The physics of lightning

Physics Reports

Volumn 534, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 147-241

  Dwyer, Joseph R ^a   Uman, Martin A ^b  

^a Florida Institute of Technology ^*  (United States)

^b J Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84892441538     PISSN: 03701573     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004     Document Type: Review

References (492)

1. Malan D.J. Physics of Lightning 1963, The English Universities Press, Ltd., London.
2. Schonland B.F.J. The Flight of Thunderbolts 1964, Oxford Univ. Press (Clarendon), London and New York. second ed.
3. Uman M.A. Lightning, McGraw Hill, New York, 1969, 264 pages 1984, Dover, New York. revised paperback edition.
4. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Academic Press, London, 1987, 376 pages 2001, Dover, New York. revised paperback edition.
5. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, Cambridge University Press. paperback edition.
6. The Lightning Flash, IEE Power & Energy Series 2003, vol. 34. The Institute of Electircal Engineers, London.
7. Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications 2009, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. H.D. Betz, U. Schumann, P. Laroche (Eds.).
8. Lightning Electromagnetics, Power and Energy Series 2012, vol. 62. The Institute of Engineering and Technology, London.
9. Dibner B., Benjamin Franklin Lightning, Vol.1, Physics of Lightning 1977, 23-49. Academic Press, New York. R.H. Golde (Ed.).
10. Bernard Cohen I. Benjamin Franklin's Experiments: A New Edition of Franklin's Experiments and Observations on Electricity 1941, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA.
11. Bernard Cohen I. Benjamin Franklin's Science 1990, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA.
12. Uman M.A. Lightning, McGraw Hill, New York, 1969, 264 pages 1984, Dover, New York, pp. 14-46, 138-180. revised paperback edition.
13. Boys C.V. Progressive Lightning. Nature (London) 1926, 118:749-750.
14. Schonland B.F.J. The lightning discharge. Handbuch der Physik 1956, Vol. 22:576-628. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
15. Pockels F. über das Magnetische Verhalten Einger Basaltischer Gesteine. Ann. Phys. Chem. 1897, 63:195-201.
16. Pockels F. Bestimmung Maximaler Entladungs-Strom-Stärken aus Ihrer Magnetisirenden Wirkung. Ann. Phys. Chem. 1898, 65:458-475.
17. Pockels F. über die Blitzentladungen Erreicht Stromstärke. Phys. Z. 1900, 2:306-307.
18. Wilson C.T.R. On some determinations of the sign and magnitude of electric discharges in lightning flashes. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 1916, 92:555-574.
19. Wilson C.T.R. Investigations on lightning discharges and on the electric field of thunderstorms. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 1920, 221:73-115.
20. Berger K. Novel observations on lightning discharges: results of research on Mount San Salvatore. J. Franklin Inst. 1967, 283:478-525.
21. Berger K. The earth flash. Lightning Vol. 1, Physics of Lightning 1977, 119-190. New York Academic Press. R.H. Golde (Ed.).
22. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Storms 1998, Oxford University Press, New York.
23. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A., Rassoul H.K., Rakov V.A., Al-Dayeh M., Caraway E.L., Wright B., Jerauld J., Jordan D.M., Rambo K.J., Chrest A., Smyth C. A ground level gamma-ray burst observed in association with rocket-triggered lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004, 31:L05119. 10.1029/2003GL018771.
24. Dwyer J.R., Schaal M.M., Cramer E., Arabshahi S., Liu N., Rassoul H.K., Hill J.D., Jordan D.M., Uman M.A. Observation of a gamma-ray flash at ground level in association with a cloud-to-ground lightning return stroke. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A10303. 10.1029/2012JA017810.
25. Smith D.M., Dwyer J.R., Hazelton B.J., Grefenstette B.W., Martinez-McKinney G.F.M., Zhang Z.Y., Lowell A.W., Kelley N.A., Splitt M.E., Lazarus S.M., Ulrich W., Schaal M., Saleh Z.H., Cramer E., Rassoul H., Cummer S.A., Lu G., Shao X.-M., Ho C., Hamlin T., Blakeslee R.J., Heckman S. A terrestrial gamma ray flash observed from an aircraft. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:D20124. 10.1029/JD016252.
26. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, 656-674. Cambridge University Press. paperback edition.
27. Stenhoff M. Ball Lightning: Unsolved Problem in Atmospheric Physics 1999, 349. Kluwer Academic and Plenum Publishers, New York.
28. Hill J.D., Uman M.A., Stapleton M., Jordan D.M., Chebaro A.M., Biagi C.J. Attempts to create ball lightning with triggered lightning. J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys. 2010, 72:913-925. 10.1016/j.astp.2010.04.009.
29. Cobine J.D. Gaseous Conductors 1941, McGraw-Hill, New York and London. first ed.
30. Morrow R., Lowke J.J. Streamer propagation in air. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 1997, 30:614-627.
31. Liu N., Pasko V.P. Effects of photoionization on propagation and branching of positive and negative streamers in sprites. J. Geophys. Res. 2004, 109:A04301. 10.1029/2003JA010064.
32. Raether H. Electron Avalanches and Breakdown in Gases 1964, 146. Butterworth & Co. Ltd.
33. Bazelyn E.M., Raizer Y.P. Spark Discharge 1998, 294. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
34. Bazelyn E.M., Raizer Y.P. Spark Discharge, 294 pp 1998, 19-26. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
35. Dwyer J.R. Diffusion of relativistic runaway electrons and implications for lightning initiation. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115. CiteID A00E14.
36. Raether H. Zur Entwicklung von Kanalentladungen. Arch. Eleektrotech 1940, 34:49-56.
37. Liu N., Kosar B., Sadighi S., Dwyer J.R., Rassoul H.K. Formation of streamer discharges from an isolated ionization column at subbreakdown conditions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2012, 109:025002.
38. Phelps C.T., Griffiths R.F. Dependence of positive corona streamer propagation on air pressure and water vapor content. J. Appl. Phys. 1976, 47:7.
39. Bazelyn E.M., Raizer Y.P. Spark Discharge, 294 pp 1998, 238-243. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
40. Gallimberti I. The mechanism of long spark formation. J. de Physique 1979, 40:7. C7-193-250.
41. Bazelyn E.M., Raizer Y.P. Spark Discharge, 294 pp 1998, 88-91. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
42. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, 131-132. Cambridge University Press. paperback edition.
43. Brown S.C. Introduction to Electrical Discharges in Gases 1966, 188-193. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
44. Serdyuk Y.V. Numerical simulations of non-thermal electrical discharges in air. Lightning Electromagnetics 2012, The Institute of Engineering and Technology, London. Vernon Cooray (Ed.).
45. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, 182-188. Cambridge University Press. paperback edition.
46. Loeb L.B. Electrical Coronas 1965, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles.
47. Griffiths R.F., Latham J. Electrical corona from ice hydrometeors. Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 1974, 100:163-180.
48. Bondiou A., Gallimberti I Theoretical modeling of the development of the positive spark in long gaps. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 1994, 27:1252-1266.
49. Phelps C.T. Positive streamer system intensification and its possible role in lightning initiation. J. Atm. and Terr. Phys. 1974, 36:103-111.
50. Colgate S.A. Enhanced drop coalescence by electric fields in equilibrium with turbulence. J. Geophys. Res. 1967, 72:479-487.
51. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Academic Press, London, 1987, 376 pages 2001, 58-70. Dover, New York. revised paperback edition.
52. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, 67-107. Cambridge University Press. paperback edition.
53. Krehbiel P.R., Brook M., McCrory R.A. An analysis of the charge structure of lightning discharges to ground. J. Geophys. Res. 1979, 84:2432-2456.
54. Byrne G.J., Few A.A., Weber M.E. Altitude, thickness and charge concentration of charged regions of four thunderstorms during trip 1981 based upon in situ balloon electric field measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1983, 10:39-42.
55. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Storms 1998, 65-70. Oxford University Press, New York.
56. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. The Earth's Electrical Environment 1986, 90-113. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. E.P. Krider, R.G. Roble (Eds.).
57. Stolzenburg M., Rust W.D., Smull B.F., Marshall T.C. Electrical structure in thunderstorm convective regions: 1. Mesoscale convective systems. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103:14059-14078.
58. Stolzenburg M., Rust W.D., Marshall T.C. Electrical structure in thunderstorm convective regions: 2. Isolated storms. J Geophys. Res. 1998, 103:14079-14096.
59. Stolzenburg M., Rust W.D., Marshall T.C. Electrical structure in thunderstorm convective regions: 3. Synthesis. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103:14097-14108.
60. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Storms 1998, 63-65. Oxford University Press, New York.
61. Stolzenburg M., Marshall T.C. Charge structure and dynamics in thunderstorms. Space Science Reviews 2009, 137(1-4):355-372.
62. Rust W.D., et al. Inverted-polarity electrical structures in thunderstorms in the Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation Study (STEPS). Atmospheric Research 2005, 76(1-4):247-271. Atmospheric Electricity, ICAE 2003.
63. Proctor D.E. Regions where lightning flashes begin. J. Geophys. Res. 1991, 96:5099-5112.
64. Coleman L.M., Stolzenburg M., Marshall T.C., Stanley M. Horizontal lightning propagation, preliminary breakdown, and electric potential in New Mexico thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113. D09208.
65. Shao X.M., Krehbiel P.R. The spatial and temporal development of intracloud lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101:26641-26668.
66. Wallace J.M., Hobbs P.V. Atmospheric Science, An Introductory Survey 1977, 183. Academic Press, New York.
67. Rakov V.A. Initiation of lightning in Thunderclouds. Proc. SPIE 5975, Topical Problems of Nonlinear Wave Physics 2006, 597512. 10.1117/12.675583.
68. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., LeVine D.M. The temporal structure of the HF and VHF radiation produced by intracloud lightning discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 1979, 74:5760-5762.
69. Brook M., Kitagawa N. Radiation from lightning discharges in the frequency range 400 to 1000 Mc/s. J. Geophys. Res. 1964, 69:2431-2434.
70. Baharudin Z.A., Fernando M., Ahmada N.A., Mäkelä J.S., Rahman M., Cooray V. Electric field changes generated by the preliminary breakdown for the negative cloud-to-ground lightning flashes in Malaysia and Sweden. J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys. 2012, 84-85:15-24.
71. Weidman C.D., Krider E.P. The radiation fields wave forms produced by intracloud lightning discharge processes. J. Geophys. Res. 1979, 84:3159-3164.
72. Kitagawa N., Brook M. A comparison of intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 1960, 65:1189-1201.
73. Rakov V.A., et al. Bursts of pulses in lightning electromagnetic radiation: observations and implications for lightning test standards. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 1996, 35:156-164.
74. Le Vine D.M. Sources of the strongest rf radiation from lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 1980, 85:4091-4095.
75. Krehbiel P.R., Brooks M., McCrory R. An analysis of the charge structure of lighting discharges to the ground. J. Geophys. Res. 1979, 84:2432-2456.
