Dietary antioxidant intake and its association with cognitive function in an ethnically diverse sample of US adults

Psychosomatic Medicine

Volumn 77, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 68-82

  Beydoun, May A ^a   Fanelli Kuczmarski, Marie T ^b   Kitner Triolo, Melissa H ^a   Beydoun, Hind A ^c   Kaufman, Jay S ^d   Mason, Marc A ^e   Evans, Michele K ^a   Zonderman, Alan B ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON AGING   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

^c EASTERN VIRGINIA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^d MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^e MEDSTAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Antioxidants; Cognitive function; Depressive symptoms; Midlife

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIOXIDANT; ASCORBIC ACID; CAROTENOID; CYANOCOBALAMIN; FOLIC ACID; PYRIDOXINE; RETINOL;

ADULT; ARTICLE; BODY MASS; CALORIC INTAKE; CENTER FOR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES DEPRESSION SCALE; COGNITION; COHORT ANALYSIS; CONTROLLED STUDY; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; DEPRESSION; DIETARY INTAKE; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MINI MENTAL STATE EXAMINATION; MULTIRACIAL PERSON; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RACE DIFFERENCE; SEX DIFFERENCE; UNITED STATES; VERBAL MEMORY; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ATTENTION; CAUCASIAN; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; MEMORY; MIDDLE AGED; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE;

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; ANTIOXIDANTS; ASCORBIC ACID; ATTENTION; CAROTENOIDS; COGNITION; COHORT STUDIES; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; FOOD HABITS; HUMANS; MALE; MEMORY; MIDDLE AGED; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE; UNITED STATES; VITAMIN A; VITAMIN E;

EID: 84925936876     PISSN: 00333174     EISSN: 15347796     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000129     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Lobo A, Launer LJ, Fratiglioni L, Andersen K, Di Carlo A, Breteler MM, Copeland JR, Dartigues JF, Jagger C, Martinez-Lage J, Soininen H, Hofman A. Prevalence of dementia and major subtypes in Europe: a collaborative study of population-based cohorts. Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group. Neurology 2000;54:S4-9.
2. Hendrie HC. Epidemiology of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998;6:S3-18.
3. 2008 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement 2008; 4:110-33.
4. 2009 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement 2009; 5:234-70.
5. Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C, Brodaty H, Fratiglioni L, Ganguli M, Hall K, Hasegawa K, Hendrie H, Huang Y, Jorm A, Mathers C, Menezes PR, Rimmer E, Scazufca M. Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. Lancet 2005;366:2112-7.
6. Carney JM, Starke-Reed PE, Oliver CN, Landum RW, ChengMS,Wu JF, Floyd RA. Reversal of age-related increase in brain protein oxidation, decrease in enzyme activity, and loss in temporal and spatial memory by chronic administration of the spin-trapping compound N-tert-butylalpha-phenylnitrone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1991;88:3633-6.
7. Wang J, Markesbery WR, Lovell MA. Increased oxidative damage in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA in mild cognitive impairment. J Neurochem 2006;96:825-32.
8. Mao G, Pan X, Zhu BB, Zhang Y, Yuan F, Huang J, Lovell MA, Lee MP, Markesbery WR, Li GM, Gu L. Identification and characterization of OGG1 mutations in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Nucleic Acids Res 2007;35:2759-66.
9. Jacob KD, Noren Hooten N, Tadokoro T, Lohani A, Barnes J, Evans MK. Alzheimer's disease-associated polymorphisms in human OGG1 alter catalytic activity and sensitize cells to DNA damage. Free Radic Biol Med 2013;63:115-25.
10. Behl C. Amyloid beta-protein toxicity and oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease. Cell Tissue Res 1997;290:471-80.
11. Christen Y. Oxidative stress and Alzheimer disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:621SY9.
12. Grundman M. Vitamin E and Alzheimer disease: the basis for additional clinical trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:630SY6.
13. Ekinci FJ, Linsley MD, Shea TB. Beta-amyloidYinduced calcium influx induces apoptosis in culture by oxidative stress rather than tau phosphorylation. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 2000;76:389-95.
14. Carty JL, Bevan R, Waller H, Mistry N, Cooke M, Lunec J, Griffiths HR. The effects of vitamin C supplementation on protein oxidation in healthy volunteers. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000;273:729-35.
