Recent advances in theory of transient luminous events

Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics

Volumn 115, Issue 6, 2010, Pages

  Pasko, Victor P ^a  

^a The Center for Nanotechnology Education and Utilization   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77954403076     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21699402     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2009JA014860     Document Type: Article

References (240)

1. Achat, S., Y. Teisseyre, and E. Marode (1992), The scaling of the streamerto-arc transition in a positive point-to-plane gap with pressure, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 25(4), 661-668.
2. Adachi, T., H. Fukunishi, Y. Takahashi, and M. Sato (2004), Roles of the EMP and QE field in the generation of columniform sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L04107, doi:10.1029/2003GL019081.
3. Adachi, T., H. Fukunishi, Y. Takahashi, Y. Hiraki, R. R. Hsu, H. T. Su, A. B. Chen, S. B. Mende, H. U. Frey, and L. C. Lee (2006), Electric field transition between the diffuse and streamer regions of sprites estimated from ISUAL/array photometer measurements, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L17803, doi:10.1029/2006GL026495.
4. Adachi, T., et al. (2008), Electric fields and electron energies in sprites and temporal evolutions of lightning charge momentmeasurements, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 41(23), 234010.
5. Aints, M., A. Haljaste, T. Plank, and L. Roots (2008), Absorption of photoionizing radiation of corona discharges in air, Plasma Process. Polym., 5, 672-680.
6. Armstrong, R. A., D. M. Suszcynsky, W. A. Lyons, and T. E. Nelson (2000), Multi-color photometric measurements of ionization and energies in sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 653-657.
7. Arnone, E., A. Kero, B. M. Dinelli, C. F. Enell, N. F. Arnold, E. Papandera, C. J. Rodger, M. Carlotti, M. Ridolfi, and E. Turunen (2008), Seeking sprite-induced signatures in remotely sensed middle atmosphere NO2, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L05807, doi:10.1029/2007GL031791.
8. Arnone, E., A. Kero, C. F. Enell, M. Carlotti, C. J. Rodger, E. Papandera, N. F. Arnold, B. M. Dinelli, M. Ridolfi, and E. Turunen (2009), Seeking sprite-induced signatures in remotely sensed middle atmosphere NO2: latitude and time variations, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 18, 034014.
9. Asano, T., M. Hayakawa, M. G. Cho, and T. Suzuki (2008), Computer simulations on the initiation and morphological difference of japan winter and summer sprites, J. Geophys. Res., 113, A02308, doi:10.1029/ 2007JA012528.
10. Asano, T., T. Suzuki, M. Hayakawa, and M. G. Cho (2009a), Threedimensional em computer simulation on sprite initiation above a horizontal lightning discharge, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 71, 983-990.
11. Asano, T., T. Suzuki, Y. Hiraki, E. Mareev, M. G. Cho, and M. Hayakawa (2009b), Computer simulations on sprite initiation for realistic lightning models with higher-frequency surges, J. Geophys. Res., 114, A02310, doi:10.1029/2008JA013651.
12. Babaeva, N. Y., and G. V. Naidis (1997), Dynamics of positive and negative streamers in air in weak uniform electric fields, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 25, 375-379.
13. Babich, L. P., A. Y. Kudryavtsev, M. L. Kudryavtseva, and I. M. Kutsyk (2008), Atmospheric gamma-ray and neutron flashes, J. Exp. Theory Phys., 106(1), 65-76.
14. Bailey, S. M., C. A. Barth, and S. C. Solomon (2002), A model of nitric oxide in the lower thermosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 107(A8), 1205, doi:10.1029/2001JA000258.
15. Barrington-Leigh, C. P., U. S. Inan, and M. Stanley (2001), Identification of sprites and elves with intensified video and broadband array photometry, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 1741-1750, doi:10.1029/2000JA000073.
16. Bazelyan, E. M., and Y. P. Raizer (1998), Spark Discharge, Chem. Rubber Co. Press, New York.
17. Bazelyan, E. M., and Y. P. Raizer (2000), Lightning Physics and Lightning Protection, Inst. of Phys. Publ., Bristol, UK.