76. Mazur V. Rapidly occurring short duration discharges in thunderstorms, as indicators of a lightning-triggering mechanism. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1986, 13:355-358.
77. Dwyer J.R. A fundamental limit on electric fields in air. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2003, 30:2055.
78. Babich L.P., Donskoy E.N., Il'kaev R.I., Kutsyk I.M., Roussel-Dupré R.A. Fundamental parameters of a relativistic runaway electron avalanche in air. Plasma Phys. Rep. 2004, 30:616-624.
79. Gunn R. Electric field intensity inside natural clouds. J. Appl. Phys. 1948, 19:481-484.
80. Winn W.P., Moore C.B. Electric field measurements in thunderclouds using instrumented rockets. J. Geophys. Res. 1971, 76:5003-5018.
81. Winn W.P., Schwede G.W., Moore C.B. Measurement of electric fields in thunderclouds. J. Geophys. Res. 1974, 79:1761-1767.
82. Winn W.P., Moore C.B., Holmes C.R. Electric field structure in an active part of a small, isolated thundercloud. J. Geophys. Res. 1981, 86:1187-1193.
83. Weber M.E., Christian H.J., Few A.A., Stewart M.F. A thundercloud electric field sounding: charge distribution and lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 1982, 87:7158-7169.
84. Fitzgerald D.R. Electric field structure of large thunderstorm complexes in the vicinity of Cape Canaveral. Proc. 7th International Conf. on Atmospheric Electricity 1984, 260-262. American Meteorological Society, Boston.
85. Imyanitov I.M., Chubarina Ye.V., Shvarts Ya.M. Electricity of Clouds 1971, Hydrometeorological Press, Leningrad, NASA Technical Translation from Russian NASA TT-F.
86. Marshall T.C., Rust W.D. Electric field soundings through thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. D 1991, 96:22297-22306.
87. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, 82-84. Cambridge University Press. paperback edition.
88. Marshall T.C., Stolzenburg M. Voltages inside and just above thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. D 2001, 106:4757-4768.
89. Marshall T.C., McCarthy M.P., Rust W.D. Electric field magnitudes and lightning initiation in thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. D 1995, 100:7097-7103.
90. Marshall T.C., Stolzenburg M., Maggio C.R., Coleman L.M., Krehbiel P.R., Hamlin T., Thomas R.J., Rison W. Observed electric fields associated with lightning initiation. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L03813. 10.1029/2004GL021802.
91. Stolzenburg M., Marshall T.C., Rust W.D., Bruning E., MacGorman D.R., Hamlin T. Electric field values observed near lightning flash initiations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34. L04804.
92. Marshall T.C., Winn W.P. Measurements of charged precipitation in a New Mexico thunderstorm: lower positive charge centers. J. Geophys. Res. D 1982, 87:7141-7157.
93. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Storms 1998, 56. Oxford University Press, New York.
94. Richard C.N., Dawson G.A. The hydrodynamic instability of water drops falling at terminal velocity in vertical electric fields. J. Geophys. Res. 1971, 76:3445-3454.
95. Liu N., Dwyer J.R., Rassoul H.K. Effects of pressure and humidity on positive corona inception from thundercloud hydrometeors. J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys. 2012, 80:179-186.
96. Macky W.A. Some investigations on the deformation and breaking of water drops in strong electric fields. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A 1931, 133:565-587.
97. Dawson G.A. Pressure dependence of water-drop corona onset and its atmospheric importance. J. Geophys. Res. 1969, 74:6859-6868.
98. Crabb J.A., Latham J. Corona from colliding drops as a possible mechanism for the triggering of lightning. Q.J.R. Meteor. Soc. 1974, 100:191-202.
99. Blyth A.M., Christian H.J., Latham J. Corona emission thresholds for three types of hydrometeor interaction in thunderclouds. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103:13975-13977.
100. Griffiths R.F. The initiation of corona discharges from charged ice particles in a strong electric field. J. Electrostatics 1975, 1:3-13.
101. Dawson G.A., Duff D.G. Initiation of cloud-to-ground lightning strokes. J. Geophys. Res. 1970, 75:5858-5867.
102. Zonge K.L., Evans W.H. Prestroke radiation from thunderclouds. J. Geophys. Res. 1966, 71:1519-1523.
103. Harvey, Lewis Radio mapping of 250- and 925- Megahertz noise sources in clouds. J. Geophys. Res. 1973, 78:1944-1947.
104. Loeb L.B. The Mechanisms of Stepped and Dart Leaders in Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Strokes. J. Geophys. Res. 1966, 71:4711-4721.
105. Pierce, Recent E.T. advances in meteorology-lightning. Sci. Progr. London 1957, 45:62-75.
106. Griffiths R.F., Phelps C.T. A model for lightning initiation arising from positive corona streamer development. J. Geophys. Res. 1976, 81:3671-3676.
107. Petersen D., Bailey M., Beasley W.H., Hallett J. A brief review of the problem of lightning initiation and a hypothesis of initial lightning leader formation. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113:D17205.
108. Nguyen M.D., Michnowski S. On the initiation of lightning discharge in a cloud 2. The lightning initiation on precipitation particles. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101:26675-26680.
109. Coquillat S., Chauzy S. Computed conditions of corona emission from raindrops. J. Geophys. Res. 1994, 99:16897-16905.
110. Solomon R., Schroeder V., Baker M.B. Lightning initiation-conventional and runaway-breakdown hypotheses. Q.J.R. Meteorol. Soc. 2001, 127:2263-2704.
111. Naidis G.V. Conditions for inception of positive corona discharges in air. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 2005, 38:2211-2214.
112. Aleksandrov N.L., Bazelyan E.M. Simulation of long-streamer propagation in air at atmospheric pressure. J. Phys. D 1996, 29:740.
113. Yu Babaeva N., Naidis G.V. Two-dimensional modelling of positive streamer dynamics in non-uniform electric fields in air. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 1996, 29:2423-2432.
114. Luque A., Ratushnaya V., Ebert U. Positive and negative streamers in ambient air: modelling evolution and velocities. J. Phys. D 2008, 41:234005.
115. Luque A., Ebert U. Emergence of sprite streamers from screening-ionization waves in the lower ionosphere. Nature Geosci. 2009, 2. 10.1038/NGEO662.
116. Luque A., Ebert U. Sprites in varying air density: charge conservation, glowing negative trails and changing velocity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37:L06806. 10.1029/2009GL041982.
117. Ebert U., Nijdam S., Li C., Luque A., Briels T., van Veldhuizen E. Review of recent results on streamer discharges and discussion of their relevance for sprites and lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E43. 10.1029/2009JA014867.
118. Schroeder V., Baker M.B., Latham J. A model study of corona emission from hydrometeors. Q.J.R. Meteor. Soc. 1999, 125:1681-1693.
119. Bazelyn E.M., Raizer Y.P. Spark Discharge, 294 pp 1998, 199-202. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
120. Gurevich A.V., Zybin K.P. Runaway breakdown and electric discharges in thunderstorms. Physics-Uspekhi 2001, 44:1119.
121. Carlson B., Lehtinen N., Inan U.S. Runaway relativistic electron avalanche seeding in the Earth's atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113:A10307.
122. Beasley W.H., Uman M.A., Rustan P.L. Electric Fields preceding cloud-to-ground lightning flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 1982, 87:4883-4902.
123. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, Cambridge University Press, pp. 116-121, 331-337. paperback edition.
124. Kitagawa N. On the electric field change due to the leader processes and some of their discharge mechanism. Pap. Meteor. Geophys. (Tokyo) 1957, 7:400-414.
125. Isikawa H., Takagai M., Takeuti T. On the leader waveforms of atmospherics near the origin. Proc. Res. Inst. Atmos. (Nagoya Univ.) 1958, 5:1-11.
126. Proctor D.E., Uytenbogaardt R., Meredith B.M. VHF radio pictures of lightning flashes to ground. J. Geophys. Res. 1988, 93:12683-12727.
127. Rustan P.L., Uman M.A., Childers D.G., Beasley W.H., Lennon C.L. Lightning source locations from VHF radiation data for a flash at Kennedy Space Center. J. Geophys. Res. 1980, 85:4893-4903.
128. Rhodes C., Krehbiel P.R. Interferometric observations of a single stroke cloud-to-ground flash. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1989, 16:1169-1172.
129. Stolzenburg M., Marshall T.C., Karunarathne S., Karunarathna N., Vickers L.E., Warner T.A., Orville R.E., Betz H.-D. Luminosity of initial breakdown in lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118:2918-2937. 10.1002/jgrd.50276.
130. Karunarathne S., Marshall T.C., Stolzenburg M., Karunarathna N., Vickers L.E., Warner T.A., Orville R.E. Locating initial breakdown pulses using electric field change network. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118:1-13. 10.1002/jgrd.50441.
131. Bitzer P.M., Christian H.J., Stewart M., Burchfield J., Podgorny S., Corredor D., Hall J., Kuznetsov E., Franklin V. Characterization and applications of VLF/LF source locations from lightning using the Huntsville Alabama Marx Meter Array. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118:3120-3138. 10.1002/jgrd.50271.
132. Schumann C., Saba M.M.F., Guedes da Silva R.B., Schulz W. Electric field changes produced by positives cloud-to-ground lightning flashes. J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys. 2013, 92:37-42.
133. Fuqua D.M. Positive cloud-to-ground lightning in summer thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 1982, 87(C9):7131-7140.
134. Krehbiel P.R., Riousset J.A., Pasko V.P., Thomas R.J., Rison W., Stanley M.A., Edens H.E. Upward electrical discharges from thunderstorms. Nature Geosci. 2008, 1(4):233-237. 10.1038/ngeo162.
135. Ligda M. The radar observation of lightning. J. Atmospheric Terrest. Phys. 1956, 9:329-346.
136. Winn W.P., Aulich G.D., Hunyady S.J., Eack K.B., Edens H.E., Krehbiel P.R., Rison W., Sonnenfeld R.G. Lightning leader stepping, K changes, and other observations near an intracloud flash. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:D23115. 10.1029/2011JD015998.
137. Proctor D.E. Lightning flashes with high origins. J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102:1693-1706.
138. Howard J., Uman M.A., Biagi C., Hill D., Rakov V.A., Jordan D.M. Measured close lightning leader-step electric-field-derivative waveforms. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116. 10.1029//2010JD015249.
139. Berger K., Vogelsanger E. Photographische Blitzuntersuchungen der Jahre 1955-1965 auf dem Monte San Salvatore. Bull. Schweiz. Elektrotech Ver. 1966, 57:599-620.
140. Chen M., Takagi N., Watanabe T., Wang D., Kawasaki Z.-I., Liu X. Spatial and temporal properties of optical radiation produced by stepped leaders. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104:27573-27584.
141. Yokoyama S., Miyake K., Suzuki T., Kanao S. Winter lightning on Japan Sea coast-development of measuring system on progressing feature of lightning discharge. IEEE Trans. Pow. Del. 1990, 5:1418-1425.
