Traumatic white matter injury and glial activation: From basic science to clinics

GLIA

Volumn 62, Issue 11, 2014, Pages 1831-1855

  Kou, Zhifeng ^a,b   VandeVord, Pamela J ^c,d  

^a Wayne State University   (United States)

^b WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Astrocyte; Biomarkers; Diffuse axonal injury; Diffusion tensor imaging; Glial activation; Magnetic resonance imaging; Microglia; Neuroimaging; Neuroinflammation; Traumatic axonal injury; Traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER;

ASTROCYTE; ASTROCYTOSIS; AXONAL INJURY; BRAIN MAPPING; CELL LEVEL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DIFFUSION; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DISEASE SEVERITY; GLIA; GLIA CELL; HUMAN; IMAGING; MICROGLIA; MOLECULAR IMAGING; NERVE FIBER REGENERATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM INFLAMMATION; NEUROIMAGING; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OLIGODENDROGLIA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PROGNOSIS; REMYELINIZATION; REVIEW; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; WHITE MATTER; WHITE MATTER INJURY; ANIMAL; BRAIN INJURIES; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); COMPLICATION; LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHIES; PATHOLOGY; PROCEDURES; TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH;

ANIMALS; BRAIN INJURIES; CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; HUMANS; LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHIES; NEUROGLIA; TRANSLATIONAL MEDICAL RESEARCH;

EID: 84912071947     PISSN: 08941491     EISSN: 10981136     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/glia.22690     Document Type: Review

References (261)

1. Adams JH, Doyle D, Ford I, Gennarelli TA, Graham DI, McLellan DR. 1989. Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: Definition, diagnosis and grading. Histopathology 15:49-59.
2. Adams JH, Graham DI, Murray LS, Scott G. 1982. Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: An analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol 12: 557-563.
3. Adnan A, Crawley A, Mikulis D, Moscovitch M, Colella B, Green R. 2013. Moderate-severe traumatic brain injury causes delayed loss of white matter integrity: Evidence of fornix deterioration in the chronic stage of injury. Brain Inj 27:1415-1422.
4. Ahlers ST, Vasserman-Stokes E, Shaughness MC, Hall AA, Shear DA, Chavko M, McCarron RM, Stone JR. 2012. Assessment of the effects of acute and repeated exposure to blast overpressure in rodents: Toward a greater understanding of blast and the potential ramifications for injury in humans exposed to blast. Front Neurol 3:32.
5. Aihara N, Hall JJ, Pitts LH, Fukuda K, Noble LJ. 1995. Altered immunoexpression of microglia and macrophages after mild head injury. J Neurotrauma 12:53-63.
6. Alexander DC. 2005. Multiple-fiber reconstruction algorithms for diffusion MRI. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1064:113-133.
7. Anderson AW, Xie J, Pizzonia J, Bronen RA, Spencer DD, Gore JC. 2000. Effects of cell volume fraction changes on apparent diffusion in human cells. Magn Reson Imaging 18:689-695.
8. Anderson KJ, Scheff SW, Miller KM, Roberts KN, Gilmer LK, Yang C, Shaw G. 2008. The phosphorylated axonal form of the neurofilament subunit NF-H (pNFH) as a blood biomarker of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 25:1079-1085.
9. Arenth PM, Russell KC, Scanlon JM, Kessler LJ, Ricker JH. 2014. Corpus callosum integrity and neuropsychological performance after traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor imaging study. J Head Trauma Rehabil 29:E1-E10.
10. Arfanakis K, Haughton VM, Carew JD, Rogers BP, Dempsey RJ, Meyerand M. 2002. Diffusion tensor MR imaging in diffuse axonal injury. Am J Neuroradiol 23:794-802.
11. Bachstetter AD, Rowe RK, Kaneko M, Goulding D, Lifshitz J, Van Eldik LJ. 2013. The p38alpha MAPK regulates microglial responsiveness to diffuse traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci 33:6143-6153.
12. Baek SO, Kim OL, Kim SH, Kim MS, Son SM, Cho YW, Jang SH. 2013. Relation between cingulum injury and cognition in chronic patients with traumatic brain injury; diffusion tensor tractography study. NeuroRehabilitation 33:465-471.
13. Bain AC, Meaney DF. 2000. Tissue-level thresholds for axonal damage in an experimental model of central nervous system white matter injury. J Biomech Eng 122:615-622.
14. Bal-Price A, Brown GC. 2001. Inflammatory neurodegeneration mediated by nitric oxide from activated glia-inhibiting neuronal respiration, causing glutamate release and excitotoxicity. J Neurosci 21:6480-6491.
15. Banati RB, Myers R, Kreutzberg GW. 1997. PK ('peripheral benzodiazepine')- Binding sites in the CNS indicate early and discrete brain lesions: Microautoradiographic detection of [3H]PK11195 binding to activated microglia. J Neurocytol 26:77-82.
16. Bardehle S, Krüger M, Buggenthin F, Schwausch J, Ninkovic J, Clevers H, Snippert HJ, Theis FJ, Meyer-Luehmann M, Bechmann I, Dimou L, Götz M. 2013. Live imaging of astrocyte responses to acute injury reveals selective juxtavascular proliferation. Nat Neurosci 16:580-586.
17. Basiri M, Doucette R. 2010. Sensorimotor cortex aspiration: A model for studying Wallerian degeneration-induced glial reactivity along the entire length of a single CNS axonal pathway. Brain Res Bull 81:43-52.
18. Bazarian JJ, Zhong J, Blyth B, Zhu T, Kavcic V, Peterson D. 2007. Diffusion tensor imaging detects clinically important axonal damage after mild traumatic brain injury: A pilot study. J Neurotrauma 24:1447-1459.
19. Bazarian JJ, Zhu T, Blyth B, Borrino A, Zhong J. 2012. Subject-specific changes in brain white matter on diffusion tensor imaging after sports-related concussion. Magn Reson Imaging 30:171-180.
20. Begaz T, Kyriacou DN, Segal J, Bazarian JJ. 2006. Serum biochemical markers for post-concussion syndrome in patients with mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 23:1201-1210.
21. Belanger HG, Kretzmer T, Vanderploeg RD, French LM. 2010. Symptom complaints following combat-related traumatic brain injury: Relationship to traumatic brain injury severity and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 16:194-199.
22. Belanger HG, Kretzmer T, Yoash-Gantz R, Pickett T, Tupler LA. 2009. Cognitive sequelae of blast-related versus other mechanisms of brain trauma. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 15:1-8.
23. Bellander BM, Olafsson IH, Ghatan PH, Bro Skejo HP, Hansson LO, Wanecek M, Svensson MA. 2011. Secondary insults following traumatic brain injury enhance complement activation in the human brain and release of the tissue damage marker S100B. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 153:90-100.
24. Bennett RE, Mac Donald CL, Brody DL. 2012. Diffusion tensor imaging detects axonal injury in a mouse model of repetitive closed-skull traumatic brain injury. Neurosci Lett 513:160-165.
25. Benson RR, Meda SA, Vasudevan S, Kou Z, Govindarajan KA, Hanks RA, Millis SR, Makki M, Latif Z, Coplin W, Meythaler J, Haacke EM. 2007. Global white matter analysis of diffusion tensor images is predictive of injury severity in TBI. J Neurotrauma 24:446-459.
26. Berger RP. 2006. The use of serum biomarkers to predict outcome after traumatic brain injury in adults and children. J Head Trauma Rehabil 21:315-333.