15. Brennan LA, Morris GM, Wasson GR, Hannigan BM, Barnett YA. The effect of vitamin C or vitamin E supplementation on basal and H2O2-induced DNA damage in human lymphocytes. Br J Nutr 2000;84: 195-202.
16. Jama JW, Launer LJ, Witteman JC, den Breeijen JH, Breteler MM, Grobbee DE, Hofman A. Dietary antioxidants and cognitive function in a population-based sample of older persons. The Rotterdam Study. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144:275-80.
17. Kalmijn S, Feskens EJ, Launer LJ, Kromhout D. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and cognitive function in very old men. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:33-41.
18. Ortega RM, Requejo AM, Andres P, Lopez-Sobaler AM, Quintas ME, Redondo MR, Navia B, Rivas T. Dietary intake and cognitive function in a group of elderly people. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:803-9.
19. Lee L, Kang SA, Lee HO, Lee BH, Park JS, Kim JH, Jung IK, Park YJ, Lee JE. Relationships between dietary intake and cognitive function level in Korean elderly people. Public Health 2001;115:133-8.
20. Wengreen HJ, Munger RG, Corcoran CD, Zandi P, Hayden KM, Fotuhi M, Skoog I, Norton MC, Tschanz J, Breitner JC, Welsh-Bohmer KA. Antioxidant intake and cognitive function of elderly men and women: the Cache County Study. J Nutr Health Aging 2007;11:230-7.
21. Commenges D, Scotet V, Renaud S, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Barberger-Gateau P, Dartigues JF. Intake of flavonoids and risk of dementia. Eur J Epidemiol 2000;16:357-63.
22. Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, Breteler MM. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 2002;287:3223-9.
23. Laurin D, Masaki KH, Foley DJ, White LR, Launer LJ. Midlife dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of late-life incident dementia: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Am J Epidemiol 2004;159:959-67.
24. Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R. Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003;60:203-8.
25. Oishi J, Doi H, Kawakami N. Nutrition and depressive symptoms in community-dwelling elderly persons in Japan. Acta Med Okayama 2009; 63:9-17.
26. Owen AJ, Batterham MJ, Probst YC, Grenyer BF, Tapsell LC. Low plasma vitamin E levels in major depression: diet or disease? Eur J Clin Nutr 2005;59:304-6.
27. Niti M, Yap KB, Kua EH, Ng TP. APOE-epsilon4, depressive symptoms, and cognitive decline in Chinese older adults: Singapore Longitudinal Aging Studies. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2009;64:306-11.
28. Murphy M, O'Leary E. Depression, cognitive reserve and memory performance in older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2009; 25:665-71.
29. Panza F, D'Introno A, Colacicco AM, Capurso C, Del Parigi A, Caselli RJ, Todarello O, Pellicani V, Santamato A, Scapicchio P, Maggi S, Scafato E, Gandin C, Capurso A, Solfrizzi V. Depressive symptoms, vascular risk factors and mild cognitive impairment. The Italian longitudinal study on aging. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2008;25:336-46.
30. Dotson VM, Beydoun MA, Zonderman AB. Recurrent depressive symptoms and the incidence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Neurology 2010;75:27-34.
31. Kesse-Guyot K-GE, Fezeu L, Jeandel C, FerryM, Andreeva V, Amieva H, Hercberg S, Galan P. French adults' cognitive performance after daily supplementation with antioxidant vitamins and minerals at nutritional doses: a post hoc analysis of the Supplementation in Vitamins and Mineral Antioxidants (SU.VI.MAX) trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;94:892-9.
32. La Rue A, Koehler KM, Wayne SJ, Chiulli SJ, Haaland KY, Garry PJ. Nutritional status and cognitive functioning in a normally aging sample: a 6-y reassessment. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:20-9.
33. Goodwin JS, Goodwin JM, Garry PJ. Association between nutritional status and cognitive functioning in a healthy elderly population. JAMA 1983;249:2917-21.
34. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Aggarwal N, Wilson RS, Scherr PA. Dietary intake of antioxidant nutrients and the risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a biracial community study. JAMA 2002;287:3230-7.
35. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Wilson RS. Vitamin E and cognitive decline in older persons. Arch Neurol 2002;59:1125-32.
36. Sato R, Helzlsouer KJ, Comstock GW, Hoffman SC, Norkus EP, Fried LP. A cross-sectional study of vitamin C and cognitive function in older adults: the differential effects of gender. J Nutr Health Aging 2006; 10:37-44.