142. Shao X.M., Krehbiel P.R., Thomas R.J., Rison W. Radio interferometric observations of cloud-to-ground lightning phenomena in Florida. J. Geophys. Res. 1995, 100:2749-2783.
143. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003, 687 pages 2006, 122-126. Cambridge University Press. paperback edition.
144. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Waveforms of first and subsequent leaders in negative lightning flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 1990, 95:16561-16577.
145. Beasley W.H., Uman M.A., Jordan D.M., Ganesh C. Simultaneous pulses in light and electric field from stepped leaders near ground level. J. Geophys. Res. 1983, 88:8617-8619.
146. Krider E.P., Radda G.J. Radiation field waveforms produced by lightning stepped leaders. J. Geophys. Res. 1975, 80:2653-2657.
147. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. J. Geophys. Res. 1977, 82:951-960.
148. Cooray V., Lundquist S. Characteristics of the radiation fields from lightning in Sri Lanka in the tropics. J. Geophys. Res. 1985, 90:6099-6109.
149. Howard J., Uman M., Biagi C., Hill D., Jerauld J., Rakov V.A., Dwyer J., Saleh Z., Rassoul H. RF and X-ray source locations during the lightning attachment process. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 10.1029/2009JD012055.
150. Schonland B.F.J., Malan D.J., Collens H. Progressive lightning II. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1935, A152:595-625.
151. Orville R.E. Spectrum of the lightning stepped leader. J. Geophys. Res. 1968, 73:6999-7008.
152. Orville R.E., Idone V.P. Lightning leader characteristics in the thunderstorm research international program, (TRIP). J. Geophys. Res. 1982, 87. 11,177-11,192.
153. Wang D., Takagi N., Watanabe T., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Observed leader and return-stroke propagation characteristics in the bottom 400 m of the rocket triggered lightning channel. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104:14369-14376.
154. Hill J.D., Uman M.A., Jordan D.J. High-speed video observations of a lightning stepped leader. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:D16117. 10.1029/2011JD015818.
155. Weidman C.D., Krider E.P. Submicrosecond risetimes in lightning radiation fields. NASA Conf. Publ. 1980, vol. 2128. FAA-RD-80-30, pp. 29-38.
156. Krider E.P., Leteinturier C., Willett J.C. Submicrosecond field variations in natural lightning processes. Res. Lett. Atmos. Electr. 1992, 12:3-9.
157. Willett J.C., Krider E.P. Rise times of impulsive high current processes in cloud-to-ground lightning. IEEE Trans. Ant. Propag. 2000, 48:1442-1451.
158. Murray N.D., Krider E.P., Willett J.C. Multiple pulses in dE/dt and the fine structure of E during the onset of first return strokes in cloud-to-ocean lightning. J. Atmos. Res. 2005, 76:455-480. 10.1016/j.atmosres.2004.11.038.
159. Berger K., Vogelsanger E. New results of lightning observations. Planetary Electrodynamics, I 1969, 489-510. Gordon and Breach, New York. S.C. Coroniti, J. Hughes (Eds.).
160. Idone V.P. The luminous development of florida triggered lightning. Res. Lett. Atmos. Electr. 1992, 12:23-28.
161. Biagi C.J., Jordan D.M., Uman M.A., Hill J.D., Beasley W.H., Howard J. High speed video observations of rocket-and-wire initiated lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2009, 36:1-5. 10.1029/2009GL038525.
162. Biagi C.J., Uman M.A., Hill J.D., Jordan D.M., Rakov V.A., Dwyer J. Observations of stepping mechanisms in a rocket-and-wire triggered lightning flash. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:1-6. 10.1029/2010JD014616.
163. Gorin B.N., Levitov V.I., Shkilev A.V. Some Principles of Leader Discharge in Air Gaps with a Strong Non-uniform Field, In Gas Discharges. IEEE Conf. Publ. 1976, 143:274-278.
164. Reess T., Ortega P., Gibert A., Domens P., Pignolet P. An experimental study of negative discharge in a 1.3 m point-plane air gap: the function of the space stem in the propagation mechanisms. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 1995, 28:2306-2313.
165. Ortega P., Domens P., Gibert A., Hutzler B., Riquel G. Performance of a 16.7 m air rod-plane gap under a negative switching impulse. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 1994, 27. 10.1088/0022-3727/27/11/019.
166. Les Renardières Group Negative discharges in long air gaps at Les Renardières. Electra 1981, 74:67-216.
167. Gallimberti I., Bacchiega G., Bondiou-Clergerie A., Lalande P. Fundamental processes in long air gap discharges. C. R. Phys. 2002, 3:1335-1359. 10.1016/S1631-0705(02)01414-7.
168. C.V. Nguyen, Experimental study on hard radiation form long laboratory spark discharges in air, Ph.D. Dissertation, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, 2012.
169. Hill J.D., Uman M.A., Jordan D.M., Dwyer J.R., Hamid Rassoul Chaotic dart leaders in triggered lightning: electric fields, x-rays, and source locations. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:D03118. 10.1029/2011JD016737.
170. Moore C.B., Eack K.B., Aulich G.D., Rison W. Energetic radiation associated with lightning stepped-leaders. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2001, 28:2141-2144.
171. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A., Rassoul H.K., Al-Dayeh M., Caraway L., Jerauld J., Rakov V.A., Jordan D.M., Rambo K.J., Corbin V., Wright B. Energetic radiation produced during rocket-triggered lightning. Science 2003, 299:694-697.
172. Dwyer J.R. Implications of X-ray emission from lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004, 31:L12102. 10.1029/2004GL019795.
173. Dwyer J.R., Rassoul H.K., Al-Dayeh M., Caraway L., Chrest A., Wright B., Kozak E., Jerauld J., Uman M.A., Rakov V.A., Jordan D.M., Rambo K.J. X-ray bursts associated with leader steps in cloud-to-ground lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L01803. 10.1029/2004GL021782.
174. Howard J., Uman M.A., Dwyer J.R., Hill D., Biagi C., Saleh Z., Jerauld J., Rassoul H.K. Co-Location of lightning leader x-ray and electric field change sources. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35:L13817. 10.1029/2008GL034134.
175. Gurevich A.V. On the theory of runaway electrons. Soviet Phys. JETP 1961, 12(5):904-912.
176. Moss G.D., Pasko V.P., Liu N., Veronis G. Monte Carlo model for analysis of thermal runaway electrons in streamer tips in transient luminous events and streamer zones of lightning leaders. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111:A02307. 10.1029/2005JA011350.
177. Gurevich A.V., Milikh G.M., Roussel-Dupré R.A. Runaway electron mechanism of air breakdown and preconditioning during a thunderstorm. Phys. Lett. A 1992, 165:463-467.
178. Lehtinen N.G., Bell T.F., Inan U.S. Monte Carlo simulation of runaway MeV electron breakdown with application to red sprites and terrestrial gamma ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104. 24,699-24,712. 10.1029/1999JA0900335.
179. Gurevich A.V., Zybin K., Medvedev Y. Runaway breakdown in strong electric field as a source of terrestrial gamma flashes and gamma bursts in lightning leader steps. Phys. Lett. A. 2007, 361:119-125.
180. Chanrion O., Neubert T. Production of runaway electrons by negative streamer discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E32. 10.1029/2009JA014774.
181. J.D. Hill, The mechanisms of lightning leader propagation and ground attachment, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Florida, 2012.
182. Dwyer J.R., Rassoul H.K., Saleh Z., Uman M.A., Jerauld J., Plumer J.A. X-ray bursts produced by laboratory sparks in air. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L20809. 10.1029/2005GL024027.
183. A.P.J. van Deursen, P. Kochkin, V. Nguyen, U. Ebert, On the origin of hard X-rays in the growth of meter long sparks, Abstract 1473476, AGU 2012 Fall Meeting, December 3-7, San Francisco, CA.
184. Kochkin P.O., Nguyen C.V., van Deursen A.P.J., Ebert U. Experimental study of hard X-rays emitted from meter-scale positive discharged in air. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 2012, 45:425202. 10pp.
185. Dwyer J.R., Saleh Z., Rassoul H.K., Concha D., Rahman M., Cooray V., Jerauld J., Uman M.A., Rakov V.A. A study of X-ray emission from laboratory sparks in air at atmospheric pressure. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113:D23207. 10.1029/2008JD010315.
186. Nguyen C.V., van Deursen A.P.J., Ebert U. Multiple X-ray bursts from long discharges in air. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 2008, 41:234012.
187. Rahman M., Cooray V., Ahmad N.A., Nyberg J., Rakov V.A., Sharma S. X-rays from 80 cm long sparks in air. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35:L06805. 10.1029/2007GL032678.
188. Nguyen C.V., van Deursen A.P.J., van Heesch E.J.M., Winands C.J.J., Pemen A.J.M. X-ray emission in streamer-corona plasma. J. Phys. D., Appl. Phys. 2010, 43:025202. 5pp. 10.1088/0022-3727/43/2/025202.
189. March V., Montanyà J. X-rays from laboratory sparks in air: the role of the cathode in the production of runaway electrons. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38:L04803. 10.1029/2010GL046540.
190. Mazur V. Physical processes during development of lightning flashes. C. R. Physque 2002, 3:1393-1409.
191. Shao X.M., Rhodes C.T., Holden D.N. RF Radiation Observations of Positive Cloud-to-Ground Flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104:9601-9608.
192. Rust W.D., MacGorman D.R., Arnold R.T. Positive cloud to ground lightning flashes in severe storms. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1981, 8:791-794.
193. Saba M.M.F., Cummins K.L., Warner T.A., Krider E.P., Campos L.Z.S., Ballarotti M.G., Pinto O., Fleenor S.A. Positive leader characteristics from high-speed video observations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35:L07802. 10.1029/2007GL0033000.
194. Kong X., Qie X., Zhao Y. Characteristics of downward leader in a positive cloud-to-ground lightning flash observed by high-speed video camera and electric field changes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35:L05816. 10.1029/2007GL032764.
195. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects 2003, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 687 pages, paperback edition, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 224-226.
196. Shao X.M., Holden D.N., Rhodes C.T. Broad band radio interferometry for lightning observations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23:1917-1920.
197. Hill J.D., Pilkey J.T., Uman M.A., Jordan D.M., Rison W., Krehbiel P.R. Geometrical and electrical characteristics of the initial stage in Florida triggered lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2012, 38:L09867. 10.1029/2012GL051932.
198. Biagi C.J., Uman M.A., Hill J.D., Jordan D.M. Observations of the initial, upward-propagating, positive leader steps in a rocket-and-wire triggered lightning discharge. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38:L24809. 10.1029/2011GL049944.
199. Fieux R.P., Gary C.H., Hutzler B.P., Eybert-Berard A.R., Hubert P.L., Meesters A.C., Perroud P.H., Hamelin J.H., Person J.M. Research on artificially triggered lightning in France. IEEE Trans. Pow. Appar. Syst. 1978, PAS-97:725-733.
