Lipid oxidation and control of oxidation

Advances in Food Biochemistry

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 383-408

  Kiokias, Sotirios ^a   Varzakas, Theodoros H ^b   Arvanitoyannis, Ioannis S ^c   Labropoulos, Athanasios E ^d  

^a NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

^b TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE OF KALAMATA   (Greece)

^c UNIVERSITY OF THESSALY   (Greece)

^d UNIVERSITY OF WEST ATTICA   (Greece)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATOMS; FOOD PRODUCTS; FREE RADICALS; OXYGEN;

CHEMICAL SPECIES; HYDROGEN ATOMS; LIPID OXIDATION; OXYGEN FREE RADICALS; OXYGEN MOLECULE; SHELF LIFE; UNPAIRED ELECTRONS;

OXIDATION;

EID: 84921659158     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (167)

1. Hamilton, R.J., Kalu, C., Prisk, E., Padley, B.F., and Pierce, H., Chemistry of free radicals in lipids, Food Chem, 60, 193, 1997.
2. Rice-Evans, A.C., Measurement of total antioxidant action as a marker of antioxidant status in vivo. Proceedings and limitations, Free Radical Res, 33, 59, 2000.
3. Frankel, E.N., Antioxidants in lipid foods and their impact on food quality, Food Chem., 57, 51-56, 1996.
4. Akoh, C.C. and Min, B.D., Food Lipid Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997.
5. Gordon, M.H., Dietary antioxidants in disease, Nat. Product Rep., 13, 265, 1996.
6. Kiritsakis, A., Olive Oil-from Tree to the Table, 2nd ed., Food and Nutrition Press, Trumbull, CT, 1998.
7. Kiokias, S. and Oreopoulou, V., Antioxidant properties of natural carotenoid preparations against the AAPH-oxidation of food emulsions, Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Tech., 7, 132-139, 2006.
8. Kiokias, S., In vitro and in vivo antioxidant properties of natural carotenoid mixtures. PhD thesis, School of Food Biosciences, The University of Reading, Reading, U.K., 2002.
9. Allen, J.C. and Hamilton, R.J., Rancidity in Foods, 3rd ed., Chapman & Hall, London, U.K., pp. 1-22, 1994.
10. Gunstone, F.D., Fatty Acid and Lipid Chemistry, Chapman & Hall, Glasgow, U.K., 1996.
11. Allen, J.C. and Hamilton, R.J., Rancidity in Foods, 3rd ed., Chapman & Hall, London, U.K., 1994.
12. Hsieh R.J. and Kinsella, E.J., Oxidation of PUFAs, mechanisms products and inhibition with emphasis on fish oil, Adv. Food. Nutr. Res., 33, 233, 1985.
13. Liegeois, C., Lernseau, G., and Collins, S., Measuring antioxidant efficiency of wort, malt, and hops against the 2,2,-azobis (2-qmidinopropane) dihydrochloride-induced oxidation of an aqueous dispersion of linoleic acid, J. Agric. Food. Chem., 48, 1129, 2000.
14. Niki, E., Free radical initiator as sources of water or lipid soluble peroxyl radicals, Methods Enzymol., 186, 100, 1990.
15. Esterbauer, H., The chemistry of oxidation of lipoproteins, in Oxidative Stress, Lipoproteins, and Cardiovascular Dysfunction, Rice-Evans, C. and Bruckdorfer, K.R. (Eds.), Portland Press, London, U.K., 1980.
16. Fakourelis, E.C. and Min, B.D., Effects of chlorophyll and ß-carotene on the oxidation stability of olive oil, J. Food Sci., 52, 234, 1987.
17. David, W.R. and Dorr, A.L., Food Lipid Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology, Akoh, C.C. and Min, B.D. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997.
18. Dunford, H.B., Free radicals in iron-containing systems, Free Radical Biol. Med., 3, 405, 1987.
19. Mistry, B.S. and Min, B.D., Oxidised flavor compounds in edible oils. Developments in food science, in Off Flavours in Foods and Beverages, Charalambous, G. (Ed.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1992.