37. IOM. Dietary Reference Intakes. The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science; 2006.
38. Guenther PM, Reedy J, Krebs-Smith SM. Development of the Healthy Eating Index-2005. J Am Diet Assoc 2008;108:1896-901.
39. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Healthy Eating Index 2005. Available at: http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/HEI/healthyeatingindex2005 factsheet.pdf. vol. 2007: Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion2005.
40. McCullough ML, Feskanich D, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Ascherio A, Variyam JN, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Adherence to the dietary guidelines for Americans and risk of major chronic disease in men. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:1223-31.
41. Evans MK, Lepkowski JM, Powe NR, LaVeist T, Kuczmarski MF, Zonderman AB. Healthy aging in neighborhoods of diversity across the life span (HANDLS): overcoming barriers to implementing a longitudinal, epidemiologic, urban study of health, race, and socioeconomic status. Ethn Dis 2010;20:267-75.
42. Conway JM, Ingwersen LA, Moshfegh AJ. Accuracy of dietary recall using the USDA five-step multiple-pass method in men: an observational validation study. J Am Diet Assoc 2004;104:595-603.
43. Conway JM, Ingwersen LA, Vinyard BT, Moshfegh AJ. Effectiveness of the US Department of Agriculture 5-step multiple-pass method in assessing food intake in obese and nonobese women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:1171-8.
44. Moshfegh AJ, Rhodes DG, Baer DJ, Murayi T, Clemens JC, RumplerWV, Paul DR, Sebastian RS, Kuczynski KJ, Ingwersen LA, Staples RC, Cleveland LE. The US Department of Agriculture Automated Multiple-Pass Method reduces bias in the collection of energy intakes. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:324-32.
45. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agriculture Research Service. Database for Analyzing Dietary Sources of Nutrients Using USDASurvey Food Codes version 3.0. Available at: http://www.ars.usda.gov/ Services/docs.htm?docid=17031. Accessed February 2008. USDA2008.
46. Radloff L. The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1977;1:385-401.
47. Nguyen HT, Kitner-Triolo M, Evans MK, Zonderman AB. Factorial invariance of the CES-D in low socioeconomic status African Americans compared with a nationally representative sample. Psychiatry Res 2004;126:177-87.
48. Wilkinson GS. Wide Range Achievement TestYRevision 3. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Association; 1993.
49. Sanchez-Villegas A, Doreste J, Schlatter J, Pla J, Bes-Rastrollo M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA. Association between folate, vitamin B(6) and vitamin B(12) intake and depression in the SUN cohort study. J Hum Nutr Diet 2009;22:122-33.
50. Morris DW, Trivedi MH, Rush AJ. Folate and unipolar depression. J Altern Complement Med 2008;14:277-85.
51. Scott TM, Tucker KL, Bhadelia A, Benjamin B, Patz S, Bhadelia R, Liebson E, Price LL, Griffith J, Rosenberg I, Folstein MF. Homocysteine and B vitamins relate to brain volume and white-matter changes in geriatric patients with psychiatric disorders. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2004;12:631-8.
52. D'Anci KE, Rosenberg IH. Folate and brain function in the elderly. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2004;7:659-64.
53. Tolmunen T, Hintikka J, Ruusunen A, Voutilainen S, Tanskanen A, Valkonen VP, Viinamaki H, Kaplan GA, Salonen JT. Dietary folate and the risk of depression in Finnish middle-aged men. A prospective follow-up study. Psychother Psychosom 2004;73:334-9.
54. Bottiglieri T. Folate, vitamin B12, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Nutr Rev 1996;54:382-90.
55. Kivela SL, Pahkala K, Eronen A. Depression in the aged: relation to folate and vitamins C and B12. Biol Psychiatry 1989;26:210-3.
56. Levitt AJ, Joffe RT. Folate, B12, and life course of depressive illness. Biol Psychiatry 1989;25:867-72.
57. Murakami K, Mizoue T, Sasaki S, Ohta M, Sato M, Matsushita Y, Mishima N. Dietary intake of folate, other B vitamins, and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in relation to depressive symptoms in Japanese adults. Nutrition 2008;24:140-7.
58. Kamphuis MH, Geerlings MI, Grobbee DE, Kromhout D. Dietary intake of B(6-9-12) vitamins, serum homocysteine levels and their association with depressive symptoms: the Zutphen Elderly Study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2008;62:939-45.