200. P. Laroche, A. Eybert-Berard, L. Barret, J.P. Berlandis, Observations of preliminary discharges initiating flashes triggered by the rocket and wire technique, Paper Presented at the 8th International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, Uppsala Univ., Swed. Nat. Sci. Res. Counc., Uppsala, Sweden, 13-16, June 1988.
201. Yoshida S., Biagi C.J., Rakov V.A., Hill J.D., Stapleton M.V., Jordan D.M., Uman M.A., Morimoto T., Ushio T., Kawasaki Z.-I. Three-dimensional imaging of upward positive leaders in triggered lightning using VHF broadband digital interferometers. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37:L05805. 10.1029/2009GL042065.
202. Edens H.E., Eack K.B., Eastvedt E.M., Trueblood J.J., Winn W.P., Krehbiel P.R., Aulich G.D., Hunyady S.J., Murray W.C., Rison W., Behnke S.A., Thomas R.J. VHF lightning mapping observations of a triggered lightning flash. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2012, 39:L19807. 10.1029/2012GL053666.
203. Lu W., Chen L., Zhang Y., Ma Y., Gao Y., Yin Q., Chen S., Huang Z., Zhang Y. Characteristics of unconnected upward leaders initiated from tall structures observed in Guangzhou. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:D19211. 10.1029/2012DJ018035.
204. McEachron K.B. Lightning to the Empire State Building. J. Franklin Inst. 1939, 227:149-217.
205. Domens P., Gilbert A., Dupuy J., Hutzler B. Propagation of the positive streamer-leader system in a 16.7 m rod-plane gap. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 1991, 24:1748-1757. 10.1088/0022-3727/24/10.009.
206. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects 2003, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 687 pages, paperback edition, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 225.
207. Rakov V.A., Crawford D.E., Kodali V., Idone V.P., Uman M.A., Schnetzer G.H., Rambo K.J. Cutoff and reestablishment of current in rocket-triggered lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108(D23):4747. 10.1029/2003JD003694.
208. Lalande P., Bondiou-Clergerie A., Bacchiega G., Gallimberti I. Observations and modeling of lightning leaders. Appl. Phys. 2002, 3:1375-1392.
209. Willett J.C., Davis D.A., Laroche P. An experimental study of positive leaders initiating rocket-triggered lightning. Atmos. Res. 1999, 51:189-219. 10.1016/S0169-8095(99)00008-3.
210. Les Renardières Group Positive discharges in long air gaps at Les Renardières: 1975 Results and Conclusions. Electra 1977, 53:31-153.
211. Bazelyn E.M., Raizer Y.P. Lightning Physics and Lightning Protection. Inst. Of Phys. Bristol, U.K. 2000, 10.1887/0750304774.
212. Gu S., Chen W., Chen J., He H., Qian G. Observations of the streamer-leader propagation processes of long air-gap positive discharges. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 2010, 38(2):214-217. 10.1109/TPS.2009.2037004.
213. Bazelyn E.M., Raizer Y.P. Spark Discharge 1998, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 206-207, 294 pp.
214. Yoshida S., Morimoto T., Ushio T., Kawasaki Z.-I., Torii T., Wang D., Takagi N., Watanabe T. High energy photon and electron bursts associated with upward lightning strokes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 37:L10804. 10.1029/2007GL032430.
215. Wilson C.T.R. The acceleration of beta-particles in strong electric fields such as those of thunder-clouds. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 1925, 22:534-538.
216. Schonland A.E. Thunder-storms and the penetrating radiation. Proc. R. Soc. London A 1930, 130:37-63.
217. Schonland B.F.J., Viljoen J.P.T. On penetrating radiation from thunderclouds. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 1933, 140:314-333.
218. Appleton E.V., Bowen E.G. Source of atmospherics and penetrating radiation. Nature 1933, 132:965.
219. Macky W.A. An attempt to detect radiation in thunderclouds. Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 1934, 30:70-73.
220. Halliday E.C. Thunder-storms and the penetrating radiation. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 1934, 30:206-215.
221. Halliday E.C. The thundercloud as a source of penetrating particles. Phys. Rev. 1941, 60:101-106.
222. Clay J., Jongen H.F., Aarts A.J.J. High energy electrons produced in a thundercloud. Physica 1952, 28:801-808.
223. Hill R.D. Investigation of electron runaway in lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 1963, 68:6261-6266.
224. Shaw G.E. Background cosmic count increases associated with thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 1967, 72:4623-4626.
225. Whitmire D.P. Search for high-energy radiation near lightning strokes. Lettere Al Nuovo Cimento 1979, 26. 16, 497-501.
226. D'Angelo N. On X-rays from thunderclouds. Ann. Geophys. Ser. B 1987, 5:119-122.
227. Suszcynsky D.M., Roussel-Dupré R., Shaw G. Ground-based search for X rays generated by thunderstorms and lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101. 23,505.
228. L.P. Babich, High-energy phenomena in electric discharges in dense gases, Futurepast, Inc. Arlington VA, 2003.
229. Fishman G.J., et al. Discovery of intense gamma-ray flashes of atmospheric origin. Science 1994, 264:1313.
230. Roussel-Dupré R., Gurevich A.V. On runaway breakdown and upward propagating discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101. A2, 2297-2312.
231. Pasko V.P. Recent advances in theory of transient luminous events. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E35.
232. Parks G.K., Mauk B.H., Spiger R., Chin J. X-ray enhancements detected during thunderstorm and lightning activities. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1981, 8:1176-1179.
233. McCarthy M., Parks G.K. Further observations of X-rays inside thunderstorms. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1985, 12:393-396.
234. Eack K.B., Beasley W.H., Rust W.D., Marshall T.C., Stolzenburg M. Initial results from simultaneous observation of X rays and electric fields in a thunderstorm. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101. D23, 29637-29640.
235. Eack K.B., Beasley W.H., Rust W.D., Marshall T.C., Stolzenburg M. X-ray pulses observed above a mesoscale convective system, Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23. 21, 2915-2918.
236. Eack K.B., Suszcynsky D.M., Beasley W.H., Roussel-Dupré R., Symbalisty E. Gamma-ray emission observed in a thunderstorm anvil. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2000, 27:185-188.
237. H.A. Bethe, J. Ashkin, Passage of radiation through matter, in: E. Segre (Ed.), Experimental Nuclear Physics, New York-London, Vol. 1, Part 2, 1953.
238. Sizykh S.V. Runaway electron production rate in gaseous discharges. High Temperature 1993, 31(1):1-6.
239. Dwyer J.R., Babich L. Low-energy electron production by relativistic runaway electron avalanches in air. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:A09301. 10.1029/2011JA016494.
240. Berestetskii V.B., Lifshitz E.M., Pitaevskii L.P. Quantum Electrodynamics 1982, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
241. Oreshkin E.V., Barengolts S.A., Chaikovsky S.A., Oreshkin V.I. Simulation of the runaway electron beam formed in a discharge in air at atmospheric pressure. Phys. Plasmas 2012, 19:043105.
242. Dwyer J.R. Relativistic breakdown in planetary atmospheres. Physics of Plasmas 2007, 14(4). 042901-042901-17.
243. Dwyer J.R., Babich L. Reply to comment by A. V. Gurevich et al. on Low-energy electron production by relativistic runaway electron avalanches in air. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A04303. 6 PP. 10.1029/2011JA017487.
244. Gurevich A.V., Zybin K.P. Runaway Breakdown and the Mysteries of Lightning. Physics Today 2005, 58(5):37-43.
245. Milikh G., Roussel-Dupré R. Runaway breakdown and electrical discharges in thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 10.1029/2009JA014818.
246. Dwyer J.R., Smith D., Cummer S.A. High energy atmospheric physics: terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and related phenomena. Space Science Rev., Space Sci. Rev. 2012, 10.1007/s11214-012-9894-0.
247. Dwyer J.R. The source mechanisms of Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flashes (TGFs). J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113(D10). CiteID D10103.
248. Coleman L.M., Dwyer J.R. The propagation speed of runaway electron avalanches. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33:L11810. 10.1029/2006GL025863.
249. Roussel-Dupré R., Colman J.J., Symbalisty E., Sentman D., Pasko V.P. Physical processes related to discharges in planetary atmospheres. Space Sci. Rev. 2008, 137:51-82.
250. Koch H.W., Motz J.W. Bremsstrahlung cross-section formulas and related data. Rev. Modern Phys. 1950, 31. 4, 920.
251. Babich L.P., Donskoy E.N., Kutsyk I.M., Roussel-Dupré R.A. The feedback mechanism of runaway air breakdown. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L09809. 10.1029/2004GL021744.
252. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects 2003, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 687 pages, paperback edition, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 7.
253. Krider P.E. Deciphering the Energetics of Lightning. Science 2003, 31. Vol. 299 no. 5607, 669-670.
254. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A., Rassoul H.K., Rakov V.A., Al-Dayeh M., Caraway E.L., Wright B., Jerauld J., Jordan D.M., Rambo K.J., Chrest A., Smyth C. Measurements of X-ray emission from rocket-triggered lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004, 31:L05118. 10.1029/2003GL018770.
255. Celestin S., Pasko V. Energy and fluxes of thermal runaway electrons produced by exponential growth of streamers during the stepping of lightning leaders and in transient luminous events. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:A03315.
256. Cooray V., Dwyer J., Rakov V., Rahman M. On the mechanism of X-ray production by dart leaders of lightning flashes. J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys. 2010, 72. 11,848-11,855.
257. J. Jerauld, Properties of natural Cloud-To-Ground lightning inferred from Multiple-Station measurements of close electric and magnetic fields and field derivatives, Ph.D. dissertation, UF, 2007.
258. Saleh Z., Dwyer J., Howard J., Uman M., Bakhtiari M., Concha D., Stapleton M., Hill D., Biagi C., Rassoul H. Properties of the X-ray emission from rocket-triggered lightning as measured by the Thunderstorm Energetic Radiation Array (TERA). J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114:D17. 10.1029/2008JD011618.
259. Dwyer J.R., Smith D.M., Uman M.A., Saleh Z., Grefenstette B., Hazelton B., Rassoul H.K. Estimation of the fluence of high-energy electron bursts produced by thunderclouds and the resulting radiation doses received in aircraft. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 10.1029/2009JD012039.
260. Schaal M.M., Dwyer J.R., Saleh Z.H., Rassoul H.K., Uman M.A., Hill J.D., Jordan D.M. Spatial Energy Spatial and energy distributions of X-ray emissions from leaders in natural and rocket triggered lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:D15201. 10.1029/2012JD017897.
261. Mallick S., Rakov V.A., Dwyer J.R. A study of x-ray emissions from thunderstorms with emphasis on subsequent strokes in natural lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, in press. 10.1029/2012JD017555.
262. Dwyer J.R., Schaal M., Rassoul H.K., Uman M.A., Jordan D.M., Hill D., Rassoul H.K. High-speed x-ray images of triggered lightning dart leaders. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:D20208.