27. Blumbergs PC. 1997. Pathology.In: Reilly P, Bullock R, editors. Head injury. London: Chapman & Hill. p 39-70.
28. Blumbergs PC, Scott G, Manavis J, Wainwright H, Simpson DA, McLean AJ. 1994. Staining of amyloid precursor protein to study axonal damage in mild head injury. Lancet 344:1055-1056.
29. Borutaite V, Morkuniene R, Brown GC. 1999. Release of cytochrome c from heart mitochondria is induced by high Ca21 and peroxynitrite and is responsible for Ca(21)-induced inhibition of substrate oxidation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1453:41-48.
30. Budde MD, Janes L, Gold E, Turtzo LC, Frank JA. 2011. The contribution of gliosis to diffusion tensor anisotropy and tractography following traumatic brain injury: Validation in the rat using Fourier analysis of stained tissue sections. Brain 134:2248-2260.
31. Buffo A, Rolando C, Ceruti S. 2010. Astrocytes in the damaged brain: Molecular and cellular insights into their reactive response and healing potential. Biochem Pharmacol 79:77-89.
32. Büki A, Povlishock JT. 2006. All roads lead to disconnection?-Traumatic axonal injury revisited. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 148:181-193.
33. Büki A, Siman R, Trojanowski JQ, Povlishock JT. 1999. The role of calpainmediated spectrin proteolysis in traumatically induced axonal injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 58:365-375.
34. Cagnin A, Gerhard A, Banati RB. 2002. The concept of in vivo imaging of neuroinflammation with [11C](R)-PK11195 PET. Ernst Schering Res Found Workshop 179-191.
35. Cagnin A, Kassiou M, Meikle SR, Banati RB. 2007. Positron emission tomography imaging of neuroinflammation. Neurotherapeutics 4:443-452.
36. Cai J, Yang J, Jones DP. 1998. Mitochondrial control of apoptosis: The role of cytochrome c. Biochim Biophys Acta 1366:139-149.
37. Cawley PJ, Mokadam NA. 2010. Delayed complications from exposure to improvised explosive devices. Ann Intern Med 153:278-279.
38. CDC. 2003. Report to Congress on Mild Traumatic brain injury in the United States: Steps to Prevent a Serious Public Health Problem. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.
39. Cho HJ, Sajja VS, Vandevord PJ, Lee YW. 2013a. Blast induces oxidative stress, inflammation, neuronal loss and subsequent short-term memory impairment in rats. Neuroscience 253C:9-20.
40. Cho HJ, Sajja VS, Vandevord PJ, Lee YW. 2013b. Blast induces oxidative stress, inflammation, neuronal loss and subsequent short-term memory impairment in rats. Neuroscience 253:9-20.
41. Chu Z, Wilde EA, Hunter JV, McCauley SR, Bigler ED, Troyanskaya M, Yallampalli R, Chia JM, Levin HS. 2010. Voxel-based analysis of diffusion tensor imaging in mild traumatic brain injury in adolescents. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 31:340-346.
42. Chung RS, McCormack GH, King AE, West AK, Vickers JC. 2005. Glutamate induces rapid loss of axonal neurofilament proteins from cortical neurons in vitro. Exp Neurol 193:481-488.
43. Colangelo AM, Cirillo G, Lavitrano ML, Alberghina L, Papa M. 2012. Targeting reactive astrogliosis by novel biotechnological strategies. Biotechnol Adv 30:261-271.
44. Conturo TE, McKinstry RC, Akbudak E, Robinson BH. 1996. Encoding of anisotropic diffusion with tetrahedral gradients: A general mathematical diffusion formalism and experimental results. Magn Reson Med 35:399-412.
45. d'Avila JC, Lam TI, Bingham D, Shi J, Won SJ, Kauppinen TM, Massa S, Liu J, Swanson RA. 2012. Microglial activation induced by brain trauma is suppressed by post-injury treatment with a PARP inhibitor. J Neuroinflammation 9:31.
46. Dalle Lucca JJ, Chavko M, Dubick MA, Adeeb S, Falabella MJ, Slack JL, McCarron R, Li Y. 2012. Blast-induced moderate neurotrauma (BINT) elicits early complement activation and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) release in a rat brain. J Neurol Sci 318:146-154.
47. Dikmen S, McLean A Jr, Temkin NR, Wyler AR. 1986a. Neuropsychologic outcome at one-month postinjury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 67:507-513.
48. Dikmen S, McLean A, Temkin N. 1986b. Neuropsychological and psychosocial consequences of minor head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 49: 1227-1232.
49. Dougherty KD, Dreyfus CF, Black IB. 2000. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor in astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia/macrophages after spinal cord injury. Neurobiol Dis 7:574-585.
50. Du Y, Dreyfus CF. 2002. Oligodendrocytes as providers of growth factors. J Neurosci Res 68:647-654.
51. Elder GA, Mitsis EM, Ahlers ST, Cristian A. 2010. Blast-induced mild traumatic brain injury. Psychiatr Clin North Am 33:757-781.
52. Falangola MF, Jensen JH, Tabesh A, Hu C, Deardorff RL, Babb JS, Ferris S, Helpern JA. 2013. Non-Gaussian diffusion MRI assessment of brain microstructure in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Magn Reson Imaging 31:840-846.
53. Falangola MF, Jensen JH, Babb JS, Hu C, Castellanos FX, Di Martino A, Ferris SH, Helpern JA. 2008. Age-related non-Gaussian diffusion patterns in the prefrontal brain. J Magn Reson Imaging 28:1345-1350.
54. Farina C, Aloisi F, Meinl E. 2007. Astrocytes are active players in cerebral innate immunity. Trends Immunol 28:138-145.
55. Faul M, Xu L, Wald MM, Coronado VG. 2010. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: Emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.
56. Finkelstein E, Corso P, Miller T. 2006. The incidence and economic burden of injuries in the United States. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
57. Fitch MT, Silver J. 2008. CNS injury, glial scars, and inflammation: Inhibitory extracellular matrices and regeneration failure. Exp Neurol 209:294-301.
58. Flygt J, Djupsjö A, Lenne F, Marklund N. 2013. Myelin loss and oligodendrocyte pathology in white matter tracts following traumatic brain injury in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 38:2153-2165.
59. Folkersma H, Boellaard R, Yaqub M, Kloet RW, Windhorst AD, Lammertsma AA, Vandertop WP, van Berckel BN. 2011a. Widespread and prolonged increase in (R)-(11)C-PK11195 binding after traumatic brain injury. J Nucl Med 52:1235-1239.
60. Folkersma H, Foster Dingley JC, van Berckel BN, Rozemuller A, Boellaard R, Huisman MC, Lammertsma AA, Vandertop WP, Molthoff CF. 2011b. Increased cerebral (R)-[(11)C]PK11195 uptake and glutamate release in a rat model of traumatic brain injury: A longitudinal pilot study. J Neuroinflammation 8:67.
61. Fozouni N, Chopp M, Nejad-Davarani SP, Zhang ZG, Lehman NL, Gu S, Ueno Y, Lu M, Ding G, Li L, Hu J, Bagher-Ebadian H, Hearshen D, Jiang Q. 2013. Characterizing brain structures and remodeling after TBI based on information content, diffusion entropy. PLoS One 8:e76343.
62. Frugier T, Morganti-Kossmann MC, O'Reilly D, McLean CA. 2010. In situ detection of inflammatory mediators in post mortem human brain tissue after traumatic injury. J Neurotrauma 27:497-507.