18. Bering, E. A., A. A. Few, and J. R. Benbrook (1998), The global electric circuit, Phys. Today, 51(10), 24-30.
19. Blakeslee, R. J., H. J. Christian, and B. Vonnegut (1989), Electrical measurements over thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 13,135-13,140.
20. Boeck, W. L., O. H. Vaughan, R. J. Blakeslee, B. Vonnegut, and M. Brook (1992), Lightning induced brightening in the airglow layer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 99-102.
21. Boeck, W. L., O. H. Vaughan, R. J. Blakeslee, B. Vonnegut, M. Brook, and J. McKune (1995), Observations of lightning in the stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 1465-1475.
22. Boeck, W. L., O. H. Vaughan, R. J. Blakeslee, B. Vonnegut, and M. Brook (1998), The role of the space shuttle videotapes in the discovery of sprites, jets and elves, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 60, 669-677.
23. Bourdon, A., V. P. Pasko, N. Y. Liu, S. Celestin, P. Segur, and E. Marode (2007), Efficient models for photoionization produced by non-thermal gas discharges in air based on radiative transfer and the Helmholtz equations, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 16, 656-678.
24. Briels, T. M. P., E. M. van Veldhuizen, and U. Ebert (2005), Branching of positive discharge streamers in air at varying pressures, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 33(2), 264-265.
25. Briels, T. M. P., J. Kos, E. M. van Veldhuizen, and U. Ebert (2006), Circuit dependence of the diameter of pulsed positive streamers in air, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 39, 5201-5210.
26. Bucsela, E., J. Morrill, M. Heavner, C. Siefring, S. Berg, D. Hampton, D. Moudry, E. Wescott, and D. Sentman (2003), N2(B3Pg) and N2 +(A2Pu) vibrational distributions observed in sprites, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 65, 583-590.
27. Campbell, L., D. C. Cartwright, and M. J. Brunger (2007), Role of excited N2 in the production of nitric oxide, J. Geophys. Res., 112, A08303, doi:10.1029/2007JA012337.
28. Chanrion, O., and T. Neubert (2008), A PIC-MCC code for simulation of streamer propagation in air, J. Comput. Phys., 227(15), 7222-7245.
29. Chen, A. B., et al. (2008), Global distributions and occurrence rates of transient luminous events, J. Geophys. Res., 113, A08306, doi:10.1029/ 2008JA013101.
30. Cheng, Z., S. A. Cummer, H. T. Su, and R. R. Hsu (2007), Broadband very low frequency measurement of D region ionospheric perturbations caused by lightning electromagnetic pulses, J. Geophys. Res., 112, A06318, doi:10.1029/2006JA011840.
31. Chern, J. L., R. R. Hsu, H. T. Su, S. B. Mende, H. Fukunishi, Y. Takahashi, and L. C. Lee (2003), Global survey of upper atmospheric transient luminous events on the ROCSAT-2 satellite, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 65, 647-659, doi:10.1016/S1364-6826(02)00317-6.
32. Cho, M., and M. J. Rycroft (1998), Computer simulation of the electric field structure and optical emission from cloud-top to the ionosphere, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 60, 871-888.
33. Cummer, S. A. (2003), Current moment in sprite-producing lightning, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 65, 499-508.
34. Cummer, S. A., and W. A. Lyons (2004), Lightning charge moment changes in U. S. High Plains thunderstorms, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(5), L05114, doi:10.1029/2003GL019043.
35. Cummer, S. A., and W. A. Lyons (2005), Implication of lightning charge moment changes for sprite initiation, J. Geophys. Res., 110, A04304, doi:10.1029/2004JA010812.
36. Cummer, S. A., U. S. Inan, T. F. Bell, and C. P. Barrington-Leigh (1998), ELF radiation produced by electrical currents in sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1281-1284.
37. Cummer, S. A., H. U. Frey, S. B. Mende, R. R. Hsu, H. T. Su, A. B. Chen, H. Fukunishi, and Y. Takahashi (2006a), Simultaneous radio and satellite optical measurements of high-altitude sprite current and lightning continuing current, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A10315, doi:10.1029/ 2006JA011809.
38. Cummer, S. A., N. C. Jaugey, J. B. Li, W. A. Lyons, T. E. Nelson, and E. A. Gerken (2006b), Submillisecond imaging of sprite development and structure, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L04104, doi:10.1029/ 2005GL024969.