20. Villiere, A., Vian, M., Brownec, I., Moreau, N., and Genot, C.J., Oxidative stability of bovine serum albumin- and sodium caseinate stabilised emulsions depends on metal availability, J. Agric. Food Chem., 53, 1514-1520, 2005.
21. Chen, J.H., Lee, T.C., and Ho, C.T. Antioxidant effect and kinetics study of capsanthin on the chlorophyll-sensitized photooxidation of soybean oil and selected flavor compounds, ACS Symp. Ser, 660, 188, 1997.
22. Mei, L. et al. Iron-catalysed lipid oxidation in emulsions as affected by surfactant, pH and NaCl, Food Chem., 61, 407, 1998.
23. Fukuzaka, K. and Fujii, T., Peroxide dependent and independent lipid peroxidation: Site specific mechanisms of initiation by chelated iron and inhibition by a-tocopherol, Lipids, 7, 227, 1998.
24. Yamamoto, S., Enzymatic lipid peroxidation, reactions of mammalians lipoxyganases, Free Radical Biol. Med, 10, 149, 1991.
25. Canfield, L.M., Bulux, J., and Serrano, J., Plasma response to oral ß-carotene in Guatemala schoolchildren, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 54, 539, 1991.
26. Aparicio, R. and Morales, M.T., Relationship between volatile compounds and sensory attributes of olive oil, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc, 73, 1253, 1996.
27. Frankel, E.N., Recent advances in lipid oxidation, J. Sci. Food. Agric., 54, 495, 1991.
28. Min, B.D. and Bradley, D.G., Fat and oil flavours, in Encyclopedia of Food Science & Technology, Wiley, New York, 1992.
29. Kiokias, S. and Gordon, M., Antioxidant properties of annatto carotenoids, Food Chem, 83, 523, 2003.
30. Keszler, A., Krisky, T., and Nenesh, A., Mechanisms of volatile compounds production during storage of sunflower oil, J. Agric. Food. Chem., 48, 1567, 2000.
31. Ponginelbi, I., Nawar, W.W., and Chinchoti, P., Oxidation of linoleic acid in emulsions. Effects of substrate, emulsifiers, and sugar concentration, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 76, 131, 1999.
32. Kiokias, S., Lampa, K., Tsimogiannis, D., and Oreopoulou, V., Inhibition of oxidative deterioration in food emulsions, in Proccedings of INTRAFOOD-EFFoST Conference, Valencia, Spain, Vol. 2, p. 1237, 2005.
33. Halliwell, B. and Gutteridge, J., Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 2nd ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1995.
34. Kiokias, S. and Gordon, M., Dietary supplementation with a natural carotenoid mixture decreases oxidative stress, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 57, 1135, 2003.
35. Dickinson, E., Introduction to Food Colloids, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., 1997.
36. Friberg, E. and Larsson K., Food Emulsions, 3rd ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996.
37. Kiokias, S., Reiffers-Magnani, C., and Bot, A., Stability of whey protein stabilized oil in water emulsions during chilled storage and temperature cycling. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 52, 3823, 2004.
38. Coupland, I.N. and Mc Clements, D.J., Lipid oxidation in food emulsions, Trends Food. Sci. Technol., 7, 83, 1996.
39. Labuza, T.P., Kinetics of lipid oxidation in foods, Crit. Rev. Food. Technol., 2, 355, 1971.
40. McClements, D.J. and Decker, E.A., J. Food Sci., 65, 1270, 2000.
41. Kiokias, S. and Bot, A., Temperature cycling stability of pre-heated acidified whey protein-stabilised o/w emulsion gels in relation to the internal surface area of the emulsion, Food Hydrocolloids, 20, 246, 2006.
42. Kiokias, S. and Bot, A., Effect of protein denaturation on temperature cycling stability of heat-treated acidified protein-stabilised o/w emulsions, Food Hydrocolloids, 19, 493, 2005.
43. Dickinson, E., Milk protein interfacial layers and the relationship to emulsion stability and rheology, Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces, 20, 197, 2001.
44. Moore, K. and Roberts, L.S., Measurement of lipid peroxidation, Radical Res., 28, 659, 1998.
45. Warner, K. and Eskin, N.M., Methods to Assess Quality and Stability of Oils and Fat Containing Foods, AOCS Press, Champaign, IL, 1995.