63. Galanaud D, Perlbarg V, Gupta R, Stevens RD, Sanchez P, Tollard E, de Champfleur NM, Dinkel J, Faivre S, Soto-Ares G, Veber B, Cottenceau V, Masson F, Tourdias T, Andre E, Audibert G, Schmitt E, lbarrola D, Dailler F, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Tshibanda L, Payen JF, Le Bas JF, Krainik A, Bruder N, Girard N, Laureys S, Benali H, Puybasset L; Neuro Imaging for Coma Emergence and Recovery Consortium. 2012. Assessment of white matter injury and outcome in severe brain trauma: A prospective multicenter cohort. Anesthesiology 117:1300-1310.
64. Gavett BE, Stern RA, Cantu RC, Nowinski CJ, McKee AC. 2010. Mild traumatic brain injury: A risk factor for neurodegeneration. Alzheimers Res Ther 2:18.
65. Gennarelli TA. 1993. Mechanisms of brain injury. J Emerg Med 11:5-11.
66. Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. 1982. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol 12:564-574.
67. Gentleman SM, Leclercq PD, Moyes L, Graham DI, Smith C, Griffin WS, Nicoll JA. 2004. Long-term intracerebral inflammatory response after traumatic brain injury. Forensic Sci Int 146:97-104.
68. Gervasi NM, Kwok JC, Fawcett JW. 2008. Role of extracellular factors in axon regeneration in the CNS: Implications for therapy. Regen Med 3:907- 923.
69. Glushakova OY, Johnson D, Hayes RL. 2014. Delayed increases in microvascular pathology after experimental traumatic brain injury are associated with prolonged inflammation, blood-brain barrier disruption, and progressive white matter damage. J Neurotrauma 31:1180-1193.
70. Goldstein M. 1990. Traumatic brain injury: A silent epidemic [editorial]. Ann Neurol 27:327.
71. Gonzćlez-Mao MC, Repáraz-Andrade A, Del Campo-Pérez V, Alvarez-García E, Vara-Perez C, Andrade-Olivié MA. 2011. Model predicting survival/exitus after traumatic brain injury: biomarker S100B 24h. Clin Lab 57:587-597.
72. Grossman EJ, Ge Y, Jensen JH, Babb JS, Miles L, Reaume J, Silver JM, Grossman RI, Inglese M. 2012. Thalamus and cognitive impairment in mild traumatic brain injury: A diffusional kurtosis imaging study. J Neurotrauma 29:2318-2327.
73. Grossman EJ, Jensen JH, Babb JS, Chen Q, Tabesh A, Fieremans E, Xia D, Inglese M, Grossman RI. 2013. Cognitive impairment in mild traumatic brain injury: A longitudinal diffusional kurtosis and perfusion imaging study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 34:951-957.
74. Grossman RI, Yousem DM. 2003. Neuroradiology. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby.
75. Haacke EM, Xu Y, Cheng Y-CN, Reichenbach JR. 2004. Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI). Magn Reson Med 52:612-618.
76. Hampton CE, Thorpe CN, Sholar CA. 2013. A novel bridge wire model of blast traumatic brain injury-Biomed 2013. Biomed Sci Instrum 49:312-319.
77. Haqqani AS, Hutchison JS, Ward R, Stanimirovic DB. 2007. Biomarkers and diagnosis; protein biomarkers in serum of pediatric patients with severe traumatic brain injury identified by ICAT-LC-MS/MS. J Neurotrauma 24:54-74.
78. Hardemark HG, Ericsson N, Kotwica Z, Rundstrom G, Mendel-Hartvig I, Olsson Y, Pahlman S, Persson L. 1989. S-100 protein and neuron-specific enolase in CSF after experimental traumatic or focal ischemic brain damage. J Neurosurg 71:727-731.
79. Hawkins BE, Krishnamurthy S, Castillo-Carranza DL, Sengupta U, Prough DS, Jackson GR, DeWitt DS, Kayed R. 2013. Rapid accumulation of endogenous tau oligomers in a rat model of traumatic brain injury: Possible link between traumatic brain injury and sporadic tauopathies. J Biol Chem 288:17042-17050.
80. Hayakata T, Shiozaki T, Tasaki O, Ikegawa H, Inoue Y, Toshiyuki F, Hosotubo H, Kieko F, Yamashita T, Tanaka H, Shimazu T, Sugimoto H. 2004. Changes in CSF S100B and cytokine concentrations in early-phase severe traumatic brain injury. Shock 22:102-107.
81. Ho L, Zhao W, Dams-O'Connor K, Tang CY, Gordon W, Peskind ER, Yemul S, Haroutunian V, Pasinetti GM. 2012. Elevated plasma MCP-1 concentration following traumatic brain injury as a potential "predisposition" factor associated with an increased risk for subsequent development of Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 31:301-313.
82. Hoge CW, McGurk D, Thomas JL, Cox AL, Engel CC, Castro CA. 2008. Mild traumatic brain injury in U.S. Soldiers returning from Iraq. N Engl J Med 358: 453-463.
83. Inglese M, Makani S, Johnson G, Cohen BA, Silver JA, Gonen O, Grossman RI. 2005. Diffuse axonal injury in mild traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor imaging study. J Neurosurg 103:298-303.
84. Irimia A, Chambers MC, Torgerson CM, Filippou M, Hovda DA, Alger JR, Gerig G, Toga AW, Vespa PM, Kikinis R, Van Horn JD. 2012. Patient-tailored connectomics visualization for the assessment of white matter atrophy in traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 3:10.
85. Jacobowitz DM, Cole JT, McDaniel DP, Pollard HB, Watson WD. 2012. Microglia activation along the corticospinal tract following traumatic brain injury in the rat: A neuroanatomical study. Brain Res 1465:80-89.
86. Jang SH, Kim SH, Kim OR, Byun WM, Kim MS, Seo JP, Chang MC. 2013. Cingulum injury in patients with diffuse axonal injury: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Neurosci Lett 543:47-51.
87. Jensen JH, Falangola MF, Hu C, Tabesh A, Rapalino O, Lo C, Helpern JA. 2011. Preliminary observations of increased diffusional kurtosis in human brain following recent cerebral infarction. NMR Biomed 24:452-457.
88. Jensen JH, Helpern JA, Ramani A, Lu H, Kaczynski K. 2005. Diffusional kurtosis imaging: The quantification of non-Gaussian water diffusion by means of magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Res Med 53:1432-1440.
89. Jensen JH, Helpern JA. 2010. MRI quantification of non-Gaussian water diffusion by kurtosis analysis. NMR Biomed 23:689-710.
90. Jiang Q, Qu C, Chopp M, Ding GL, Davarani SP, Helpern JA, Jensen JH, Zhang ZG, Li L, Lu M, Kaplan D, Hu J, Shen Y, Kou Z, Li Q, Wang S, Mahmood A. 2011. MRI evaluation of axonal reorganization after bone marrow stromal cell treatment of traumatic brain injury. NMR Biomed 24:1119-1128.
91. John GR, Lee SC, Brosnan CF. 2003. Cytokines: Powerful regulators of glial cell activation. Neuroscientist 9:10-22.
92. Johnson VE, Stewart JE, Begbie FD, Trojanowski JQ, Smith DH, Stewart W. 2013. Inflammation and white matter degeneration persist for years after a single traumatic brain injury. Brain 136:28-42.
93. Johnson VE, Stewart JE, Begbie FD, Trojanowski JQ, Smith DH, Stewart W. 2013. Inflammation and white matter degeneration persist for years after a single traumatic brain injury. Brain 136:28-42.
94. Jorge RE, Acion L, White T, Tordesillas-Gutierrez D, Pierson R, Crespo-Facorro B, Magnotta VA. 2012. White matter abnormalities in veterans with mild traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry 169:1284-1291.