39. Cummer, S. A., J. Li, F. Han, G. Lu, N. Jaugey, W. A. Lyons, and T. E. Nelson (2009), Quantification of the troposphere-to-ionosphere charge transfer in a gigantic jet, Nat. Geosci., 2, 1-4, doi:10.1038/NGEO607.
40. DeBenedictis, S., G. Dilecce, and M. Simek (1997), The NO(A2S+) excitation mechanism in a N2-O2 pulsed RF discharge, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 30, 2887-2894.
41. Dhali, S. K., and P. F. Williams (1987), Two-dimensional studies of streamers in gases, J. Appl. Phys., 62, 4696-4707.
42. Djakov, A. F., Y. K. Bobrov, L. N. Bobrova, and Y. V. Yuorguelenas (1998), Streamer discharge plasma parameters determination in air on a base of a measurement of radiation of the molecular bands of nitrogen, in Physics and Technology of Electric Power Transmission, vol.1, edited by A. F. Djakov, pp. 219-233, Moscow Power Eng. Inst. Publ., Moscow.
43. Dwyer, J. R., et al. (2005), X-ray bursts associated with leader steps in cloud-to-ground lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L01803, doi:10.1029/ 2004GL021782.
44. Ebert, U., and D. Sentman (2008), Editorial Review: Streamers, sprites, leaders, lightning: From micro- to macroscales, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 41, 230301.
45. Ebert, U., C. Montijn, T. M. P. Briels, W. Hundsdorfer, B. Meulenbroek, A. Rocco, and E. M. van Veldhuizen (2006), The multiscale nature of streamers, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 15, S118-S129.
46. Enell, C. F., et al. (2008), Parameterisation of the chemical effect of sprites in the middle atmosphere, Ann. Geophys., 26, 13-27.
47. Fishman, G. J., et al. (1994), Discovery of intense gamma-ray flashes of atmospheric origin, Science, 264, 1313-1316.
48. Franz, R. C., R. J. Nemzek, and J. R. Winckler (1990), Television image of a large upward electric discharge above a thunderstorm system, Science, 249, 48-51.
49. Frey, H. U., S. B. Mende, S. A. Cummer, A. B. Chen, R. R. Hsu, H. T. Su, Y. S. Chang, T. Adachi, H. Fukunishi, and Y. Takahashi (2005), Betatype stepped leader of elve-producing lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L13824, doi:10.1029/2005GL023080.
50. Frey, H. U., et al. (2007), Halos generated by negative cloud-to-ground lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L18801, doi:10.1029/2007GL030908.
51. Fukunishi, H., Y. Takahashi, M. Kubota, K. Sakanoi, U. S. Inan, and W. A. Lyons (1996), Elves: Lightning-induced transient luminous events in the lower ionosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 2157-2160.
52. Fukunishi, H., Y. Hiraki, T. Adachi, L. Tong, and K. Nanbu (2005), Occurrence conditions for gigantic jets connecting the thundercloud and the ionosphere, Eos Trans. AGU, 86(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract AE11A-02.
53. Fullekrug, M., and M. J. Rycroft (2006), The contribution of sprites to the global atmospheric electric circuit, Earth Planets Space, 58(9), 1193-1196.
54. Fullekrug, M., M. Ignaccolo, and V. Kuvshinov (2006a), Stratospheric Joule heating by lightning continuing current inferred from radio remote sensing, Radio Sci., 41, RS2S19, doi:10.1029/2006RS003472.
55. Fullekrug, M., E. A. Mareev, and M. J. Rycroft (2006b), Sprites, Elves and Intense Lightning Discharges, NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, vol.225, Springer, Heidleberg, Germany.
56. Fullekrug, M., R. A. Roussel-Dupre, E. M. D. Symbalisty, O. Chanrion, A. Odzimek, O. V. der Velde, and T. Neubert (2010), Relativistic runaway breakdown in low-frequency radio, J. Geophys. Res., 115, A00E09, doi:10.1029/2009JA014468.
57. Gallimberti, I., J. K. Hepworth, and R. C. Klewe (1974), Spectroscopic investigation of impulse corona discharges, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 7, 880-899.