46. Gray, I.J., Measurement of lipid oxidation, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 55, 539, 1978.
47. Ueda, S., Hayashi, T., and Namiki, M., Effect of ascorbic acid on lipid autoxidation in a model food system, Agric. Biol. Chem., 50, 1, 1986.
48. Tsoukalas, V. and Grosch, W., Analysis of food deterioration-Comparison of some photometric tests. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc, 54, 490, 1977.
49. Hu, M., McClements, J., and Decker, E.A., Impact of whey protein emulsifiers on the oxidative stability of salmon oil-in-water emulsions, J. Agric. Food Chem., 51, 1435, 2003.
50. Logani, K.M. and Davis, R.E., Lipid oxidation: Biological effects and antioxidants, Lipids, 12, 485, 1980.
51. Huang, W., Frankel, E.N., Schwarz, K., and German, B., Effect of pH on antioxidant activity of a-tocopherol and trolox in oil-in-water emulsions, J. Agric. Food Chem., 42, 2496, 1996.
52. IUPAC, Standard Methods of Analysis of Oils Fats and Derivatives, 7th ed., Paquot, C. and Hautfenne, H. (Eds.), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, U.K., 1987.
53. Wanasundara, N.U., Shahidi, F., and Jablonski, C.R., Comparison of standard and NMR methodologies for assessment of oxidative stability of soybean oils, Food Chem, 52, 249, 1995.
54. Wheatley, A.R., Some recent trends in the analytical chemistry of lipid peroxidation, Trends Anal. Chem., 19, 620, 2000.
55. White, P.J., Conjugated diene, anisidine value and carbonyl value analysis, in Methods to Assess Quality and Stability of Oil and Fat Containing Foods, Warner, K. and Eskin, M. (Eds.), AOCS Publisher, Champaign, IL, p. 159, 1995.
56. Kasuga A., Aoyagi, Y., and Sugahara, T., J. Food Sci., 60, 1113, 1995.
57. Rossel, J.B., Rancidity in Foods, 3rd ed., Allen, J.C. and Hamilton, R.J. (Eds.), Blackie Academie & Professional, Glasgow, U.K., 1996.
58. List, G.R. et al., Oxidation and quality of soybean oil: A preliminary study of the anisidine test, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 51, 17, 1974.
59. Osborn, H.T. and Akoh, C.C., Effect of emulsifier type, droplet size, and oil concentration on lipid oxidation in structured lipid-based oil-in-water emulsions, Food Chem., 84, 451, 2004.
60. Shaidi, F. and Wanasadura, U.N., Methods for measuring oxidative stability in fats and oils. In: Food Lipid Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology, Akoh, C.C, and Min, B.D. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997.
61. Coupland, J.N., Zhu, Z., Wan, H., McClements, D.J., Nawar, W.W., and Chinachoti, P., Droplet composition affects the rate of oxidation of emulsified ethyl linoleate, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 73, 795, 1996.
62. Tarladgis, B.G., Pearson, A.M., and Dugan, R.L., Chemistry of the 2-TBA test for determination of oxidative stability in foods, J. Sci. Food. Agric., 15, 602, 1964.
63. McDonald, R.E. and Hultin, H.O., J. Food Sci, 52, 15, 1987.
64. Hawrysh, J.Z., Stability of conola oil, in Canola and Rapeseed Oil. Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing, Shahidi, F. (Ed.), Van Nortland Reinhlod, New York, p. 99, 1990.
65. Schieberle, P., Characteristion of Food: Emerging Methods, Gaonkar, A.G. (Ed.), Elsevier, London, U.K., 1995.
66. Snyder, J.M., Frankel, E.N., and Selke, E., Capillary gas chromatographic analysis of headspace volatiles from vegetable oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 62, 1675, 1985.
67. Zabaras, D. and Wyllie, S.G., Re-arrangement of p-menthane terpenes by Carboxen during HS-SPME, J. Sep. Sci., 25, 685, 2002.
68. Steffen, A. and Pawliszyn, J., Analysis of flavor volatiles using headspace SPME, J. Agric. Food Chem., 92, 401, 1996.