59. Cherubini A, Martin A, Andres-Lacueva C, Di Iorio A, Lamponi M, Mecocci P, Bartali B, Corsi A, Senin U, Ferrucci L. Vitamin E levels, cognitive impairment and dementia in older persons: the InCHIANTI study. Neurobiol Aging 2005;26:987-94.
60. Astorg P, Couthouis A, Bertrais S, Arnault N, Meneton P, Guesnet P, Alessandri JM, Galan P, Hercberg S. Association of fish and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intakes with the occurrence of depressive episodes in middle-aged French men and women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2008;78:171-82.
61. Sanchez-Villegas A, Henriquez P, Figueiras A, Ortuno F, Lahortiga F, Martinez-Gonzalez MA. Long chain omega-3 fatty acids intake, fish consumption and mental disorders in the SUN cohort study. Eur J Nutr 2007;46:337-46.
62. Strom M, Mortensen EL, Halldorsson TI, Thorsdottir I, Olsen SF. Fish and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intakes during pregnancy and risk of postpartum depression: a prospective study based on a large national birth cohort. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;90:149-55.
63. Sublette ME, Hibbeln JR, Galfalvy H, Oquendo MA, Mann JJ. Omega-3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acid status as a predictor of future suicide risk. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1100-2.
64. Conquer JA, Tierney MC, Zecevic J, Bettger WJ, Fisher RH. Fatty acid analysis of blood plasma of patients with Alzheimer's disease, other types of dementia, and cognitive impairment. Lipids 2000;35:1305-12.
65. Tully AM, Roche HM, Doyle R, Fallon C, Bruce I, Lawlor B, Coakley D, Gibney MJ. Low serum cholesteryl ester-docosahexaenoic acid levels in Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study. Br J Nutr 2003;89:483-9.
66. Schaefer EJ, Bongard V, Beiser AS, Lamon-Fava S, Robins SJ, Au R, Tucker KL, Kyle DJ, Wilson PW, Wolf PA. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study. Arch Neurol 2006; 63:1545-50.
67. Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Satia JA, Rosamond W, Folsom AR. Plasma n-3 fatty acids and risk of cognitive decline among older adults: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:1103-11.
68. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Wilson RS, Aggarwal N, Schneider J. Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003; 60:940-6.
69. Kalmijn S, van Boxtel MP, Ocke M, Verschuren WM, Kromhout D, Launer LJ. Dietary intake of fatty acids and fish in relation to cognitive performance at middle age. Neurology 2004;62:275-80.
70. WilletWC.Nutritional Epidemiology. 2nd ed.NewYork:OxfordUniversity Press; 1998.
71. STATA. Statistics/Data Analysis: Release 13.0. Texas: Stata Corporation; 2013.
72. Ditlevsen S, Christensen U, Lynch J, Damsgaard MT, Keiding N. The mediation proportion: a structural equation approach for estimating the proportion of exposure effect on outcome explained by an intermediate variable. Epidemiology 2005;16:114-20.
73. Beydoun MA, Wang Y. How do socio-economic status, perceived economic barriers and nutritional benefits affect quality of dietary intake among US adults? Eur J Clin Nutr 2008;62:303-13.
74. MacKinnon DP, Dwyer JH. Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Eval Rev 1993;17:144-58.
75. Beydoun MA, Fanelli Kuczmarski MT, Beydoun HA, Shroff MR, Mason MA, Evans MK, Zonderman AB. The sex-specific role of plasma folate in mediating the association of dietary quality with depressive symptoms. J Nutr 2010;140:338-47.
76. Valeri L, Vanderweele TJ. Mediation analysis allowing for exposuremediator interactions and causal interpretation: theoretical assumptions and implementation with SAS and SPSS macros. Psychol Methods 2013;18:137-50.
77. VanderWeele TJ. Policy-relevant proportions for direct effects. Epidemiology 2013;24:175-6.
78. Heckman JJ. Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica 1979;47:153-61.
79. Beydoun MA, Kuczmarski MT, Mason MA, Ling SM, Evans MK, Zonderman AB. Role of depressive symptoms in explaining socioeconomic status disparities in dietary quality and central adiposity among US adults: a structural equation modeling approach. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 90:1084-95.
80. Hochberg Y, Tamhane AC. Multiple Comparison Procedures. New York: Wiley; 1987.
81. Cook-Mills JM. Isoforms of vitamin E differentially regulate PKC and inflammation: a review. J Clin Cell Immun 2013;4.