58. Gerken, E. A., and U. S. Inan (2002), A survey of streamer and diffuse glow dynamics observed in sprites using telescopic imagery, J. Geophys. Res., 107(A11), 1344, doi:10.1029/2002JA009248.
59. Gerken, E. A., and U. S. Inan (2004), Comparison of photometric measurements and charge moment estimations in two sprite-producing storms, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L03107, doi:10.1029/2003GL018751.
60. Gerken, E. A., and U. S. Inan (2005), Streamers and diffuse glow observed in upper atmospheric electrical discharges, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 33(2), 282-283, doi:10.1109/TPS.2005.845010.
61. Gerken, E. A., U. S. Inan, and C. P. Barrington-Leigh (2000), Telescopic imaging of sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2637-2640.
62. Gordillo-Vazquez, F. J. (2008), Air plasma kinetics under the influence of sprites, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 41(23), 234016.
63. Gordillo-Vazquez, F. J., and Z. Donko (2009), Electron energy distribution functions and transport coefficients relevant for air plasmas in the troposphere: Impact of humidity and gas temperature, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 18, 034021.
64. Grange, F., N. S. J. Loiseau, and N. Spyrou (1995), Numerical and experimental-determination of ionizing front velocity in a dc point-toplane corona discharge, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 28, 1619-1629.
65. Greifinger, C., and P. Greifinger (1976), Transient ULF electric and magnetic fields following a lightning discharge, J. Geophys. Res., 81, 2237-2247.
66. Gurevich, A. V., and K. P. Zybin (2001), Runaway breakdown and electric discharges in thunderstorms, Phys. Uspekhi, 44(11), 1119-1140.
67. Gurevich, A. V., and K. P. Zybin (2005), Runaway breakdown and the mysteries of lightning, Phys. Today, 58(5), 37-43, doi:10.1063/1.1995746.
68. Gurevich, A. V., G. M. Milikh, and R. A. Roussel-Dupré (1992), Runaway electron mechanism of air breakdown and preconditioning during a thunderstorm, Phys. Lett. A., 165(5-6), 463-468, doi:10.1016/0375-9601(92) 90348-P.
69. Hale, L., C. Croskey, and J. Mitchell (1981), Measurements of middleatmosphere electric fields and associated electrical conductivities, Geophys. Res. Lett., 8, 927-930.
70. Hale, L. C. (1994), Coupling of ELF/ULF energy from lightning and MeV particles to the middle atmosphere, ionosphere, and global circuit, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 21,089-21,096.
71. Hale, L. C., and M. E. Baginski (1987), Current to the ionosphere following a lightning stroke, Nature, 329, 814-816.
72. Heavner, M. J. (2000), Optical spectroscopic observations of sprites, blue jets, and elves: Inferred microphysical processes and their macrophysical implications, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska.
73. Hiraki, Y. (2009), Effects of ion-neutral chemical reactions on dynamics of lightning-induced electric field, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 18(3), 034020.
74. Hiraki, Y., and H. Fukunishi (2006), Theoretical criterion of charge moment change by lightning for initiation of sprites, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A11305, doi:10.1029/2006JA011729.
75. Hiraki, Y., L. Tong, H. Fukunishi, K. Nanbu, Y. Kasai, and A. Ichimura (2004), Generation of metastable oxygen atom O(1D) in sprite halos, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L14105, doi:10.1029/2004GL020048.
76. Hiraki, Y., Y. Kasai, and H. Fukunishi (2008), Chemistry of sprite discharges through ion-neutral reactions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8(14), 3919-3928.
77. Holzworth, R. H., M. P. McCarthy, J. N. Thomas, J. Chin, T. M. Chinowsky, M. J. Taylor, and O. Pinto Jr. (2005), Strong electric fields from positive lightning strokes in the stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L04809, doi:10.1029/2004GL021554.
78. Hsu, R. R., et al. (2005), Gigantic jet observation by the ISUAL payload of FORMOSAT-2 satellite, Eos Trans. AGU, 86(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract AE23A-0992.
79. Hu, W. Y., S. A. Cummer, and W. A. Lyons (2002), Lightning charge moment changes for the initiation of sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(8), 1279, doi:10.1029/2001GL014593.
80. Hu, W. Y., S. A. Cummer, and W. A. Lyons (2007), Testing sprite initiation theory using lightning measurements and modeled electromagnetic fields, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D13115, doi:10.1029/2006JD007939.