69. Jimenez, A., Beltran, G., and Aguilera, M.P., Application of SPME to the analysis of volatile compounds in virgin olive oils, J. Agric. Food Chem., 46, 2744, 1998.
70. Brunton, P.N., Cronin, A.D., and Durkan, R., A comparison of SPME fibres for measurement of hexanal, and pentanal in cooked turkey, Food Chem., 68, 339, 2000.
71. Steenson, D.F., Lee, J.H., and Min, B.D., SPME microextraction of volatile soybean oil and corn oil compounds, J. Food Sci., 67, 71, 2002.
72. Yang, X. and Reppard, T., Solid phase microextraction for flavors analysis. J. Agric. Food Chem., 41, 1925, 1994.
73. Beltran, G., Aguilera, M.P., and Gordon, M.H., Solid phase microextraction of volatile oxidation compounds in oil-in-water emulsions, Food Chem, 92, 401, 2005.
74. Zegarska, Z. et al., Milchwissenchaft, 51, 195, 1996.
75. Karahadian, C. and Lindsay, R.C., Flavor Chemistry: Trends and Developments, Teranishi, R. et al. (Eds.), ACS, Washington, DC, 1989.
76. Slater, F.T., Overview of methods used for detecting lipid peroxidation, Methods Enzymol., 300, 283, 1995.
77. Oreopoulou, V., Extraction of natural antioxidants, in Extraction Optimization in Food Engineering, Tzia, C. and Liadiakis, G. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 329-346, 2003.
78. Porter, L.W., Black, D.E., and Drolet, M.A., Use of polyamide oxidative fluorescence test on lipid emulsions: Contrast in relative effectiveness of antioxidants in bulk versus dispersed systems, J. Agric. Food Chem., 37, 615, 1989.
79. Facino, R.M., Carini, M., Aldini, G., and Colombo, L., Characterization of the intermediate products of lipid peroxidation in phosphatidylcholine liposomes by fast-atom bombardment mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry techniques, Rapid Commun. Mass Spec., 10, 1148, 1996.
80. Krinsky, N.I., Mechanism of actions of biological antioxidants, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 200, 298, 1992.
81. Loliger, J., The use of antioxidants in foods, in Free Radicals and Food Additives, Aruoma, I.O. and Haliwell, B. (Eds.), Taylor & Francis, London, U.K., 1990.
82. Fennema, O.R., Food Chemistry, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996.
83. Kumpulainen, J.K. and Salonen, T.J., Natural Antioxidants and Food Quality in Atherosclerosis and Cancer Prevention, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, U.K., 1996.
84. Larson, R.A., Plant defenses against oxidative stress, Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol., 29, 175, 2003.
85. Logani, M.K. and Davis, R.E., Lipid oxidation and effect of antioxidants, Lipids, 15, 485, 1981.
86. Buettner, G.R. and Moseley, P.L., EPR spin trapping of free radicals produced by bleomycin and ascor-bate, Free Radical Res. Commun, 19, 589, 1993.
87. Cao, G. and Prior, R., Measurement of oxygen radical absorbance capacity in biological samples, Methods Enzymol., 299, 350, 1999.
88. Nawar, W.W., Lipids, in Food Chemistry, 3rd ed., Fennema, O. (Ed.), Dekker, New York, 1996.
89. Papadopulos, G. and Boskou, D., Antioxidant effect of natural phenols in olive oil, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 68, 669, 1991.
90. Papas, M.A., Diet and antioxidant status, in Antioxidants in Human Health and Disease, Basu, K.T., Temple, J.N., and Gerg, L.M. (Eds.), CABI Publishing, New York, 1999.
91. Tsusihasci, H., Kigosi, M., and Niki, E., Action of ß-carotene as an antioxidant against lipid peroxidation, Arch. Biochem. Biophys, 323, 137, 1995.
92. Gordon, M.H., The mechanism of antioxidant action in vitro, in Food Antioxidants, Hudson, F.J.B. (Eds.), Elsevier Applied Science, London, U.K., 1990.