95. Kabadi SV, Stoica BA, Byrnes KR, Hanscom M, Loane DJ, Faden AI. 2012. Selective CDK inhibitor limits neuroinflammation and progressive neurodegeneration after brain trauma. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 32:137-149.
96. Kane MJ, Angoa-Perez M, Francescutti DM, Sykes CE, Briggs DI, Leung LY, VandeVord PJ, Kuhn DM. 2012. Altered gene expression in cultured microglia in response to simulated blast overpressure: Possible role of pulse duration. Neurosci Lett 522:47-51.
97. Karampinos DC, Van AT, Olivero WC, Georgiadis JG, Sutton BP. 2008. High resolution reduced-FOV diffusion tensor imaging of the human pons with multi-shot variable density spiral at 3T. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc 2008:5761-5764.
98. Karger J. 1985. NMR self-diffusion studies in heterogeneous systems. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 23:129-148.
99. Kaur C, Singh J, Lim MK, Ng BL, Ling EA. 1997a. Macrophages/microglia as 'sensors' of injury in the pineal gland of rats following a non-penetrative blast. Neurosci Res 27:317-322.
100. Kaur C, Singh J, Lim MK, Ng BL, Yap EP, Ling EA. 1995. The response of neurons and microglia to blast injury in the rat brain. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 21:369-377.
101. Kaur C, Singh J, Lim MK, Ng BL, Yap EP, Ling EA. 1997b. Ultrastructural changes of macroglial cells in the rat brain following an exposure to a nonpenetrative blast. Ann Acad Med Singapore 26:27-29.
102. Kay T. 1993. Neuropsychological treatment of mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 8:74-85.
103. Kelley BJ, Lifshitz J, Povlishock JT. 2007. Neuroinflammatory responses after experimental diffuse traumatic brain injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 66: 989-1001.
104. Kilinc D, Gallo G, Barbee KA. 2008. Mechanically-induced membrane poration causes axonal beading and localized cytoskeletal damage. Exp Neurol 212:422-430.
105. Kinoshita K, Chatzipanteli IK, Vitarbo E, Truettner JS, Alonso OF, Dietrich WD. 2002. Interleukin-1beta messenger ribonucleic acid and protein levels after fluid-percussion brain injury in rats: Importance of injury severity and brain temperature. Neurosurgery 51:195-203; discussion 203.
106. Kochanek PM, Bauman RA, Long JB, Dixon CR, Jenkins LW. 2009. A critical problem begging for new insight and new therapies. J Neurotrauma 26:813-814.
107. Koliatsos VE, Cernak I, Xu L, Song Y, Savonenko A, Crain BJ, Eberhart CG, Frangakis CE, Melnikova T, Kim H, Lee D. 2011. A mouse model of blast injury to brain: Initial pathological, neuropathological, and behavioral characterization. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 70:399-416.
108. Kotter MR, Stadelmann C, Hartung HP. 2011. Enhancing remyelination in disease- can we wrap it up? Brain 134(Pt 7):1882-1900.
109. Kou Z, Benson RR, Haacke EM. 2012. Magnetic resonance imaging biomarkers of mild traumatic brain injury. In: Dambinova SEA, editor. Biomarkers for traumatic brain injury. Royal Society of Chemistry, London, United Kingdom.
110. Kou Z, Gattu R, Kobeissy F, Welch RD, O'Neil B, Woodard JL, Ayaz SI, Kulek A, Kas-Shamoun R, Mika V, Zuk C, Tomasello F, Mondello S. 2013. Combining biochemical and imaging markers to improve diagnosis and characterization of mild traumatic brain injury in the acute setting: Results from a pilot study. PLoS One 8(11):e80296.
111. Kou Z, Gattu R, Benson RR, Raz N, Haacke EM. 2008. Region of interest analysis of DTI FA histogram differentiates mild traumatic brain injury from controls. Proceedings of Annul Conference for International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, Toronto, Canada.
112. Kou Z, Wu Z, Tong KA, Holshouser B, Benson RR, Hu J, Haacke EM. 2010. The role of advanced MR imaging findings as biomarkers of traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 25:267-282.
113. Krajewski S, Krajewska M, Ellerby LM, Welsh K, Xie Z, Deveraux QL, Salvesen GS, Bredesen DE, Rosenthal RE, Fiskum G, Reed JC. 1999. Release of caspase-9 from mitochondria during neuronal apoptosis and cerebral ischemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:5752-5757.
114. Kraus MF, Susmaras T, Caughlin BP, Walker CJ, Sweeney JA, DM L. 2007. White matter integrity and cognition in chronic traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Brain 130:2508-2519.
115. Kumar A, Muzik O, Shandal V, Chugani D, Chakraborty P, Chugani HT. 2012. Evaluation of age-related changes in translocator protein (TSPO) in human brain using (11)C-[R]-PK11195 PET. J Neuroinflammation 9:232.
116. Kuroiwa T, Nagaoka T, Ueki M, Yamada I, Miyasaka N, Akimoto H, Ichinose S, Okeda R, Hirakawa K. 2009. Correlations between the apparent diffusion coefficient, water content, and ultrastructure after induction of vasogenic brain edema in cats. J Neurosurg 90:499-503.
117. Kutzelnigg A, Lassmann H. 2014. Pathology of multiple sclerosis and related inflammatory demyelinating diseases. Handb Clin Neurol 122:15-58.
118. Le Bihan D, Mangin JF, Poupon C, Clark CA, Pappata S, Molko N, Chabriat H. 2001. Diffusion tensor imaging: Concepts and applications. JMRI 13:534- 546.
119. Lee VM, Carden MJ, Schlaepfer WW, Trojanowski JQ. 1987. Monoclonal antibodies distinguish several differentially phosphorylated states of the two largest rat neurofilament subunits (NF-H and NF-M) and demonstrate their existence in the normal nervous system of adult rats. J Neurosci 7:3474- 3488.
120. Leung LY, VandeVord PJ, Dal Cengio AL, Bir C, Yang KH, King AI. 2008. Blast related neurotrauma: A review of cellular injury. Mol Cell Biomech 5: 155-168.
121. Levin HS, Wilde EA, Chu Z, Yallampalli R, Hanten GR, Li X, Chia J, Vasquez AC, Hunter JV. 2008. Diffusion tensor imaging in relation to cognitive and functional outcome of traumatic brain injury in children. J Head Trauma Rehabil 23:197-208.
122. Levin HS, Mattis S, Ruff RM, Eisenberg HM, Marshall LF, Tabaddor K, High WM, Frankowski RF. 1987. Neurobehavioral outcome following minor head injury: A three-center study. J Neurosurg 66:234-243.
123. Liang D, Bhatta S, Gerzanich V, Simard JM. 2007. Cytotoxic edema: Mechanisms of pathological cell swelling. Neurosurg Focus 22:E2.
124. Liberto CM, Albrecht PJ, Herx LM, Yong VW, Levison SW. 2004. Pro-regenerative properties of cytokine-activated astrocytes. J Neurochem 89:1092-1100.
125. Lipton ML, Gulko E, Zimmerman ME, Friedman BW, Kim M, Gellella E, Gold T, Shifteh K, Ardekani BA, Branch CA. 2009. Diffusion-tensor imaging implicates prefrontal axonal injury in executive function impairment following very mild traumatic brain injury. Radiology 252:816-824.