81. Ignaccolo, M., T. Farges, A. Mika, T. H. Allin, O. Chanrion, E. Blanc, T. Neubert, A. C. Fraser-Smith, and M. Fullekrug (2006), The planetary rate of sprite events, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L11808, doi:10.1029/ 2005GL025502.
82. Inan, U. S. (2002), Lightning effects at high altitudes: Sprites, elves, and terrestrial gamma ray flashes, C. R. Phys., 3(10), 1411-1421.
83. Inan, U. S., T. F. Bell, and J. V. Rodriguez (1991), Heating and ionization of the lower ionosphere by lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 18(4), 705-708.
84. Inan, U. S., C. Barrington-Leigh, S. Hansen, V. S. Glukhov, T. F. Bell, and R. Rairden (1997), Rapid lateral expansion of optical luminosity in lightning-induced ionospheric flashes referred to as 'elves', Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 583-586.
85. Johnson, M. P., and U. S. Inan (2000), Sferic clusters associated with early/ fast VLF events, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 1391-1394, doi:10.1029/ 1999GL010757.
86. Kanmae, T., H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen, and M. G. McHarg (2007), Altitude resolved sprite spectra with 3 ms temporal resolution, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L07810, doi:10.1029/2006GL028608.
87. Kasemir, H. W. (1960), A contribution to the electrostatic theory of a lightning discharge, J. Geophys. Res., 65, 1873-1878.
88. Kennealy, J. P., F. P. D. Greco, G. E. Caledonia, and B. D. Green (1978), Nitric oxide chemiexcitation occurring in the reaction between metastable nitrogen atoms and oxygen molecules, J. Chem. Phys., 69, 1574-1584.
89. Kim, Y., S. H. Hong, N. S. Cha, Y. H. Song, and S. J. Kim (2003), Measurements of electron energy by emission spectroscopy in pulsed corona and dielectric barrier discharges, J. Adv. Oxidation Technol., 6, 17-22.
90. Kozlov, K. V., H. E. Wagner, R. Brandenburg, and P. Michel (2001), Spatiotemporally resolved spectroscopic diagnostics of the barrier discharge in air at atmospheric pressure, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 34, 3164-3176.
91. Kozlov, K. V., R. Brandenburg, H. E. Wagner, A. M. Morozov, and P.Michel (2005), Investigation of the filamentary and diffuse mode of barrier discharges in N2/O2 mixtures at atmospheric pressure by cross-correlation spectroscopy, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 38, 518-529.
92. Krehbiel, P. R., J. A. Riousset, V. P. Pasko, R. J. Thomas, W. Rison, M. A. Stanley, and H. E. Edens (2008), Upward electrical discharges from thunderstorms, Nat. Geosci., 1(4), 233-237, doi:10.1038/ngeo162.
93. Krider, E. P. (1976), Gated, wideband magnetic direction finder for lightning return strokes, J. Appl. Meteorol., 15(3), 301-306.
94. Kulikovsky, A. A. (1997), The mechanism of positive streamer acceleration and expansion in air in a strong external field, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 30, 1515-1522.
95. Kulikovsky, A. A. (2000), The role of photoionization in positive streamer dynamics, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 33, 1514-1524.
96. Kuo, C. L., R. R. Hsu, H. T. Su, A. B. Chen, L. C. Lee, S. B. Mende, H. U. Frey, H. Fukunishi, and Y. Takahashi (2005), Electric fields and electron energies inferred from the ISUAL recorded sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L19103, doi:10.1029/2005GL023389.
97. Kuo, C. L., et al. (2007), Modeling elves observed by FORMOSAT-2 satellite, J. Geophys. Res., 112, A11312, doi:10.1029/2007JA012407.
98. Kuo, C. L., A. B. Chen, J. K. Chou, L. Y. Tsai, R. R. Hsu, H. T. Su, H. U. Frey, S. B. Mende, Y. Takahashi, and L. C. Lee (2008), Radiative emission and energy deposition in transient luminous events, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 41, 234014.
99. Kuo, C. L., et al. (2009), Discharge processes, electric field, and electron energy in ISUAL-recorded gigantic jets, J. Geophys. Res., 114, A04314, doi:10.1029/2008JA013791.