93. Minotti, G., Sources and role of iron in lipid peroxidation, Chem. Res. Toxicol., 6, 134, 1993.
94. Reisch, W.D., Dorris, A., and Eitenmiller, R., Antioxidants, in Food Lipid Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology, Akoh, C.C. and Min, B.D. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997.
95. Hudson, B.J. and Lewis, J.I., Polyhydroxy flavonoid antioxidants for edible oils: Structural criteria for activity, Food Chem., 10, 47, 1983.
96. Thompson, M. and Moldens, P., Cytoxicity of BHA and BHT in rat hepatocytes, Biochem. Pharmacol., 37, 2201, 1983.
97. Loliger, J., Natural antioxidants, Lipid Technol, 3, 58, 1993.
98. Ramarathnam, N. et al., The contribution of plant food antioxidants to human health, Trends Food Sci. Technol., 6, 75, 1995.
99. Frankel, E.N. et al., Antioxidant activity of a rosemary extract and its constituents, carnosic acid, carno-sol, and rosemarin acid, in bulk oil and oil-in-water emulsion, J. Agric. Food. Chem., 44, 131, 1996.
100. Takacsova, M., Pribela, A., and Faktorova, M., Study of the antioxidative effect of thyme, sage, juniper, and oregano, Die Nahung, 39, 241, 1995.
101. Abdalla, E.A. and Roozen, P.J., Effect of plant extracts on the oxidative stability of sunflower oil and emulsion, Food Chem., 64, 323, 1999.
102. Vekiari, S. et al., Oregano flavonoids as lipid antioxidants, J. Am. Oil Chemists Soc., 70, 483, 1993.
103. Packer, L., Antioxidant action of carotenoids-in vitro and in vivo protection against oxidation of human LDL, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci, 691, 48, 1993.
104. Khachik, F., Beecher, G.R., and Smith, J.C., Lutein, lycopene, and their oxidative metabolites in chemo-prevention of cancer, J. Cell. Biochem., 22, 236, 1997.
105. 2 radical, Am. Chem. Soc, 117, 8322, 1995.
106. Bast, A., Haanen, G.R., and VandenBerg, H., Antioxidant effects of Carotenoids, Int. J. Vit. Nutr. Res., 68, 399, 1998.
107. Mortensen, A. and Skibsted, L.H., Importance of carotenoid structure in radical-scavenging reactions, J. Agric. Food. Chem., 45, 2970, 1997.
108. Mortensen, A. and Skibsted, L.H., Reactivity of ß-carotene towards peroxyl radicals studied by later flash state photolysis, FEBS Lett., 426, 392, 1998.
109. Soffers, A.M.F., Boerma, M.G., Laanre, C., and Rietjens, I.M., Antioxidant activities of carotenoids: Quantitative relationships between theoretical calculations and experimental, Free Radical Res, 30, 233, 1999.
110. Mordi, R.C., Carotenoids-function and degradation, Chem. Industry, 110, 79, 1993.
111. Jorgensen, K. and Skibsted, L.H., Carotenoid scavenging of radicals—Effect of carotenoid structure and oxygen partial pressure on antioxidative activity, Zeitshrift furLebensmitteln, 196, 423, 1993.
112. Burton, W.G., Antioxidant action of carotenoids, Br. J. Nutr., 119, 109, 1988.
113. Burton, W.G and Ingold, K.U., Beta carotene: An unusual type of lipid antioxidant, Science, 224, 569, 1984.
114. Palozza, P. and Krinsky, N.I., Antioxidant effects of carotenoids in vitro and in vivo. An overview, Methods Enzymol., 213, 403, 1992.
115. Palozza, P., Calvello, G., and Bartoli, G.M., Prooxidant activity of ß-carotene under 100% oxygen pressure in rat liver microsomes, Free Radical Biol. Med., 19, 887, 1995.
116. Liebler, D.C., Antioxidant reaction of carotenoids, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 691, 20, 1993.
117. Kasaikina, O.T. et al., Effect of environmental factors on the ß-carotene reactivity toward oxygen and free radicals, Biol. Membr., 15, 168, 1998.
118. Olmedella, B., Granado, F., and Blanco, I., Supplementation with lutein and a-tocopherol in separate or combined oral doses in controlled men, Cancer Lett, 114, 179, 1997.