126. Lipton ML, Kim N, Park YK, Hulkower MB, Gardin TM, Shifteh K, Kim M, Zimmerman ME, Lipton RB, Branch CA. 2012. Robust detection of traumatic axonal injury in individual mild traumatic brain injury patients: Intersubject variation, change over time and bidirectional changes in anisotropy. Brain Imaging Behav 6:329-342.
127. Liu MC, Akinyi L, Scharf D, Mo J, Larner SF, Muller U, Oli MW, Zheng W, Kobeissy F, Papa L, Lu XC, Dave JR, Tortella FC, Hayes RL, Wang KK. 2010. Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 as a biomarker for ischemic and traumatic brain injury in rats. Eur J Neurosci 31:722-732.
128. Lotocki G, de Rivero Vaccari JP, Alonso O, Molano JS, Nixon R, Safavi P, Dietrich WD, Bramlett HM. 2011. Oligodendrocyte vulnerability following traumatic brain injury in rats. Neurosci Lett. 499:143-148.
129. Lundbaek JA, Hansen AJ. 1992. Brain interstitial volume fraction and tortuosity in anoxia. Evaluation of the ion-selective micro-electrode method. Acta Physiol Scand 146:473-484.
130. Maas AIR, Marmarou A, Murry GD, Teasdale GM, Steyerberg EW. 2007. Prognosis and clinical trial design in traumatic brain injury: The IMPACT study. J Neurotrauma 24:232-238.
131. Mac Donald CL, Dikranian K, Bayly P, Holtzman D, Brody D. 2007a. Diffusion tensor imaging reliably detects experimental traumatic axonal injury and indicates approximate time of injury. J Neurosci 27:11869-11876.
132. Mac Donald CL, Dikranian K, Song SK, Bayly PV, Holtzman DM, Brody DL. 2007b. Detection of traumatic axonal injury with diffusion tensor imaging in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol 205:116-131.
133. Macciocchi SN, Barth JT, Alves W, Rimel RW, Jane JA. 1996. Neuropsychological functioning and recovery after mild head injury in collegiate athletes. Neurosurgery 39:510-514.
134. Magdesian MH, Sanchez FS, Lopez M, Thostrup P, Durisic N, Belkaid W, Liazoghli D, Grutter P, Colman DR. 2012. Atomic force microscopy reveals important differences in axonal resistance to injury. Biophys J 103:405-414.
135. Mancini M, Nicholson DW, Roy S, Thornberry NA, Peterson EP, Casciola-Rosen LA, Rosen A. 1998. The caspase-3 precursor has a cytosolic and mitochondrial distribution: Implications for apoptotic signaling. J Cell Biol 140: 1485-1495.
136. Marquez de la Plata C, Ardelean A, Koovakkattu D, Srinivasan P, Miller A, Phuong V, Harper C, Moore C, Whittemore A, Madden C, Diaz-Arrastia R, Devous M Sr. 2007. Magnetic resonance imaging of diffuse axonal injury: Quantitative assessment of white matter lesion volume. J Neurotrauma 24: 591-598.
137. Matute C. 2010. Calcium dyshomeostasis in white matter pathology. Cell Calcium 47:150-157.
138. Maxwell WL, Povlishock JT, Graham DL. 1997. A mechanistic analysis of nondisruptive axonal injury: A review. J Neurotrauma 14:419-440.
139. Maxwell WL, Watt C, Graham DI, Gennarelli TA. 1993. Ultrastructural evidence of axonal shearing as a result of lateral acceleration of the head in non-human primates. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 86:136-144.
140. Mayer AR, Ling J, Mannell MV, Gasparovic C, Phillips JP, Doezema D, Reichard R, Yeo RA. 2010. A prospective diffusion tensor imaging study in mild traumatic brain injury. Neurology 74:643-650.
141. McTigue DM, Tripathi RB. 2008. The life, death, and replacement of oligodendrocytes in the adult CNS. J Neurochem 107:1-19.
142. Mesfin MN, von Reyn CR, Mott RE, Putt ME, Meaney DF. 2012. In vitro stretch injury induces time- and severity-dependent alterations of STEP phosphorylation and proteolysis in neurons. J Neurotrauma 29:1982-1998.
143. Messé A, Caplain S, Paradot G, Garrigue D, Mineo JF, Soto Ares G, Ducreux D, Vignaud F, Rozec G, Desal H, Pélégrini-Issac M, Montreuil M, Benali H, Lehéricy S. 2011. Diffusion tensor imaging and white matter lesions at the subacute stage in mild traumatic brain injury with persistent neurobehavioral impairment. Hum Brain Mapp 32:999-1011.
144. Miles L, Grossman RI, Johnson G, Babb JS, Diller L, Inglese M. 2008. Shortterm DTI predictors of cognitive dysfunction in mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 22:115-122.
145. Miller DR, Peppas NA. 1985. The use of ellipsometry to study adsorption on hydrogels. Biomaterials 6:33-40.
146. Montal M. 1998. Mitochondria, glutamate neurotoxicity and the death cascade. Biochim Biophys Acta 1366:113-126.
147. Morris DC, Chopp M, Zhang L, Lu M, Zhang ZG. 2010. Thymosin beta4 improves functional neurological outcome in a rat model of embolic stroke. Neuroscience 169:674-682.
148. Morris DC, Zhang ZG, Zhang J, Xiong Y, Zhang L, Chopp M. 2012. Treatment of neurological injury with thymosin b4. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1269:110- 116.
149. Mouzon BC, Bachmeier C, Ferro A, Ojo JO, Crynen G, Acker CM, Davies P, Mullan M, Stewart W, Crawford F. 2014. Chronic neuropathological and neurobehavioral changes in a repetitive mild traumatic brain injury model. Ann Neurol 75:241-254.
150. Mrak RE, Griffin WS. 2005. Glia and their cytokines in progression of neurodegeneration. Neurobiol Aging 26:349-354.
151. Nagamoto-Combs K, McNeal DW, Morecraft RJ, Combs CK. 2007. Prolonged microgliosis in the rhesus monkey central nervous system after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 24:1719-1742.
152. Naismith RT, Xu J, Tutlam NT, Scully PT, Trinkaus K, Snyder AZ, Song SK, Cross AH. 2010. Increased diffusivity in acute multiple sclerosis lesions predicts risk of black hole. Neurology 74:1694-1701.
153. National Institutes of Health. 1999. NIH consensus development panel on rehabilitation of persons with traumatic brain injury. JAMA 282:974-983.
154. Negi S, Bhandari R, Rieth L, Solzbacher F. 2010. In vitro comparison of sputtered iridium oxide and platinum-coated neural implantable microelectrode arrays. Biomed Mater 5:15007.
155. Newcomb JK, Kampfl A, Posmantur RM, Zhao X, Pike BR, Liu SJ, Clifton GL, Hayes RL. 1997. Immunohistochemical study of calpain-mediated breakdown products to alpha-spectrin following controlled cortical impact injury in the rat. J Neurotrauma 14:369-383.
156. Newcombe VF, Williams GB, Nortje J, Bradley PG, Harding SG, Smielewski P, Coles JP, Maiya B, Gillard JH, Hutchinson PJ, Pickard JD, Carpenter TA, Menon DK. 2007. Analysis of acute traumatic axonal injury using diffusion tensor imaging. Br J Neurosurg 21:340-348.
157. Nimmerjahn A. 2009. Astrocytes going live: Advances and challenges. J Physiol 587:1639-1647.
158. Nimmerjahn A, Kirchhoff F, Helmchen F. 2005. Resting microglial cells are highly dynamic surveillants of brain parenchyma in vivo. Science 308:1314-1318.
159. Niogi SN, Mukherjee P. 2010. Diffusion tensor imaging of mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 25:241-255.