100. Kutsyk, I. M., and L. Babich (1999), Spatial structure of optical emissions in the model of gigantic upward atmospheric discharges with participation of runaway electrons, Phys. Lett. A, 253, 75-82.
101. Leblanc, F., K. L. Aplin, Y. Yair, R. G. Harrison, J. P. Lebreton, and M. Blanc (2008), Planetary Atmospheric Electricity, 532 pp., Springer, New York.
102. Lehtinen, N. G., and U. S. Inan (2007), Possible persistent ionization caused by giant blue jets, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L08804, doi:10.1029/ 2006GL029051.
103. Lehtinen, N. G., T. F. Bell, and U. S. Inan (1999), Monte Carlo simulation of runaway MeV electron breakdown with application to red sprites and terrestrial gamma ray flashes, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 24,699-24,712, doi:10.1029/1999JA900335.
104. Lehtinen, N. G., T. F. Bell, and U. S. Inan (2001), Effects of thunderstormdriven runaway electrons in the conjugate hemisphere: Purple sprites, ionization enhancements, and gamma rays, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 28,841-28,856, doi:10.1029/2000JA000160.
105. Li, J., S. A. Cummer, W. A. Lyons, and T. E. Nelson (2008), Coordinated analysis of delayed sprites with high-speed images and remote electromagnetic fields, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D20206, doi:10.1029/ 2008JD010008.
106. Liu, N. Y., and V. P. Pasko (2004), Effects of photoionization on propagation and branching of positive and negative streamers in sprites, J. Geophys. Res., 109, A04301, doi:10.1029/2003JA010064.
107. Liu, N. Y., and V. P. Pasko (2005), Molecular nitrogen LBH band system far-UV emissions of sprite streamers, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05104, doi:10.1029/2004GL022001.
108. Liu, N. Y., and V. P. Pasko (2006), Effects of photoionization on similarity properties of streamers at various pressures in air, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 39, 327-334, doi:10.1088/0022-3727/39/2/013.
109. Liu, N. Y., and V. P. Pasko (2007), Modeling studies of NO-g emissions of sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L16103, doi:10.1029/2007GL030352.
110. Liu, N. Y., and V. P. Pasko (2010), NO-g emissions from streamer discharges: direct electron impact excitation versus resonant energy transfer, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 43, 082001.
111. Liu, N. Y., et al. (2006), Comparison of results from sprite streamer modeling with spectrophotometric measurements by ISUAL instrument on FORMOSAT-2 satellite, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01101, doi:10.1029/ 2005GL024243.
112. Liu, N. Y., S. Celestin, A. Bourdon, V. P. Pasko, P. Segur, and E. Marode (2007), Application of photoionization models based on radiative transfer and the Helmholtz equations to studies of streamers in weak electric fields, Appl. Phys. Lett., 91, 211501.
113. Liu, N. Y., S. Celestin, A. Bourdon, V. P. Pasko, P. Segur, and E. Marode (2008), Photoionization and optical emission effects of positive streamers in air at ground pressure, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 36, 942-943, doi:10.1109/TPS.2008.927088.
114. Liu, N. Y., V. P. Pasko, K. Adams, H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen, and M. G. McHarg (2009a), Comparison of acceleration, expansion, and brightness of sprite streamers obtained from modeling and high-speed video observations, J. Geophys. Res., 114, A00E03, doi:10.1029/2008JA013720.
115. Liu, N. Y., V. P. Pasko, H. U. Frey, S. B. Mende, H.-T. Su, A. B. Chen, R.-R. Hsu, and L.-C. Lee (2009b), Assessment of sprite initiating electric fields and quenching altitude of a1 pg state of N2 using sprite streamer modeling and ISUAL spectrophotometric measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 114, A00E02, doi:10.1029/2008JA013735.
116. Luque, A., U. Ebert, C. Montijn, and W. Hundsdorfer (2007), Photoionization in negative streamers: Fast computations and two propagation modes, Appl. Phys. Lett., 90, 081501.
117. Lyons, W. A. (1996), Sprite observations above the U.S. high plains in relation to their parent thunderstorm systems, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 29,641-29,652.