82. Morris MC, Evans DA, Tangney CC, Bienias JL, Wilson RS, Aggarwal NT, Scherr PA. Relation of the tocopherol forms to incident Alzheimer disease and to cognitive change. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:508-14.
83. (USDA) USDoA. Dietary Guidance: Dietary Reference Intakes. Food and Nutrition Information Center; 2014.
84. Paleologos M, Cumming RG, Lazarus R. Cohort study of vitamin C intake and cognitive impairment. Am J Epidemiol 1998;148:45-50.
85. Peacock JM, Folsom AR, Knopman DS, Mosley TH, Goff DC Jr., Szklo M. Dietary antioxidant intake and cognitive performance in middle-aged adults. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study investigators. Public Health Nutr 2000;3:337-43.
86. McNeill G, Jia X, Whalley LJ, Fox HC, Corley J, Gow AJ, Brett CE, Starr JM, Deary IJ. Antioxidant and B vitamin intake in relation to cognitive function in later life in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Eur J Clin Nutr 2011;65:619-26.
87. Devore EE, Kang JH, Stampfer MJ, Grodstein F. Total antioxidant capacity of diet in relation to cognitive function and decline. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:1157-64.
88. Morris MC, Beckett LA, Scherr PA, Hebert LE, Bennett DA, Field TS, Evans DA. Vitamin E and vitamin C supplement use and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1998;12:121-6.
89. Zandi PP, Anthony JC, Khachaturian AS, Stone SV, Gustafson D, Tschanz JT, Norton MC, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Breitner JC. Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: the Cache County Study. Arch Neurol 2004;61:82-8.
90. Maxwell CJ, Hicks MS, Hogan DB, Basran J, Ebly EM. Supplemental use of antioxidant vitamins and subsequent risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2005;20:45-51.
91. Fotuhi M, Zandi PP, Hayden KM, Khachaturian AS, Szekely CA, Wengreen H, Munger RG, Norton MC, Tschanz JT, Lyketsos CG, Breitner JC, Welsh-Bohmer K. Better cognitive performance in elderly taking antioxidant vitamins E and C supplements in combination with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: the Cache County Study. Alzheimers Dement 2008;4:223-7.
92. Grodstein F, Chen J, Willett WC. High-dose antioxidant supplements and cognitive function in community-dwelling elderly women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:975-84.
93. Gray SL, Hanlon JT, Landerman LR, Artz M, Schmader KE, Fillenbaum GG. Is antioxidant use protective of cognitive function in the communitydwelling elderly? Am J Geriatr Pharmacother 2003;1:3-10.
94. Masaki KH, Losonczy KG, Izmirlian G, Foley DJ, Ross GW, Petrovitch H, Havlik R, White LR. Association of vitamin E and C supplement use with cognitive function and dementia in elderly men. Neurology 2000;54:1265-72.
95. Mendelsohn AB, Belle SH, Stoehr GP, Ganguli M. Use of antioxidant supplements and its association with cognitive function in a rural elderly cohort: the MoVIES Project. Monongahela Valley Independent Elders Survey. Am J Epidemiol 1998;148:38-44.
96. Fillenbaum GG, Kuchibhatla MN, Hanlon JT, Artz MB, Pieper CF, Schmader KE, Dysken MW, Gray SL. Dementia and Alzheimer's disease in community-dwelling elders taking vitamin C and/or vitamin E. Ann Pharmacother 2005;39:2009-14.
97. Gray SL, Anderson ML, Crane PK, Breitner JC, McCormick W, Bowen JD, Teri L, Larson E. Antioxidant vitamin supplement use and risk of dementia or Alzheimer's disease in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008;56:291-5.
98. Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study G. Vitamin E and donepezil for the treatment of mild cognitive impairment. N Engl J Med 2005;352: 2379-88.
99. Bailey RL, Gahche JJ, Lentino CV, Dwyer JT, Engel JS, Thomas PR, Betz JM, Sempos CT, Picciano MF. Dietary supplement use in the United States, 2003-2006. J Nutr 2011;141:261-6.
100. Bailey RL, Fulgoni VL 3rd, Keast DR, Dwyer JT. Examination of vitamin intakes among US adults by dietary supplement use. J Acad Nutr Diet 2012;112:657-63 e4.