119. Dugas, T.R., Morel, D.W., and Harrison, E.H., Dietary supplementation with beta-carotene, but not with lycopene, inhibits endothelial cell mediated oxidation of LDL lipoprotein, Free Radical Biol. Med., 26, 1238, 1999.
120. Heinonen, M. et al., Inhibition of oxidation in 10% oil in water emulsions by ß-carotene with a-, y-, and S-tocopherols, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 74, 1047, 1997.
121. Henry, L.K., Gatignani, G.L., and Scwharz, S., The influence of carotenoids and tocopherols on the stability of safflower seed oil during heat-catalysed oxidation, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 75, 1399, 1998.
122. Lominsky, S., Grossman, S., and Bergaman, H., In vitro and in vivo effects of ß-carotene in rat epidermal lipoxygenase, Int. J. Vit. Res., 67, 407, 1997.
123. Warner, K. and Frankel, E.N., Effects of ß-carotene on light stability of soyabean oil, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc, 64, 213, 1987
124. Kiritsakis, A. and Dugan, L.R., Studies in photooxidation of olive oil, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 62, 892, 1985.
125. Lee, H.S. and Min, B.D., Effects, quenching mechanisms, and kinetics of carotenoid in chlorophyll-sensitized photo-oxidation of soyabean, J. Agric. Food Chem., 38, 1630, 1990.
126. Chen, J.H., Lee, T.C., and Ho, C.T., Antioxidant activities of caffeic acid and its related hydrocynamic acid compounds, J. Agric. Food Chem., 45, 2374, 1997.
127. Nielsen, B.R. et al., Singlet versus triplet reactivity in photodegradation of C40 carotenoids, J. Agric. Food Chem, 44, 2106, 1997.
128. Kiokias, S. and Gordon M., Properties of carotenoids in vitro and in vivo, Food Rev. Int., 20, 99, 2004.
129. Eitenmiller, R. and Laden, W.O., Vitamins, in Analyzing Food for Nutrition Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants, Jern, I.J. and Ikins, W.C. (Eds.), Dekker, New York, 1995.
130. Cillard, J. and Cillard, P., Behaviour of a-, y-, and S-tocopherols with linoleic acid in aqueous media, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 57, 39, 1980.
131. Madhavi, L.D., Singhal, S.R., and Kulkavni, R.P., Technological aspects of foods antioxidants, in Food Antioxidants: Technological Toxicological and Health Perspectives, Madhavi, D.L. et al. (Eds.), Dekker, New York, pp. 159-266, 1996.
132. Schuler, P., Natural antioxidants exploited commercially, in Food Antioxidants, Hudson, F.B. (Ed.), Elsevier Applied Sciences, London, U.K., 1990.
133. Gottstein, T. and Gross, W., Model study of different antioxidant properties of a- and y-tocopherols in fats, Food Sci. Technol., 92, 139, 1990.
134. Huang, W., Schwarz, K., German, B., Frankel E.N., and Hopia, A.I., Antioxidant activity of α-tocopherol and trolox in different lipids substrates: Bulk oil-in-water emulsions. J. Agric. Food Chem., 44, 444, 1996.
135. Kamal-Eldin, A. and Appelwist, L.A., The chemistry and antioxidant properties of tocopherols and tocot-rienols, Lipids, 31, 671, 1996.
136. Frankel, E.N., Natural and biological antioxidants in food and biological systems. Their mechanisms of action, application and implications, Lipid Technol, 49, 77, 1995.
137. Marinova, E.M. and Yanislieva, N.V., Effect of temperature on antioxidant action of inhibitors in lipid autoxidation, J. Sci. Food. Agric., 60, 313, 1992.
138. Pryor, W.A., Cornicall, J.A., Dorall, L.I., and Tait, B., A rapid screening test to determine the antioxidant activity of natural and synthetic antioxidants, J. Org. Chem., 58, 3521, 1993.
139. Jung, M.Y. and Min, D.B., Effects of α-, γ-, and δ-tocopherols on oxidative stability of soybean oils, J. Food Sci., 55, 1464, 1992.