263. Chubenko A.P., et al. Energy spectrum of lightning gamma emission. Phys. Lett. A 2009, 373(33):2953-2958.
264. Antonova V.P., Vildanova L.I., Gurevich A.V., Zybin K.P., Karashtin A.N., Kryukov S.V., Ryabov V.A., Ptitsyn M.O., Chubenko A.P., Shlyugaev Yu.V., Schepetov A.L. Influence of cosmic rays and the runaway-electron breakdowns on thunderstorm processes in the atmosphere. Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics 2009, 52(9):627-641.
265. Kostyrya I.D., Tarasenko V.F., Tkachev A.N., Yakovlenko S.I. X-ray radiation due to nanosecond volume discharges in air under atmospheric pressure. Techn. Phys. 2006, 51(3):356-361.
266. Rep'ev A.G., Repin P.B. Spatiotemporal parameters of the X-ray radiation from a diffuse atmospheric-pressure discharge. Techn. Phys. 2008, 53(1):73-80.
267. Babich L.P., Loǐko T.V. Subnanosecond pulses of runaway electrons generated in atmosphere by high-voltage pulses of microsecond duration. Dokl. Phys. 2009, 54(11):479-482.
268. March V., Montanyà J. Influence of the voltage-time derivative in X-ray emission from laboratory sparks. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37(19):L19801.
269. Gurevich A.V., et al. Laboratory demonstration of runaway electron breakdown of air. Phys. Lett. A 2011, 375:2845-2849.
270. V. March, J. Montanya, D. Romero, G. Sola, O. Van der Welde, X-rays from laboratory sparks in air: the relationship between runaway electrons and the electric field, in: International Conference on Lightning Protection, ICLP, 2012, pp. 1-7.
271. C.V. Nguyen, Experimental study on hard radiation form long laboratory spark discharges in air, Ph.D. Dissertation, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, 2012.
272. Cooray V., Arevalo L., Rahman M., Dwyer J., Rassoul H. On the possible origin of X-rays in long laboratory sparks. J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys. 2009, 10.1016/j.jastp.2009.07.010.
273. Kutsyk I.M., Babich L.P., Donskoi E.N., Bochkov E.I. Analysis of the results of a laboratory experiment on the observation of a runaway electron avalanche in air under high overvoltages. Plasma Physics Reports 2012, 38(11):891-898.
274. Li C., Ebert U., Hundsdorfer W. 3D hybrid computations for streamer discharges and production of runaway electrons. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 2009, 42:202003.
275. Chanrion O., Neubert T. A PIC-MCC code for simulation of streamer propagation in air. J. Comput. Phys. 2008, 227(15):7222-7245.
276. Colman J.J., Roussel-Dupré R.A., Triplett L. Temporally self-similar electron distribution functions in atmospheric breakdown: The thermal runaway regime. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E16.
277. Chilingarian A., Mkrtchyan H. Role of the Lower Positive Charge Region (LPCR) in initiation of the Thunderstorm Ground Enhancements (TGEs). Phys. Rev. D 2012, 86:072003.
278. Brunetti M., Cecchini S., Galli M., Giovannini G., Pagliarin A. Gamma-ray bursts of atmospheric origin in the MeV energy range. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2000, 27:1599-1602.
279. Chubenko A.P., Antonova V.P., Kryukov S.Yu., Piskal V.V., Ptitsyn M.O., Shepetov A.L., Vildanova L.I., Zybin K.P., Gurevich A.V. Intense X-ray emission bursts during thunderstorms. Phys. Lett. A 2000, 275:90-100.
280. Chubenko A.P., et al. Effective growth of a number of cosmic ray electrons inside thundercloud. Phys. Lett. A 2003, 309:90.
281. Alexeenko V.V., Khaerdinov N.S., Lidvansky A.S., Petkov V.B. Transient variations of secondary cosmic rays due to atmospheric electric field and evidence for pre-lightning particle acceleration. Phys. Lett. A 2002, 301:299.
282. Torii T., Sugita T., Tanabe S., Kimura Y., Kamogawa M., Yajima K., Yasuda H. Gradual increase of energetic radiation associated with thunderstorm activity at the top of Mt. Fuji. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2009, 36:L13804.
283. Tsuchiya H., et al. Observation of an energetic radiation burst from mountain-top thunderclouds. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2009, 102:255003.
284. Chilingarian A., Daryan A., Arakelyan K., Hovhannisyan A., Mailyan B., Melkumyan L., Hovsepyan G., Chilingaryan S., Reymers A., Vanyan L. Ground-based observations of thunderstorm-correlated fluxes of high-energy electrons, gamma rays, and neutrons. Phys. Rev. D 2010, 82(4). id. 043009.
285. Chilingarian A., Mailyan B., Vanyan L. Recovering of the energy spectra of electrons and gamma rays coming from the thunderclouds. Atmospheric Research 2012, 114-115:1-16.
286. Torii T., Takeishi T., M., Hosono T. Observation of gamma-ray dose increase associated with winter thunderstorm and lightning activity. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107:4324.
287. Tsuchiya H., et al. Detection of high-energy gamma rays from winter thunderclouds. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2007, 99:165002.
288. Tsuchiya H., et al. Long-duration ? ray emissions from 2007 and 2008 winter thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116. D09113.
289. Torii T., Sugita T., Kamogawa M., Watanabe Y., Kusunoki K. Migrating source of energetic radiation generated by thunderstorm activity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38. L24801. 10.1029/2011GL049731.
290. Torii T., Nishijima T., Kawasaki Z.-I., Sugita T. Downward emission of runaway electrons and bremsstrahlung photons in thunderstorm electric fields. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004, 31:L05113.
291. Babich L.P., Bochkov E.I., Donskoi E.N., Kutsyk I.M. Source of prolonged bursts of high-energy gamma rays detected in thunderstorm atmosphere in Japan at the coastal area of the Sea of Japan and on high mountaintop. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A09317.
292. Karapetyan G.G. Theoretical investigation of thunderstorm induced enhancements of cosmic ray fluxes. Astropart. Phys. 2012, 38:46-52.
293. Lidvansky A.S. The effect of the electric field of the atmosphere on cosmic rays. J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 2003, 29925-29937.
294. Muraki Y., et al. Effects of atmospheric electric fields on cosmic rays. Phys. Rev. D 2004, 69:123010.
295. N.A. Kelley, A. Lowell, D.M. Smith, J.R. Dwyer, S.A. Cummer, G. Lu, R. Blakeslee, Abstract AE11A-0332 presented at 2010 Fall Meeting, AGU, San Francisco, Calif., 2010, pp. 13-17.
296. G.J. Fishman, et al., in: W.N. Johnson, Proc. GRO Science Workshop, Greenbelt, NASA/GSFC, 1989, pp. 2-39.
297. Franz R.C., Nemzek R.J., Winckler J.R. Television image of a large upward electric discharge above a thunderstorm system. Science 1990, 249:48-51.
298. Smith D.M., Lopez L.I., Lin R.P., Barrington-Leigh C.P. Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes observed up to 20 MeV. Science 2005, 307:1085-1088.
299. Splitt M.E., Lazarus S.M., Barnes D., Dwyer J.R., Rassoul H.K., Smith D.M., Hazelton B.J., Grefenstette B.W. Thunderstorm characteristics associated with RHESSI identified terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E38. 10 PP. 10.1029/2009JA014622.
300. Cummer S.A., Zhai Y., Hu W., Smith D.M., Lopez L.I., Stanley M.A. Measurements and implications of the relationship between lightning and terrestrial gamma ray flashes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L08811. 10.1029/2005GL022778.
301. Kulak A., Mlynarczyk J., Ostrowski M., Kubisz J., Michalec A. Analysis of ELF electromagnetic field pulses recorded by the Hylaty station coinciding with terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117. 10.1029/2012JD018205.
302. Dwyer J.R., Smith D.M. A Comparison between Monte Carlo simulations of runaway breakdown and terrestrial gamma-ray flash observations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L22804. 10.1029/2005GL023848.
303. Williams E., et al. Lightning flashes conducive to the production and escape of gamma radiation to space. J. Geophys. Res. D 2006, 111:D16209.
304. Carlson B., Lehtinen N., Inan U. Constraints on terrestrial gamma-ray flash production derived from satellite observations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34(8). CiteID L08809.
305. Gjesteland T., Østgaard N., Collier A.B., Carlson B.E., Eyles C., Smith D.M. A new method reveals more TGFs in the RHESSI data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2012, 39:L05102.
306. Gjesteland T., Østgaard N., Collier A.B., Carlson B.E., Cohen M.B., Lehtinen N.G. Confining the angular distribution of terrestrial gamma ray flash emission. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:A11313. 10.1029/2011JA016716.
307. Carlson B.E., Gjesteland T., Østgaard N. Connecting the terrestrial gamma-ray flash source strength and observed fluence distributions. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A01314. 7 PP. 10.1029/2011JA017122.
308. Østgaard N., Gjesteland T., Hansen R.S., Collier A.B., Carlson B. The true fluence distribution of terrestrial gamma flashes at satellite altitude. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A03327. 8 PP. 10.1029/2011JA017365.
309. Marisaldi M., et al. Detection of terrestrial gamma ray flashes up to 40 MeV by the AGILE satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E13. 10.1029/2009JA014502.
310. Stanley M., et al. Link between terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and intra-cloud lightning discharges. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33(6). CiteID L06803.
311. Lu G., Blakeslee R.J., Li J., Smith D.M., Shao X-M, McCaul E.W., Buechler D.E., Christian H.J., Hall J.M., Cummer S.A. Lightning mapping observation of a terrestrial gamma-ray flash. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37(11). CiteID L11806.
312. Shao X.-M., Hamlin T., Smith D.M. A closer examination of terrestrial gamma-ray flash-related lightning processes. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115(9). CiteID A00E30.
313. Briggs M.S., et al. First results on terrestrial gamma ray flashes from the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A07323. 10.1029/2009JA015242.
314. Grefenstette B.W., Smith D.M., Dwyer J.R., Fishman G.J. Time evolution of terrestrial gamma ray flashes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35(6). CiteID L06802.
315. Gjesteland T., Østgaard N., Connell P.H., Stadsnes J., Fishman G.J. Effects of dead time losses on terrestrial gamma ray flash measurements with the Burst and Transient Source Experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115(3):A00E21.
316. Fishman G.J., et al. Temporal properties of the terrestrial gamma-ray flashes from the gamma-ray burst monitor on the Fermi observatory. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:A07304. 10.1029/2010JA016084.
317. Marisaldi M., et al. Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. NIM A 2013, in press.
318. Marisaldi M., et al. Detection of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes up to 40-MeV by the AGILE satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E13.
319. Marisaldi M., et al. Gamma-ray localization of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2010, 105:128501.
320. Tavani M., et al. Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes as powerful particle accelerators. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2011, 106(1). id. 018501.