160. Niogi SN, Mukherjee P, Ghajar J, Johnson C, Kolster RA, Sarkar R, Lee H, Meeker M, Zimmerman RD, Manley GT, McCandliss BD. 2008a. Extent of microstructural white matter injury in postconcussive syndrome correlates with impaired cognitive reaction time: A 3T diffusion tensor imaging study of mild traumatic brain injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 29:967-973.
161. Niogi SN, Mukherjee P, Ghajar J, Johnson CE, Kolster R, Lee H, Suh M, Zimmerman RD, Manley GT, McCandliss BD. 2008b. Structural dissociation of attentional control and memory in adults with and without mild traumatic brain injury. Brain 131:3209-3221.
162. Oberheim NA, Goldman SA, Nedergaard M. 2012. Heterogeneity of astrocytic form and function. Methods Mol Biol 814:23-45.
163. Okonkwo DO, Pettus EH, Moroi J, Povlishock JT. 1998. Alteration of the neurofilament sidearm and its relation to neurofilament compaction occurring with traumatic axonal injury. Brain Res 784:1-6.
164. Parekkadan B, Berdichevsky Y, Irimia D, Leeder A, Yarmush G, Toner M, Levine JB, Yarmush ML. 2008. Cell-cell interaction modulates neuroectodermal specification of embryonic stem cells. Neurosci Lett 438:190- 195.
165. Park E, Liu E, Shek M, Park A, Baker AJ. 2007. Heavy neurofilament accumulation and alpha-spectrin degradation accompany cerebellar white matter functional deficits following forebrain fluid percussion injury. Exp Neurol 204: 49-57.
166. Pasternak O, Sochen N, Gur Y, Intrator N, Assaf Y. 2009. Free water elimination and mapping from diffusion MRI. Magn Res Med 62:717-730.
167. Perez-Polo JR, Rea HC, Johnson KM, Parsley MA, Unabia GC, Xu G, Infante SK, Dewitt DS, Hulsebosch CE. 2013. Inflammatory consequences in a rodent model of mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 30:727-740.
168. Peter SJ, Mofrad MR. 2012. Computational modeling of axonal microtubule bundles under tension. Biophys J 102:749-757.
169. Pettus EH, Christman CW, Giebel ML, Povlishock JT. 1994. Traumatically induced altered membrane permeability: Its relationship to traumatically induced reactive axonal change. J Neurotrauma 11:507-522.
170. Pettus EH, Povlishock JT. 1996. Characterization of a distinct set of intraaxonal ultrastructural changes associated with traumatically induced alteration in axolemmal permeability. Brain Res 722:1-11.
171. Petzold A. 2005. Neurofilament phosphoforms: Surrogate markers for axonal injury, degeneration and loss. J Neurol Sci 233:183-198.
172. Pfrieger FW. 2009a. Letter from the guest editor: The relevance of cell adhesion for synapse-glia interactions. Cell Adh Migr 3:27-28.
173. Pfrieger FW. 2009b. Roles of glial cells in synapse development. Cell Mol Life Sci 66:2037-2047.
174. Pfrieger FW. 2010. Role of glial cells in the formation and maintenance of synapses. Brain Res Rev 63:39-46.
175. Phillips LL, Lyeth BG, Hamm RJ, Povlishock JT. 1994. Combined fluid percussion brain injury and entorhinal cortical lesion: A model for assessing the interaction between neuroexcitation and deafferentation. J Neurotrauma 11:641-656.
176. Phillips LL, Reeves TM. 2001. Interactive pathology following traumatic brain injury modifies hippocampal plasticity. Restor Neurol Neurosci 19:213-235.
177. Pike BR, Flint J, Dutta S, Johnson E, Wang KK, Hayes RL. 2001. Accumulation of non-erythroid alpha II-spectrin and calpain-cleaved alpha II-spectrin breakdown products in cerebrospinal fluid after traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurochem 78:1297-1306.
178. Pineda JA, Wang KK, Hayes RL. 2004. Biomarkers of proteolytic damage following traumatic brain injury. Brain Pathol 14:202-209.
179. Pleines UE, Morganti-Kossmann MC, Rancan M, Joller H, Trentz O, Kossmann T. 2001. S-100 beta reflects the extent of injury and outcome, whereas neuronal specific enolase is a better indicator of neuroinflammation in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 18:491-498.
180. Poliak S, Peles E. 2003. The local differentiation of myelinated axons at nodes of Ranvier. Nat Rev Neurosci 4:968-980.
181. Polikov VS, Tresco PA, Reichert WM. 2005. Response of brain tissue to chronically implanted neural electrodes. J Neurosci Methods 148:1-18.
182. Povlishock JT, Becker DP, Cheng CL, Vaughan GW. 1983. Axonal change in minor head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 42:225-242.
183. Raab P, Hattingen E, Franz K, Zanella FE, Lanfermann H. 2010. Cerebral gliomas: Diffusional kurtosis imaging analysis of microstructural differences. Radiology 254:876-881.
184. Ralay Ranaivo H, Zunich SM, Choi N, Hodge JN, Wainwright MS. 2011. Mild stretch-induced injury increases susceptibility to interleukin-1beta-induced release of matrix metalloproteinase-9 from astrocytes. J Neurotrauma 28:1757-1766.
185. Ramlackhansingh AF, Brooks DJ, Greenwood RJ, Bose SK, Turkheimer FE, Kinnunen KM, Gentleman S, Heckemann RA, Gunanayagam K, Gelosa G, Sharp DJ. 2011. Inflammation after trauma: Microglial activation and traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol 70:374-383.
186. Rao JS, Kellom M, Kim HW, Rapoport SI, Reese EA. 2012. Neuroinflammation and synaptic loss. Neurochem Res 37:903-910.
187. Raz E, Bester M, Sigmund EE, Tabesh A, Babb JS, Jaggi H, Helpern J, Mitnick RJ, Inglese M. 2013. A better characterization of spinal cord damage in multiple sclerosis: A diffusional kurtosis imaging study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 34:1846-1852.
188. Readnower RD, Chavko M, Adeeb S, Conroy MD, Pauly JR, McCarron RM, Sullivan PG. 2010. Increase in blood-brain barrier permeability, oxidative stress, and activated microglia in a rat model of blast-induced traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Res 88:3530-3539.
189. Ringger NC, O'Steen BE, Brabham JG, Silver X, Pineda J, Wang KK, Hayes RL, Papa L. 2004. A novel marker for traumatic brain injury: CSF alphaIIspectrin breakdown product levels. J Neurotrauma 21:1443-1456.
190. Roberts-Lewis JM, Savage MJ, Marcy VR, Pinsker LR, Siman R. 1994. Immunolocalization of calpain I-mediated spectrin degradation to vulnerable neurons in the ischemic gerbil brain. J Neurosci 14:3934-3944.
191. Rothoerl RD, Brawanski A, Woertgen C. 2000. S-100B protein serum levels after controlled cortical impact injury in the rat. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 142: 199-203.
192. Ruff RM, Camenzuli LF, Mueller J. 1996. Miserable minority: Emotional risk factors that influence the outcome of mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 10: 551-556.
193. Rutgers DR, Fillard P, Paradot G, Tadié M, Lasjaunias P, Ducreux D. 2008. Diffusion tensor imaging characteristics of the corpus callosum in mild, moderate, and severe traumatic brain injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 29:1730-1735.
194. Saatman KE, Duhaime AC, Bullock Ross, Maas AIR, Valadka A, Manley GT, members wstaap. 2008. Classification of traumatic brain injury for targeted therapies. J Neurotrauma 25:719-738.