118. Lyons, W. A., M. Stanley, T. E. Nelson, and M. Taylor (2000), Sprites, elves, halos, trolls, and blue starters above the STEPS domain, Eos Trans. AGU, 81(48), Fall Meet. Suppl., F131.
119. Lyons, W. A., T. E. Nelson, R. A. Armstrong, V. P. Pasko, and M. A. Stanley (2003), Upward electrical discharges from thunderstorm tops, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 84(4), 445-454, doi:10.1175/BAMS-84-4-445.
120. Marshall, R. A., and U. S. Inan (2006), High-speed measurements of smallscale features in sprites: Sizes and lifetimes, Radio Sci., 41, RS6S43, doi:10.1029/2005RS003353.
121. Marshall, R. A., and U. S. Inan (2007), Possible direct cloud-to-ionosphere current evidenced by sprite-initiated secondary TLEs, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L05806, doi:10.1029/2006GL028511.
122. Mathews, J. D., M. A. Stanley, V. P. Pasko, T. G. Wood, U. S. Inan, M. J. Heavner, and S. A. Cummer (2002), Electromagnetic signatures of the Puerto Rico blue jet and its parent thunderstorm, Eos Trans. AGU, 83(47), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract A62D-02.
123. Matveev, A. A., and V. P. Silakov (1998), Method of calculation of specific radiant emmittance of the bands of 1? and 2+ systems of nitrogen in the non-equilibrium nitrogen-oxygen plasma, in Physics and Technology of Electric Power Transmission, vol.1, edited by A. F. Djakov, pp. 201- 218, Moscow Power Eng. Inst. Publ., Moscow.
124. Mazur, V., and L. H. Ruhnke (1998), Model of electric charges in thunderstorms and associated lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 23,299-23,308.
125. McHarg, M. G., T. Kanmae, and H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen (2005), Streamer formation in sprites, Eos Trans. AGU, 86(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract AE11A-04.
126. McHarg, M. G., H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen, and T. Kanmae (2007), Streamer development in sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L06804, doi:10.1029/ 2006GL027854.
127. Mende, S. B., H. U. Frey, R. R. Hsu, H. T. Su, A. B. Chen, L. C. Lee, D. D. Sentman, Y. Takahashi, and H. Fukunishi (2005), D region ionization by lightning-induced EMP, J. Geophys. Res., 110, A11312, doi:10.1029/ 2005JA011064.
128. Mende, S. B., et al. (2006), Spacecraft based studies of transient luminous events, in Sprites, Elves and Intense Lightning Discharges, NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, vol.225, edited by M. Füllekrug, E. A. Mareev, and M. J. Rycroft, pp. 123-149, Springer, Heidleberg, Germany.
129. Milikh, G. M., and M. N. Shneider (2008), Model of UV flashes due to gigantic blue jets, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 41(23), 234013.
130. Mishin, E. V. (1997), Ozone layer perturbation by a single blue jet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1919-1922.
131. Mishin, E. V., and G. M. Milikh (2008), Blue jets: Upward lightning, Space Sci. Rev., 137(1-4), 473-488.
132. Miyasato, R., H. Fukunishi, Y. Takahashi, and M. J. Taylor (2003), Energy estimation of electrons producing sprite halos using array photometer data, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 65, 573-581, doi:10.1016/S1364-6826 (02)00322-X.
133. Montanyà, J., O. van der Velde, D. Romero, V. March, G. Solà, N. Pineda, M. Arrayas, J. L. Trueba, V. Reglero, and S. Soula (2010), High-speed intensified video recordings of sprites and elves over the western Mediterranean Sea during winter thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res., 115, A00E18, doi:10.1029/2009JA014508.
134. Moore, C. B., K. B. Eack, G. D. Aulich, and W. Rison (2001), Energetic radiation associated with lightning stepped-leaders, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2141-2144, doi:10.1029/2001GL013140.
135. Morrill, J., et al. (2002), Electron energy and electric field estimates in sprites derived from ionized and neutral N2 emissions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(10), 1462, doi:10.1029/2001GL014018.
136. Morrill, J. S., and W. M. Benesch (1996), Auroral N2 emissions and the effect of collisional processes on N2 triplet state vibrational populations, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 261-274.
137. Morrow, R., and J. J. Lowke (1997), Streamer propagation in air, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 30, 614-627.