321. Celestin S., Xu W., Pasko V. Terrestrial gamma ray flashes with energies up to 100 MeV produced by nonequilibrium acceleration of electrons in lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A05315. 10.1029/2012JA017535.
322. Inan U.S., Reising S.C., Fishman G.J., Horack J.M. On the association of terrestrial gamma-ray bursts with lightning and implications for sprites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23:1017-1020.
323. Inan U.S., Cohen M.B., Said R.K., Smith D.M., Lopez L.I. Terrestrial gamma ray flashes and lightning discharges. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33:L18802. 10.1029/2006GL027085.
324. Cohen M.B., Inan U.S., Fishman G.J. Terrestrial gamma ray flashes observed aboard the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory/Burst and Transient Source Experiment and ELF/VLF radio atmospherics. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111(D24). CiteID D24109.
325. Cohen M.B, Inan U.S., Said R.K., Gjestland T. Geolocation of terrestrial gamma-ray flash source lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37(2). CiteID L02801.
326. Lu G., Cummer S.A., Li J., Han F., Smith D.M., Grefenstette B.W. Characteristics of broadband lightning emissions associated with terrestrial gamma ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116(A3). CiteID A03316.
327. Connaughton V., Briggs M.S., Holzworth R.H., Hutchins M.L., Fishman G.J., Wilson-Hodge C.A., Chaplin V.L., Bhat P.N., Greiner J., von Kienlin A., Kippen R.M., Meegan C.A., Paciesas W.S., Preece R.D., Cramer E., Dwyer J.R., Smith D.M. Associations between Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor terrestrial gamma ray flashes and sferics from the World Wide Lightning Location Network. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115(A12). CiteID A12307.
328. Jacobson A.R., Holzworth R., Harlin J., Dowden R., Lay E. Performance assessment of the world wide lightning location network (WWLLN), using the Los Alamos sferic array (LASA) as ground truth. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 2006, 23:1082-1092. 10.1175/JTECH1902.1.
329. Rodger C.J., Brundell J.B., Holzworth R.H., Lay E.H. Growing detection efficiency of the world wide lightning location network. AIP Conf. Proc. 2009, vol. 1118:15-20. N.B. Crosby, T.-Y. Huang, M.J. Rycroft (Eds.).
330. Cummer S.A., Lu G., Briggs M.S., Connaughton V., Xiong S., Fishman G.J., Dwyer J.R. The lightning-TGF relationship on microsecond timescales. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38:L14810. 10.1029/2011GL048099.
331. Cummins K., Murphy M.J. An Overview of Lightning Locating Systems: History, Techniques, and Data Uses, With an In-Depth Look at the US NLDN. IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compatibility 2009, 51(3):499-518.
332. Dwyer J.R. The relativistic feedback discharge model of terrestrial gamma ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A02308. 10.1029/2011JA017160.
333. Connaughton V., Briggs M.S., Xiong S., Dwyer J.R., Hutchins M.L., Grove J.E., Chekhtman A., Tierney D., Fitzpatrick G., Foley S., McBreen S., Bhat P.N., Chaplin V.L., Cramer E., Fishman G.J., Holzworth R.H., Gibby M., von Kienlin A., Meegan C.A., Paciesas W.S., Preece R.D., Wilson-Hodge C. Radio signals from electron beams in Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118. 118, 2313-2320.
334. Dwyer J.R., Grefenstette B.W., Smith D.M. High-energy electron beams launched into space by thunderstorms. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35:L02815. 10.1029/2007GL032430.
335. Briggs M.S., Connaughton V., Wilson-Hodge C., Preece R.D., Fishman G.J., Kippen R.M., Bhat P.N., Paciesas W.S., Chaplin V.L., Meegan C.A., von Kienlin A., Greiner J., Dwyer J.R., Smith D.M. Electron-positron beams from terrestrial lightning observed with Fermi GBM. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38(2). CiteID L02808.
336. Carlson B.E., Gjesteland T., Østgaard N. Terrestrial gamma-ray flash electron beam geometry, fluence, and detection frequency. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:A11217.
337. Xiong S., et al. Location prediction of electron TGFs. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117. 10.1029/2011JA017085.
338. Cohen M.B., Inan U.S., Said R.K., Briggs M.S., Fishman G.J., Connaughton V., Cummer S.A. A lightning discharge producing a beam of relativistic electrons into space. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37(18):L18806.
339. Fleischer R.L. Search for neutron generation by lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 1975, 80:5005.
340. Shah G.N., Razdan H., Ali Q.M., Bhat C.L. Neutron generation in lightning bolts. Nature 1985, 313:773-775. 10.1038/313773a0.
341. Shyam A., Kaushik T.C. Observation of neutron bursts associated with atmospheric lightning discharge. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104:6867-6870. 10.1029/98JA02683.
342. Chilingarian A., Bostanjyan N., Karapetyan T., Vanyan L. Remarks on recent results on neutron production during thunderstorms. Phys. Rev. D 2012, 86:093017.
343. Martin I.M., Alves M.A. Observation of a possible neutron burst associated with a lightning discharge?. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E11.
344. Gurevich A.V., Antonova V.P., Chubenko A.P., Karashtin A.N., Mitko G.G., Ptitsyn M.O., Ryabov V.A., Shepetov A.L., Shlyugaev Y.V., Vildanova L.I., Zybin K.P. Strong flux of low-energy neutrons produced by thunderstorms. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2012, 108:125001.
345. Starodubtsev S.A., Kozlov V.I., Toropov A.A., Mullayarov V.A., Grigor'ev V.G., Moiseev A.V. First experimental observations of neutron bursts under thunderstorm clouds near sea level. JETP Lett. 2012, 96(3):188-191.
346. Tsuchiya H., et al. Observation of thundercloud-related gamma rays and neutrons in Tibet. Phys. Rev. D 2012, 85:092006.
347. Babich L.P. Generation of neutrons in giant upward atmospheric discharges. J. Exp. Theor. Phys. Lett. 2006, 84:285-288.
348. Babich L.P., Roussel-Dupré R.A. Origin of neutron flux increases observed in correlation with lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:D13303. 10.1029/2006JD008340.
349. Babich L.P., Kudryavtsev A.Y., Kudryavtseva M.L., Kutsyk I.M. Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and neutron pulses from direct simulation of gigantic upward atmospheric discharge. JETP Lett. 2007, 85(10):483-487. 10.1134/S0021364007100037.
350. Babich L.P., Kudryavtsev A.Y., Kudryavtseva M.L., Kutsyk I.M. Atmospheric gamma-ray and neutron flashes. J. Exp. Theor. Phys. 2008, 106:65-76. 10.1007/s11447-008-1005-4.
351. Carlson B., Lehtinen N., Inan U. Neutron production in terrestrial gamma ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E19.
352. Drozdov A., Grigoriev A., Malyshkin Y. Assessment of thunderstorm neutron radiation environment at altitudes of aviation flights. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, in press. 10.1029/2012JA018302.
353. Inan U.S., Lehtinen N.G. Production of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes by an electromagnetic pulse from a lightning return stroke. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L19818.
354. Celestin S., Pasko V. Soft collisions in relativistic runaway electron avalanches. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 2010, 43:315206.
355. Dwyer J.R., Cummer S.A. Radio emissions from terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118:3769-3790.
356. Dwyer J.R. The initiation of lightning by runaway air breakdown. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L20808. 10.1029/2005GL023975.
357. Babich L.P., Bochkov E.I. Deterministic methods for numerical simulation of high-energy runaway electron avalanches. J. Exp. Theor. Phys. 2011, 112(3):494-503.
358. Gurevich A.V., Zybin K.P., Roussel-Dupré R.A. Lightning initiation by simultaneous effect of runaway breakdown and cosmic ray showers. Phys. Lett. A 1999, 254:79-87.
359. Gurevich A.V., Roussel-Dupré R.A., Zybin K.P., Milikh G.M. Comment on "Low-energy electron production by relativistic runway electron avalanches in air" by J.R. Dwyer and L.P. Babich. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A04302. 3 PP. 10.1029/2011JA017431.
360. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A., Rassoul H.K. The remote measurement of thunderstorm electrostatic fields. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114:D09208. 10.1029/2008JD011386.
361. Mott N.F., Massey H.S.W. The Theory of Atomic Collisions 1965, 460. Oxford University Press, London. third ed.
362. Ginzburg V.L., Syrovatskii S.I. The Origin of Cosmic Rays 1964, Pergamon, London and New York.
363. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge 1987, Academic Press, London, 376 pages, revised paperback edition, Dover, New York, 2001, pp. 322-323.
364. Dwyer J.R., Rassoul H.K. Comment on "Runaway breakdown and electrical discharges in thunderstorms" by Gennady Milikh and Robert Roussel-Dupré. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:A08312. 3 PP. 10.1029/2011JA016670.
365. Hillas A.M. Cosmic Rays 1972, 50. Pergamon, Oxford, U. K.
366. Dwyer J.R., Liu N.Y., Rassoul H.K. Properties of the thundercloud discharges responsible for terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2013, 40:4067-4073.
367. Østgaard, et al. Simultaneous observations of optical lightning and terrestrial gamma ray flash from space. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2013, 40:2423-2426.
368. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge 1987, Academic Press, London, 376 pages, revised paperback edition, Dover, New York, 2001, pp. 325-330.
369. Griffiths D.J. Introduction to Electrodynamics 1999, 427-429. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. third ed.
370. Gurevich A.V., Duncan L.M., Medvedev Yu.V., Zybin K.P. Radio emission due to simultaneous effect of runaway breakdown and extensive atmospheric showers. Phys. Lett. A 2002, 301:320-326.
371. Gurevich A.V., Zybin K.P. High energy cosmic ray particles and the most powerful discharges in thunderstorm atmosphere. Phys. Lett. A 2004, 329(4-5):341-347.
372. Gurevich A.V., Medvedev Yu.V., Zybin K.P. New type discharge generated in thunderclouds by joint action of runaway breakdown and extensive atmospheric shower. Phys. Lett. A 2004, 329:348-361.
373. Gurevich A.V., et al. Experimental evidence of giant electron-gamma bursts generated by extensive atmospheric showers in thunderclouds. Phys. Lett. A 2004, 325:389-402.
374. Tierney H.E., Roussel-Dupré R.A., Symbalisty E.M.D., Beasley W.H. Radio frequency emissions from a runaway electron avalanche model compared with intense, transient signals from thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 2005, 110(D12). CiteID D12109.
375. Gurevich A.V., Zybin K.P., Medvedev Yu.V. Amplification and nonlinear modification of runaway breakdown. Phys. Lett. A 2006, 349:331-339.
376. Jelley J.V., Fruin J.H., Porter N.A., Weekes T.C., Smith F.G., Porter R.A. Radio pulses from extensive cosmic-ray air showers. Nature 1965, 205:327.
377. Tompkins D.R. Thundercloud radio emission form cosmic-ray shower ionization electrons. Phys. Rev. D 1974, 10:136-145.