195. Sajja VS, Perrine SA, Ghoddoussi F, Hall CS, Galloway MP, Vandevord PJ. 2014. Blast neurotrauma impairs working memory and disrupts prefrontal myo-inositol levels in rats. Mol Cell Neurosci 59C:119-126.
196. Sajja VS, Galloway M, Ghoddoussi F, Kepsel A, VandeVord P. 2013. Effects of blast-induced neurotrauma on the nucleus accumbens. J Neurosci Res 91:593-601.
197. Sajja VS, Galloway MP, Ghoddoussi F, Thiruthalinathan D, Kepsel A, Hay K, Bir CA, VandeVord PJ. 2012a. Blast-induced neurotrauma leads to neurochemical changes and neuronal degeneration in the rat hippocampus. NMR Biomed 25:1331-1339.
198. Sajja VS, Tenn C, McLaws LJ, Vandevord PJ. 2012b. A temporal evaluation of cytokines in rats after blast exposure. Biomed Sci Instrum 48:374-379.
199. Seker E, Berdichevsky Y, Begley MR, Reed ML, Staley KJ, Yarmush ML. 2010. The fabrication of low-impedance nanoporous gold multiple-electrode arrays for neural electrophysiology studies. Nanotechnology 21:125504.
200. Shannon CE. 1997. The mathematical theory of communication. 1963. MD Comput 14:306-317.
201. Shen LH, Li Y, Chen J, Zhang J, Vanguri P, Borneman J, Chopp M. 2006. Intracarotid transplantation of bone marrow stromal cells increases axonmyelin remodeling after stroke. Neuroscience 137:393-399.
202. Shimony JS, McKinstry RC, Akbudak E, Aronovitz JA, Snyder AZ, Lori NF, Cull TS, Conturo TE. 1999. Quantitative diffusion-tensor anisotropy brain MR imaging: Normative human data and anatomic analysis. Radiology 212:770-784.
203. Shitaka Y, Tran HT, Bennett RE, Sanchez L, Levy MA, Dikranian K, Brody DL. 2011. Repetitive closed-skull traumatic brain injury in mice causes persistent multifocal axonal injury and microglial reactivity. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 70:551-567.
204. Shultz SR, Bao F, Weaver LC, Cain DP, Brown A. 2013. Treatment with an anti-CD11d integrin antibody reduces neuroinflammation and improves outcome in a rat model of repeated concussion. J Neuroinflammation 10:26.
205. Siman R, Baudry M, Lynch G. 1984. Brain fodrin: Substrate for calpain I, an endogenous calcium-activated protease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81:3572-3576.
206. Siman R, Toraskar N, Dang A, McNeil E, McGarvey M, Plaum J, Maloney E, Grady MS. 2009. A panel of neuron-enriched proteins as markers for traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neurotrauma 26:1867-1877.
207. Skotak M, Wang F, Chandra N. 2012. An in vitro injury model for SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells: Effect of strain and strain rate. J Neurosci Methods 205: 159-168.
208. Smith C. 2013. Review: The long-term consequences of microglial activation following acute traumatic brain injury. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 39:35-44.
209. Smith DH. 2009. Stretch growth of integrated axon tracts: Extremes and exploitations. Prog Neurobiol 89:231-239.
210. Sofroniew MV, Vinters HV. 2010. Astrocytes: Biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathol 119:7-35.
211. Song SK, Sun SW, Ju WK, Lin SJ, Cross AH, Neufeld AH. 2003. Diffusion tensor imaging detects and differentiates axon and myelin degeneration in mouse optic nerve after retinal ischemia. Neuroimage 20:1714-1722.
212. Song SK, Sun SW, Ramsbottom MJ, Chang C, Russell J, Cross AH. 2002. Dysmyelination revealed through MRI as increased radial (but unchanged axial) diffusion of water. Neuroimage 17:1429-1436.
213. Song SK, Yoshino J, Le TQ, Lin SJ, Sun SW, Cross AH, Armstrong RC. 2005. Demyelination increases radial diffusivity in corpus callosum of mouse brain. Neuroimage 26:132-140.
214. Spitz G, Maller JJ, O'Sullivan R, Ponsford JL. 2013. White matter integrity following traumatic brain injury: The association with severity of injury and cognitive functioning. Brain Topogr 26:648-660.
215. Squire L, Berg D, Bloom FE, du Lac S, Ghosh A, Spitzer NC. 2012. Fundamental neuroscience. Academic Press, Waltham, MA, USA; 4th ed.
216. Staal JA, Dickson TC, Chung RS, Vickers JC. 2009. Disruption of the ubiquitin proteasome system following axonal stretch injury accelerates progression to secondary axotomy. J Neurotrauma 26:781-788.
217. Stein DM, Kufera JA, Lindell A, Murdock KR, Menaker J, Bochicchio GV, Aarabi B, Scalea TM. 2011a. Association of CSF biomarkers and secondary insults following severe traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care 14:200-207.
218. Stein DM, Lindell A, Murdock KR, Kufera JA, Menaker J, Keledjian K, Bochicchio GV, Aarabi B, Scalea TM. 2011b. Relationship of serum and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers with intracranial hypertension and cerebral hypoperfusion after severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 70:1096-1103.
219. Streit WJ, Mrak RE, Griffin WS. 2004. Microglia and neuroinflammation: A pathological perspective. J Neuroinflammation 1:14.
220. Strich SJ. 1961. Shearing of nerve fibers as a cause of brain damage due to head injury: A pathological study of twenty cases. Lancet 2:443-448.
221. Stys PK. 2005. General mechanisms of axonal damage and its prevention. J Neurol Sci 233:3-13.
222. Susin SA, Lorenzo HK, Zamzami N, Marzo I, Snow BE, Brothers GM, Mangion J, Jacotot E, Costantini P, Loeffler M, Larochette N, Goodlett DR, Aebersold R, Siderovski DP, Penninger JM, Kroemer G. 1999. Molecular characterization of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor. Nature 397:441-446.
223. Susin SA, Zamzami N, Kroemer G. 1998. Mitochondria as regulators of apoptosis: Doubt no more. Biochim Biophys Acta 1366:151-165.
224. Svetlov SI, Prima V, Kirk DR, Gutierrez H, Curley KC, Hayes RL, Wang KK. 2010. Morphologic and biochemical characterization of brain injury in a model of controlled blast overpressure exposure. J Trauma 69:795-804.
225. Sykova E, Svoboda J, Polak J, Chvátal A. 1994. Extracellular volume fraction and diffusion characteristics during progressive ischemia and terminal anoxia in the spinal cord of the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 14:301-311.
226. Tang-Schomer MD, Patel AR, Baas PW, Smith DH. 2010. Mechanical breaking of microtubules in axons during dynamic stretch injury underlies delayed elasticity, microtubule disassembly, and axon degeneration. FASEB J 24:1401- 1410.
227. Teasdale G, Jennett B. 1974. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: A practical scale. Lancet 2:81-84.
228. Thurman D, Alverson C, Dunn K, Guerrero J, Sniezek J. 1999. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: A public health perspective. J Head Trauma Rehabil 14:602-615.
229. Tong KA, Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Nickerson JP, Wall CJ, Shutter LA, Osterdock RJ, Haacke EM, Kido D. 2004. Diffuse axonal injury in children: Clinical correlation with hemorrhagic lesions. Ann Neurol 56:36-50.
230. Tong KA, Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Shutter LA, Herigault G, Haacke EM, Kido D. 2003. Hemorrhagic shearing lesions in children and adolescents with posttraumatic diffuse axonal injury: Improved detection and initial results. Radiology 27:332-339.