140. Lee, H.S. and Montag, A., Antioxidative wirksamkeit von tocochromanolen, Fett. Techn., 94, 213, 1992.
141. Hopia, A.I., Huang, S.W., Schwarz, K., German, B., and Frankel E.N., Effect of different lipid systems on antioxidant activity of rosemary constituents. Carnosol and carnosoic acid with and without a-tocoph-erol, J. Agric. Food Chem., 44, 2030, 1996.
142. Lee, H.S. and Wander, R.J., Relative activities of several tocopherols, J. Sci. Food Agric., 10, 537, 1959.
143. Coultate, T.P., Food—The Chemistry of Its Components, 2nd ed., The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, U.K., 1996.
144. Johnson, E.L., Food technology of the antioxidant nutrients, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 35, 149, 1995.
145. Counsel, J.N. and Horning D.H., Vitamin C, Ascorbic Acid, Applied Science, London, U.K., 1981.
146. Liao, M.T. and Seib, P.A., Selected reactions of L-ascorbic related to foods, Food Technol., 41, 104, 1987.
147. Stait, E.S. and Leake, S.D., Ascorbic acid can either increase or decrease LDL modification, FEBS Lett., 34, 263, 1994.
148. Cort, W.M., Antioxidant properties of ascorbic acid in foods, Adv. Chem. J., 200, 533, 1982.
149. Frankel, E.N., Huang, W., Kanner, J., and German, B., Interfacial phenomena in the evaluation of antioxidants: Bulk oils vs emulsions, J. Agric. Food Chem., 42, 1054, 1994.
150. Niki, E., Antioxidants in relation to lipid peroxidation, Chem. Phys. Lipids, 44, 227, 1987.
151. McCay, P.B., Vitamin E: Interactions with free radicals and ascorbate, Ann. Rev. Nutr., 5, 323, 1985.
152. Englard, S. and Seifter, S., The biochemical functions of ascorbic acid, Ann. Rev. Nutr., 6, 365, 1986.
153. Tan, B. and Saley, M.H., Antioxidant activities of tocopherols and tocotrienols on plant color carotenes, Am. Chem. Soc., 202, 39, 1991.
154. Mortensen, A. and Skibsted, L.H., Reactivity of ß-carotene towards peroxyl radicals studied by later flash state photolysis, FEBS Lett., 426, 396, 1998.
155. Bohm, F., Edge, R., Lange, L., McGarvey, J., and Truscott, T.G., Carotenoids enhance vitamin E antioxidant activity, Am. Chem. Soc., 119, 621, 1997.
156. Lievonen, S., The effects of carotenoids on lipid oxidation. PhD Thesis. Department of Food Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, 1996.
157. Kanner, J., Pro-oxidant and antioxidant effects of ascorbic acid and metal salts in a ß-carotene linoleate model system, J. Food Sci., 42, 60, 1977.
158. E.U. 96/3/EC (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber &1g=en&type_doc=Directive&an_doc=96&nu_doc=3) (accessed 20/03/2009).
159. Regulation No. 136/66/EEC (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber &1g=en&type_doc=Regulation&an_doc=66&nu_doc=136) (accessed 20/03/2009).
160. Regulation (EEC) No 2568/91 (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber &1g=en&type_doc=Regulation&an_doc=91&nu_doc=2568) (accessed 20/03/2009).
161. Regulation (EC) No.2991/94 (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber &1g=en&type_doc=Regulation&an_doc=94&nu_doc=2991) (accessed 20/03/2009).
162. Regulation (EC) No.2815/98 (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber &1g=en&type_doc=Regulation&an_doc=98&nu_doc=2815) (accessed 20/03/2009).
163. Regulation (EC) No.1019/2002 (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNum ber&1g=en&type_doc=Regulation&an_doc=2002&nu_doc=1019) (accessed 20/03/2009).
164. http://r0.unctad.org/commodities/agreements/oliveen.pdf (accessed 20/03/2008).
165. http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/9211122791/103-4320927-0003049?v=glance&n=283155 (accessed 20/03/2009).
166. http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/DBLaws/RepealedStatutes/English/90e01_e.htm (accessed 20/03/2008).
167. http://www.canlii.org/on/laws/sta/e-1/20041201/whole.html (accessed 20/03/2009).