378. Buitink S., et al. Amplified radio emission form cosmic ray air showers in thunderstorms. A&A 2007, 467:385-394.
379. M. Ender, et al., Radio emission of extensive air showers during thunderstorms, in: Proc. of the 31st ICRC, 2009.
380. Buitink S., Huege T., Falcke H., Heck D., Kuijpers J. Monte Carlo simulations of air showers in atmospheric electric fields. Astropart. Phys. 2010, 33(1):1-12.
381. Buitink S., Huege T., Falcke H., Kuijpers J. Simulation of radio emission from air showers in atmospheric electric fields. Astropart. Phys. 2010, 33(5-6):296-306.
382. Kahn F.D., Lerche I. Radiation from cosmic ray air showers. Roy. Soc. Lond. Proc. Ser. A 1966, 289:206.
383. Huege T., Falcke H. Radio emission from cosmic ray air showers: simulation results and parametrization. Astropart. Phys. 2005, 24:116-136.
384. Gurevich A.V., et al. Nonlinear phenomena in the ionospheric plasma. Effects of cosmic rays and runaway breakdown on thunderstorm discharges. Physics Uspekhi 2009, 52:735. 10.3367/UFNe.0179.200907h.0779.
385. Briggs M.S., et al. A First results on terrestrial gamma ray flashes from the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115(A7). CiteID A07323.
386. Babich L.P., Donskoy E.N., Kutsyk I.M. Analysis of atmospheric gamma-ray flashes detected in near space with allowance for the transport of photons in the atmosphere. J. Exp. Theor. Phys. 2008, 107:49-60.
387. Babich L.P., Donskoi E.N., Kudryavtsev A.Yu., Kutsyk I.M. Analysis of terrestrial ? ray flashes correlated with small variations in the dipole moment of a thunderstorm cloud. Doklady Earth Sciences 2008, 421A(6):1004-1008.
388. Carlson B., Lehtinen N., Inan U. Terrestrial gamma ray flash production by lightning current pulses. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114:A00E08.
389. Carlson B., Lehtinen N., Inan U. Terrestrial gamma ray flash production by active lightning leader channels. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115(A10):A10324.
390. Celestin S., Pasko V. Compton scattering effects on the duration of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2012, 39:L02802. 10.1029/2011GL050342.
391. Xu W., Celestin S., Pasko V. Source altitudes of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes produced by lightning leaders. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2012, 39:L08801. 10.1029/2012GL051351.
392. Mallios S.A., Celestin S., Pasko V.P. Production of very high potential differences by intra-cloud lightning discharges in connection with terrestrial gamma ray flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118:912-918. 10.1002/jgra.50109.
393. Liu N., Dwyer J.R. Modeling terrestrial gamma-ray flashes produced by relativistic feedback discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118:2359-2376.
394. Gurevich A.V., Duncan L.M., Karashtin A.N., Zybin K.P. Radio emission of lightning initiation. Phys. Lett. A 2003, 312, 228.
395. Babich L.P., Bochkov E.I., Dwyer J.R., Kutsyk Igor M. Numerical Simulation of Lightning Initiation by Cosmic Rays. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, in press. 10.1029/2012JA017799.
396. Gurevich, et al. An intracloud discharge caused by extensive atmospheric shower. Phys. Lett. A 2009, 373:3550-3553.
397. Berezinskii V.S., et al. Astrophysics of Cosmic Rays 1990, 33-38. North Holland, Elsevier Science Publications, The Netherlands.
398. Brown W.C., et al. A beginning investigation into the possible role of cosmic rays in the initiation of lightning discharges at the Pierre Auger Observatory. Eur. Phys. J. Plus 2012, 127-195.
399. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Pulse trains that are characteristic of preliminary breakdown in cloud-to-ground lightning but are not followed by return stroke pulses. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113:D01102.
400. Light T.E.L., Jacobson A.R. Characteristics of impulsive VHF lightning signals observed by the FORTE satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107. ACL 8-1-ACL 8-8.
401. D.A. Smith, R.S. Massey, K.C. Wiens, K.B. Eack, X.M. Shao, D.N. Holden, P.E. Argo, Observations and inferred physical characteristics of compact intracloud discharges, in: Proc. 11th Int. Conf. on Atmospheric Electricity, Guntersville, Alabama, 1999, pp. 6-9.
402. Smith D.A., Shao X.M., Holden D.N., Rhodes C.T., Brook M., Krehbiel P.R., Stanley M., Rison W., Thomas R.J. A distinct class of isolated intracloud lightning discharges and their associated radio emissions. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104:4189-4212.
403. Willett J.C., Bailey J.C., Krider E.P. A class of unusual lightning electric field waveforms with very strong high-frequency radiation. J. Geophys. Res. 1989, 94:16255-16267.
404. Jacobson A.R. How do the strongest radio pulses from thunderstorms relate to lightning flashes?. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108(D24):4778.
405. Eack K.B. Electrical characteristics of narrow bipolar events. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004, 31:L20102.
406. Nag A., Rakov V.A., Tsalikis D., Cramer J.A. On phenomenology of compact intracloud lightning discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:D14115. 10.1029/2009JD012957.
407. Wu T., Dong W., Zhang Y., Wang T. Comparison of positive and negative compact intracloud discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:D03111. 10.1029/2010JD015233.
408. Jacobson A.R., Light T.E.L. Revisiting "Narrow Bipolar Event" intracloud lightning using the FORTE satellite. Ann. Geophys. 2012, 30:389-404.
409. Hamlin T., Light T.E., Shao X.M., Eack K.B., Harlin J.D. Estimating lightning channel characteristics of positive narrow bipolar events using intrachannel current reflection signatures. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:D14108. 10.1029/2007JD008471.
410. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Compact intracloud lightning discharges: 1. Mechanism of electromagnetic radiation and modeling. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:D20102. 10.1029/2010JD014235.
411. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Compact intracloud lightning discharges: 2. Estimation of electrical parameters. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:D20103. 10.1029/2010JD014237.
412. Liu H., Dong W., Wu T., Zheng D., Zhang Y. Observation of compact intracloud discharges using VHF broadband interferometers. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:D01203. 10.1029/2011JD016185.
413. Shao X.-M., Jacobson A.R. Polarization observations of lightning-produced VHF emissions by the FORTE satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107:4430. 10.1029/2001JD001018.
414. Watson S., Marshall T. Current propagation model for a narrow bipolar pulse. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34(L04):816.
415. Zhu B., Zhou H., Ma M., Lv F., Tao S. Estimation of channel characteristics of narrow bipolar events based on the transmission-line model. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:D19105. 10.1029/2009JD012021.
416. Holden D.N., Munson C.P., Devenport J.C. Satellite observations of transionospheric pulse pairs. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1995, 22(8):889-892.
417. Jacobson A.R., Knox S.O., Franz R., Enemark D.C. FORTE observations of lightning radio-frequency signatures: capabilities and basic results. Radio Sci. 1999, 34(2):337-354.
418. Tierney H.E., Jacobson A.R., Roussel-Dupre R., Beasley W.H. Transionospheric pulse pairs originating in maritime, continental, and coastal thunderstorms: pulse energy ratios. Radio Science 2002, 37(3):1039. 10.1029/2001RS002506.
419. Hamlin T., Wiens K., Jacobson A., Light T.E.L, Eack K.B. Space- and ground-based studies of lightning signatures. Earth and Atmospheric Sciences 2009, Paper 56 (Chapter 13).
420. Smith D.A., Eack K.B., Harlin J., Heavner M.J., Jacobson A.R., Massey R.S., Shao X.-M., Wiens K.C. The Los Alamos sferic array: a research tool for lightning investigations. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107:4183. 10.1029/2001JD000502.
421. Jacobson A.R., Holzworth R.H., Shao X.-M. Observations of multi-microsecond VHF pulsetrains in energetic intracloud lightning discharges. Ann. Geophys. 2011, 29:1587-1604.
422. N.A. Ahmad, Broadband and HF radiation from cloud flashes and narrow bipolar pulses, Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Science and Technology 822, 64 pp, Uppsala, 2011.
423. Light T.E.L., Jacobson A.R. Characteristics of impulsive VHF lightning observed by the FORTE satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107:4756. 10.1029/2001/JD001585.
424. Goodman S.J., Christian H.J., Rust W.D. A comparison of the optical pulse characteristics of intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning as observed above clouds. J. Appl. Meteor. 1988, 27:1369-1381.
425. Guo C., Krider E.P. The optical power radiated by lightning return strokes. J. Geophys. Res. 1983, 88(C13):8621-8622.
426. Smith D.A., Heavner M.J., Jacobson A.R., Shao X.M., Massey R.S., Sheldon R.J., Wiens K.C. A method for determining intracloud lightning and ionospheric heights from VLF/LF electric field records. Radio Sci. 2004, 39:RS1010. 10.1029/2002RS002790.
427. Jacobson A.R., Heavner M.J. Comparison of narrow bipolar events with ordinary lightning as proxies for severe convection. Monthly Weather Review 2005, 133:1144-1154.
428. Jacobson A.R., Boeck W., Jeffery C. Comparison of narrow bipolar events with ordinary lightning as proxies for the microwave-radiometry ice-scattering signature. Monthly Weather Review 2007, 135:1354-1363.
429. Suszcynsky D.M., Heavner M.J. Narrow bipolar events as indicators of thunderstorm convection. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 30:1879.
430. Pasko V.P., Yair Y., Kuo C.-L. Lightning related transient luminous events at high altitude in the earth's atmosphere: phenomenology, mechanisms and effects. Space Sci. Rev. 2011, 10.1007/s11214-011-9813-9.
431. Siingh D., Singh R.P., Singh A.K., Kumar S., Kulkarni M.N., Singh A.K. Discharges in the stratosphere and mesosphere. Space Sci. Rev. 2012, 169:73-121.
432. Surkov V.V., Hayakawa M. Underlying mechanisms of transient luminous events: a review. Ann. Geophys. 2012, 30:1185-1212.
433. Inan U.S., Cummer S.A., Marshall R.A. A survey of elf and VLF research on lightning-ionosphere interactions and causative discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E36.
434. Sentman D.D., Wescott E.M. Red Sprites and Blue Jets: Transient Electrical Effects of Thunderstorms on the Middle and Upper Atmospheres, from Sun, Auroras, Magnetic Storms, Solar Flares, Cosmic Rays 1998, 45. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. S.T. Suess, B.T. Tsurutani. (Eds.).
435. Barrington-Leigh C.P., Inan U.S., Stanley M. Identification of sprites and elves with intensified video and broadband array photometry. J. Geophys. Res. 2001, 106:1741-1750.
436. Frey H.U., Mende S.B., Cummer S.A., Li J., Adachi T., Fukunishi H., Takahashi Y., Chen A.B., Hsu R.-R., Su H.-T., Chang Y.-S. Halos generated by negative cloud-to-ground lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34:L18801. 10.1029/2007GL030908.