231. Townend W, Dibble C, Abid K, Vail A, Sherwood R, Lecky F. 2006. Rapid elimination of protein S-100B from serum after minor head trauma. J Neurotrauma 23:149-155.
232. Treble A, Hasan KM, Iftikhar A, Stuebing KK, Kramer LA, Cox CS Jr, Swank PR, Ewing-Cobbs L. 2013. Working memory and corpus callosum microstructural integrity after pediatric traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor tractography study. J Neurotrauma 30:1609-1619.
233. Tsitsopoulos PP, Marklund N. 2013. Amyloid-beta peptides and tau protein as biomarkers in cerebrospinal and interstitial fluid following traumatic brain injury: A review of experimental and clinical studies. Front Neurol 4:79.
234. Tuch DS, Reese TG, Wiegell MR, Makris N, Belliveau JW, Wedeen VJ. 2002. High angular resolution diffusion imaging reveals intravoxel white matter fiber heterogeneity. Magn Res Med 48:577-582.
235. Turner JN, Shain W, Szarowski DH, Andersen M, Martins S, Isaacson M, Craighead H. 1999. Cerebral astrocyte response to micromachined silicon implants. Exp Neurol 156:33-49.
236. Unterberg AW, Stover J, Kress B, Kiening KL. 2004. Edema and brain trauma. Neuroscience 129:1021-1029.
237. Vandevord PJ, Bolander R, Sajja VS, Hay K, Bir CA. 2012. Mild neurotrauma indicates a range-specific pressure response to low level shock wave exposure. Ann Biomed Eng 40:227-236.
238. Vandevord PJ, Leung LY, Hardy W, Mason M, Yang KH, King AI. 2008. Upregulation of reactivity and survival genes in astrocytes after exposure to short duration overpressure. Neurosci Lett 434:247-252.
239. Venkatesan C, Chrzaszcz M, Choi N, Wainwright MS. 2010. Chronic upregulation of activated microglia immunoreactive for galectin-3/Mac-2 and nerve growth factor following diffuse axonal injury. J Neuroinflammation 7:32.
240. Venneti S, Lopresti BJ, Wiley CA. 2006. The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (Translocator protein 18kDa) in microglia: From pathology to imaging. Prog Neurobiol 80:308-322.
241. Vitarbo EA, Chatzipanteli K, Kinoshita K, Truettner JS, Alonso OF, Dietrich WD. 2004. Tumor necrosis factor alpha expression and protein levels after fluid percussion injury in rats: The effect of injury severity and brain temperature. Neurosurgery 55:416-424; discussion 424-425.
242. von Reyn CR, Mott RE, Siman R, Smith DH, Meaney DF. 2012. Mechanisms of calpain mediated proteolysis of voltage gated sodium channel alphasubunits following in vitro dynamic stretch injury. J Neurochem 121:793- 805.
243. Vos PE, Jacobs B, Andriessen TM, Lamers KJ, Borm GF, Beems T, Edwards M, Rosmalen CF, Vissers JL. 2010. GFAP and S100B are biomarkers of traumatic brain injury: An observational cohort study. Neurology 75:1786- 1793.
244. Wang JY, Bakhadirov K, Abdi H, Devous MD Sr, Marquez de la Plata CD, Moore C, Madden CJ, Diaz-Arrastia R. 2011a. Longitudinal changes of structural connectivity in traumatic axonal injury. Neurology 77:818-826.
245. Wang Y, Wang Q, Haldar JP, Yeh FC, Xie M, Sun P, Tu TW, Trinkaus K, Klein RS, Cross AH, Song SK. 2011b. Quantification of increased cellularity during inflammatory demyelination. Brain 134:3590-3601.
246. Wanner IB. 2012. An in vitro trauma model to study rodent and human astrocyte reactivity. Methods Mol Biol 814:189-219.
247. Wedeen VJ, Hagmann P, Tseng WY, Reese TG, Weisskoff RM. 2005. Mapping complex tissue architecture with diffusion spectrum magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Res Med 54:1377-1386.
248. Wheeler-Kingshott CA, Cercignani M. 2009. About "axial" and "radial" diffusivities. Magn Res Med 61:1255-1260.
249. Wilde EA, McCauley SR, Hunter JV, Bigler ED, Chu Z, Wang ZJ, Hanten GR, Troyanskaya M, Yallampalli R, Li X, Chia J, Levin HS. 2008. Diffusion tensor imaging of acute mild traumatic brain injury in adolescents. Neurology 70: 948-955.
250. Wilson JT, Pettigrew LE, Teasdale GM. 1998. Structured interviews for the Glasgow Outcome Scale and the extended Glasgow Outcome Scale: Guidelines for their use. J Neurotrauma 15:573-585.
251. Woertgen C, Rothoerl RD, Wiesmann M, Missler U, Brawanski A. 2002. Glial and neuronal serum markers after controlled cortical impact injury in the rat. Acta Neurochir Suppl 81:205-207.
252. Wolf JA, Stys PK, Lusardi T, Meaney D, Smith DH. 2001. Traumatic axonal injury induces calcium influx modulated by tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium channels. J Neurosci 21:1923-1930.
253. Wozniak JR, Krach L, Ward E, Mueller BA, Muetzel R, Schnoebelen S, Kiragu A, Lim KO. 2007. Neurocognitive and neuroimaging correlates of pediatric traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor imaging(DTI) study. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 22:555-568.
254. Wu TC, Wilde EA, Bigler ED, Yallampalli R, McCauley SR, Troyanskaya M, Chu Z, Li X, Hanten G, Hunter JV, Levin HS. 2010. Evaluating the relationship between memory functioning and cingulum bundles in acute mild traumatic brain injury using diffusion tensor imaging. J Neurotrauma 27:303- 307.
255. Xiong Y, Mahmood A, Meng Y, Zhang Y, Zhang ZG, Morris DC, Chopp M. 2011. Treatment of traumatic brain injury with thymosin b4 in rats. J Neurosurg 114:102-115.
256. Zhang J, Li Y, Chen J, Cui Y, Lu M, Elias SB, Mitchell JB, Hammill L, Vanguri P, Chopp M. 2005. Human bone marrow stromal cell treatment improves neurological functional recovery in EAE mice. Exp Neurol 195:16-26.
257. Zhang J, Li Y, Zhang ZG, Lu M, Borneman J, Buller B, Savant-Bhonsale S, Elias SB, Chopp M. 2009a. Bone marrow stromal cells increase oligodendrogenesis after stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 29:1166-1174.
258. Zhang J, Zhang ZG, Morris D, Li Y, Roberts C, Elias SB, Chopp M. 2009b. Neurological functional recovery after thymosin beta4 treatment in mice with experimental auto encephalomyelitis. Neuroscience 164: 1887-1893.
259. Zhang L, Chopp M, Zhang RL, Wang L, Zhang J, Wang Y, Toh Y, Santra M, Lu M, Zhang ZG. 2010. Erythropoietin amplifies stroke-induced oligodendrogenesis in the rat. PLoS One 5:e11016.
260. Zhuo J, Xu S, Proctor JL, Mullins RJ, Simon JZ, Fiskum G, Gullapalli RP. 2012. Diffusion kurtosis as an in vivo imaging marker for reactive astrogliosis in traumatic brain injury. NeuroImage 59:467-477.
261. Zurek J, Fedora M. 2012. The usefulness of S100B, NSE, GFAP, NF-H, secretagogin and Hsp70 as a predictive biomarker of outcome in children with traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 154:93-103; discussion 103.