. Kirwan, Improved pancreatic beta-cell function in type 2 diabetic patients after lifestyle-induced weight loss is related to glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. Diabetes Care 33(7), 1561–1566 (2010)
142. M. Sundbom, C. Holdstock, B.E. Engstrom, F.A. Karlsson, Early changes in ghrelin following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass: influence of vagal nerve functionality? Obes. Surg. 17(3), 304–310 (2007)
143. M. Christ-Crain, R. Stoeckli, A. Ernst et al., Effect of gastric bypass and gastric banding on proneurotensin levels in morbidly obese patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91(9), 3544–3547 (2006)
144. D.E. Cummings, J. Overduin, K.E. Foster-Schubert, M.J. Carlson, Role of the bypassed proximal intestine in the anti-diabetic effects of bariatric surgery. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 3(2), 109–115 (2007)
145. T.E. Sweeney, J.M. Morton, Metabolic surgery: action via hormonal milieu changes, changes in bile acids or gut microbiota? A summary of the literature. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 28(4), 727–740 (2014)
146. H. Ashrafian, T. Athanasiou, J.V. Li et al., Diabetes resolution and hyperinsulinaemia after metabolic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Obes. Rev. 12(5), e257–e272 (2011)
147. J. Korner, M. Bessler, W. Inabnet, C. Taveras, J.J. Holst, Exaggerated glucagon-like peptide-1 and blunted glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide secretion are associated with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass but not adjustable gastric banding. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 3(6), 597–601 (2007)
148. F. Rubino, S.A. Amiel, Is the gut the “sweet spot” for the treatment of diabetes? Diabetes 63(7), 2225–2228 (2014)
149. M.L. Alam, B.J. Van der Schueren, B. Ahren et al., Gastric bypass surgery, but not caloric restriction, decreases dipeptidyl peptidase-4 activity in obese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 13(4), 378–381 (2011)