437. Sentman D.D., Wescott E.M., Osborne D.L., Hampton D.L., Heavner M.J. Preliminary results from the Sprites94 Aircraft Campaign: 1. Red sprites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1995, 22(10):1205-1208.
438. Sentman D.D., Wescott E.M. Red sprites and blue jets: thunderstorm-excited optical emissions in the stratosphere, mesosphere, and ionosphere. Phys. Plasmas 1995, 2(6):2514-2522. 10.1063/1.871213.
439. Lyons W.A. Sprite observations above the US high plains in relation to their parent thunderstorm systems. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101. 29,641-29,652.
440. Stanley M., Krehbiel P., Brook M., Moore C., Rison W., Abrahams B. High speed video of initial sprite development. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1999, 26:3201-3204.
441. Gerken E.A., Inan U.S., Barrington-Leigh C.P. Telescopic imaging of sprites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2000, 27:2637-2640.
442. Cummer S.A., Jaugey N.C., Li J.B., Lyons W.A., Nelson T.E., Gerken E.A. Submillisecond imaging of sprite development and structure. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33:L04104. 10.1029/2005GL024969.
443. Stenbaek-Nielsen H.C., McHarg M.G. High time-resolution sprite imaging: observations and implications. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2008, 41:234009.
444. Liu N.Y., Pasko V.P., Adams K., Stenbaek-Nielsen H.C., McHarg M.G. Comparison of acceleration, expansion, and brightness of sprite streamers obtained from modeling and high-speed video observations. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114:A00E03. 10.1029/2008JA013720.
445. McHarg M.G., Stenbaek-Nielsen H.C., Kammae T. Observations of streamer formation in sprites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34:L06804. 10.1029/2006GL027854.
446. Liu N., Pasko V.P. Molecular nitrogen LBH band system far-UV emissions of sprite streamers. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L05104. 10.1029/2004GL022001.
447. McHarg M.G., Stenbaek-Nielsen H.C., Kanmae T., Haaland R.K. Streamer tip splitting in sprites. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115:A00E53. 10.1029/2009JA014850.
448. Kosar B.C., Liu N.Y., Rassoul H.K. Luminosity and propagation characteristics of sprite streamers initiated from small ionospheric disturbances at subbreakdown conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A08328. 10.1029/2012JA017632.
449. Taranenko Y., Roussel-Dupré R. High altitude dischargers and gamma-ray flashes: a manifestation of runaway air breakdown. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23:571-574.
450. Roussel-Dupré R., Symbalisty E., Taranenko Y., Yukhimuk V. Simulations of high-altitude discharges initiated by runaway breakdown. J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys. 1998, 60:917-940.
451. Yukhimuk V., Roussel-Dupré R.A., Symbalisty E.M.D. On the temporal evolution of red sprites: runaway theory versus data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1999, 26:679-682.
452. Papadopoulos K., Milikh G., Valdivia J. Can gamma radiation be produced in the electrical environment above thunderstorms - Comment. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23:2283-2284.
453. Papadopoulos K., Valdivia J. High altitude discharges and gamma-ray flashes: a manifestation of runaway breakdown - Comment. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1997, 24:2643-2644.
454. Gurevich A.V., Valdivia J.A., Milikh G.M., Papadopoulos K. Runaway electrons in the atmosphere in the presence of a magnetic field. Radio Science 1996, 31:1541-1554.
455. Williams E., Yair Y. The microphysical and electrical properties of sprite producing thunderstorms. NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry 2006, vol. 225:57-83. Springer, Heidelberg. M. Füllekrug, E.A. Mareev, M.J. Rycroft (Eds.).
456. Chen A.B., et al. Global distributions and occurrence rates of transient luminous events. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113:A08306. 10.1029/2008JA013101.
457. Liu N.Y., Pasko V.P., Frey H., Mende S., Su H.-T., Chen A., Hsu R.R., Lee L.-C. Assessment of sprite initiating electric fields and quenching altitude of a1g state of N2 using sprite streamer modeling and ISUAL spectrophotometric measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114:A00E02. 10.1029/2008JA013735.
458. Qin J., Celestin S., Pasko V.P. On the inception of streamers from sprite halo events produced by lightning discharges with positive and negative polarity. J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116:A06305. 10.1029/2010JA016366.
459. Pasko V.P., Inan U.S., Bell T.F., Taranenko Y.N. Sprites produced by quasi-electrostatic heating and ionization in the lower ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102:4529.
460. Wilson C.T.R. The electric field of a thunderstorm and some of its effects. Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond. 1925, 37:32D-37D.
461. Kuo C.L., Chen A.B., Chou J.K., Tsai L.Y., Hsu R.R., Su H.T., Frey H.U., Mende S.B., Takahashi Y., Lee L.C. Radiative emission and energy deposition in transient luminous events. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2008, 41:234014.
462. Christian H., Blakeslee R., Boccippio D., Boeck W., Buechler D., Driscoll K., Goodman S., Hall J., Koshak W., Mach D., Stewart M. Global frequency and distribution of lightning as observed from space by the Optical Transient Detector. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108(D1):4005. 10.1029/2002JD002347.
463. Lyons W.A., Stanley M.A., Meyer J.D., Nelson T.E., Rutledge S.A., Lang T., Cummer S.A. The meteorological and electrical structure of TLE-producing convective storms. Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications 2009, 387-415. Springer, Berlin. H. Betz, U. Schumann, P. Laroche (Eds.).
464. Zarka P., Farrell W., Fischer G., Konovalenko A. Ground-based and space-based radio observations of planetary lightning. Space Sci. Rev. 2008, 137:257-269. 10.1007/s11214-008-9366-8.
465. Pasko V.P. Red sprite discharges in the atmosphere at high altitude: the molecular physics and the similarity with laboratory discharges. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2007, 16:S13-S29.
466. Hu W.Y., Cummer S.A., Lyons W.A. Lightning charge moment changes for the initiation of sprites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2002, 29. 120-1-120-4.
467. Hu W., Cummer S.A., Lyons W.A. Testing sprite initiation theory using lightning measurements and modeled electromagnetic fields. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:D13115. 10.1029/2006JD007939.
468. Liu N.Y. Multiple ion species fluid modeling of sprite halos and the role of electron detachment of O- in their dynamics. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:A03308. 10.1029/2011JA017062.
469. Suszcynsky D.M., Strabley R., Roussel-Dupre R., Symbalisty E.M.D., Armstrong R.A., Lyons W.A., Taylor M. Video and photometric observations of a sprite in coincidence with a meteor-triggered jet event. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104(D24). 31,361-31,367. 10.1029/1999JD900962.
470. Zabotin N.A., Wright J.W. Role of meteoric dust in sprite formation. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2001, 28:2593-2596.
471. Luque A., Gordillo-Vázquez F.J. Mesospheric electric breakdown and delayed sprite ignition caused by electron detachment. Nature Geosci. 2012, 5:22-25.
472. Boeck W.L., Vaughan O.H., Blakeslee R.J., Vonnegut B., Brook M. Lightning induced brightening in the airglow layer. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1992, 19:99-102.
473. Inan U.S., Bell T.F., Rodriguez J.V. Heating and ionization of the lower ionosphere by lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1991, 18(4):705-708.
474. Fukunishi H., Takahashi Y., Kubota M., Sakanoi K., Inan U.S., Lyons W.A. Elves: lightning-induced transient luminous events in the lower ionosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23:2157-2160.
475. Inan U.S., Barrington-Leigh C., Hansen S., Glukhov V.S., Bell T.F., Rairden R. Rapid lateral expansion of optical luminosity in lightning-induced ionospheric flashes referred to as 'elves'. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1997, 24:583-586.
476. Mende S.B, Frey H.U., Hsu R.R., Su H.T., Chen A.B., Lee L.C., Sentman D.D., Takahashi Y., Fukunishi H. D region ionization by lightning-induced EMP. J. Geophys. Res. 2005, 110:A11312. 10.1029/2005JA011064.
477. Frey H.U., Mende S.B., Cummer S.A., Chen A.B., Hsu R.R., Su H.T., Chang Y.S., Adachi T., Fukunishi H., Takahashi Y. Betatype stepped leader of elve-producing lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L13824. 10.1029/2005GL023080.
478. Kuo C.L., et al. Modeling elves observed by FORMOSAT-2 satellite. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:A11312. 10.1029/2007JA012407.
479. Wescott E.M., Sentman D., Osborne D., Hampton D., Heavner M. Preliminary results from the Sprites94 aircraft campaign: 2. Blue jets. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1995, 22:1209-1212.
480. Wescott E.M., Sentman D.D., Heavner M.J., Hampton D.L., Osborne D., Vaughan O.H. Blue starters: brief upward discharges from an intense Arkansas thunderstorm. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23:2153-2156. 10.1029/96GL01969.
481. Boeck W.L., Vaughan O.H., Blakeslee R.J., Vonnegut B., Brook M., McKune J. Observations of lightning in the stratosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 1995, 100:1465-1475.
482. Lyons W.A., Nelson T.E., Armstrong R.A., Pasko V.P., Stanley M.A. Upward electrical discharges from thunderstorm tops. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 2003, 84(4):445-454. 10.1175/BAMS-84-4-445.
483. Pasko V.P., Stanley M.A., Matthews J.D., Inan U.S., Wood T.G. Electrical discharge from a thundercloud top to the lower ionosphere. Nature 2002, 416:152-154. 10.1038/416152a.
484. Pasko V.P. Electric jets. Nature 2003, 423:927-929.
485. Su H.T., Hsu R.R., Chen A.B., Wang Y.C., Hsiao W.S., Lai W.C., Lee L.C., Sato M., Fukunishi H. Gigantic jets between a thundercloud and the ionosphere. Nature 2003, 423:974-976. 10.1038/nature01759.
486. van der Velde O.A., Lyons W.A., Nelson T.E., Cummer S.A., Li J., Bunnell J. Analysis of the first gigantic jet recorded over continental North America. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:D20104. 10.1029/2007JD008575.
487. Cummer S.A., Li J., Han F., Lu G., Jaugey N., Lyons W.A., Nelson T.E. Quantification of the troposphere-to-ionosphere charge transfer in a gigantic jet. Nat. Geosci. 2009, 2:1-4. 10.1038/NGEO607.
488. P. Snelgrove, A census of the ocean, Ted Talk. http://www.ted.com/talks/paul_snelgrove_a_census_of_the_ocean.html?quote%3D1362.
489. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, Lightning (2007) (see). http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9048228.
490. Berger K. Blitzstrom-Parameter von Aufwärtsblitzen. Bull. Schweiz. Elektrotech. Ver. 1978, 69:353-360.
491. Uman M. The Art and Science of Lightning Protection, 2008 2010, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
492. Hill J.D., Pilkey J., Uman M.A., Jordan D.M., Rison W., Krehbiel P.R., Biggerstaff M.I., Hyland P., Blakeslee R. Correlated lightning mapping array and radar observations of the initial stages of three sequential triggered florida lightning flashes. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118. in press. 10.1002/jgrd.50660.