138. Moss, G. D., V. P. Pasko, N. Y. Liu, and G. Veronis (2006), Monte Carlo model for analysis of thermal runaway electrons in streamer tips in transient luminous events and streamer zones of lightning leaders, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A02307, doi:10.1029/2005JA011350.
139. Moudry, D. R. (2003), The dynamics and morphology of sprites, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska.
140. Naidis, G. V. (2006), On photoionization produced by discharges in air, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 15, 253-255.
141. Neubert, T. (2003), On sprites and their exotic kin, Science, 300, 747-749.
142. Neubert, T., et al. (2008), Recent results from studies of electric discharges in the mesosphere, Surv. Geophys., 29(2), 71-137.
143. Niemeyer, L., L. Pietrono, and H. J. Wiesmann (1984), Fractal dimension of dielectric breakdown, Phys. Rev. Lett., 52(12), 1033-1036, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.52.1033.
144. Niemeyer, L., L. Ullrich, and N. Wiegart (1989), The mechanism of leader breakdown in electronegative gases, IEEE Trans. Electr. Insul., 24(2), 309-324, doi:10.1109/14.90289.
145. Ohkubo, A., H. Fukunishi, Y. Takahashi, and T. Adachi (2005), VLF/ELF sferic evidence for in-cloud discharge activity producing sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L04812, doi:10.1029/2004GL021943.
146. Ono, R., and T. Oda (2005), Nitrogen oxide g-band emission from primary and secondary streamers in pulsed positive corona discharge, J. Appl. Phys., 97, 013302.
147. Orville, R. E. (2008), Development of the national lightning detection network, Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 89(2), 180.
148. Pancheshnyi, S. V. (2005), Role of electronegative gas admixtures in streamer start, propagation and branching phenomena, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 14(4), 645-653, doi:10.1088/0963-0252/14/4/002.
149. Pancheshnyi, S. V., S. M. Starikovskaia, and A. Y. Starikovskii (2001), Role of photoionization processes in propagation of cathode-directed streamer, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 34, 105-115.
150. Pancheshnyi, S. V., M. Nudnova, and A. Y. Starikovskii (2005), Development of a cathode-directed streamer discharge in air at different pressures: Experiment and comparison with direct numerical simulation, Phys. Rev. E, 71, 016407, doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.71.01640.
151. Pasko, V. P. (2003), Electric jets, Nature, 423, 927-929.
152. Pasko, V. P. (2004), Correction to "Three-dimensional modeling of blue jets and blue starters", J. Geophys. Res., 109, A09311, doi:10.1029/ 2004JA010693.
153. Pasko, V. P. (2006), Theoretical modeling of sprites and jets, in Sprites, Elves and Intense Lightning Discharges, NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, vol.225, edited by M. Füllekrug, E. A. Mareev, and M. J. Rycroft, pp. 253-311, Springer, Heidleberg, Germany.
154. Pasko, V. P. (2007), Red sprite discharges in the atmosphere at high altitude: The molecular physics and the similarity with laboratory discharges, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 16, S13-S29, doi:10.1088/0963-0252/16/ 1/S02.
155. Pasko, V. P. (2008), Blue jets and gigantic jets: Transient luminous events between thunderstorm tops and the lower ionosphere, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion, 50, 124050.
156. Pasko, V. P., and A. Bourdon (2007), Air heating associated with transient luminous events, in Proceedings of 28th International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases (ICPIG), 5P07-12, pp. 1908-1911, Inst. of Plasma Phys., Prague, Czech Republic.
157. Pasko, V. P., and J. J. George (2002), Three-dimensional modeling of blue jets and blue starters, J. Geophys. Res., 107(A12), 1458, doi:10.1029/ 2002JA009473.
158. Pasko, V. P., and H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen (2002), Diffuse and streamer regions of sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(10), 1440, doi:10.1029/ 2001GL014241.
159. Pasko, V. P., U. S. Inan, and T. F. Bell (1996), Blue jets produced by quasielectrostatic pre-discharge thundercloud fields, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 301-304.
160. Pasko, V. P., U. S. Inan, T. F. Bell, and Y. N. Taranenko (1997), Sprites produced by quasi-electrostatic heating and ionization in the lower ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 4529-4561, doi:10.1029/96JA03528.
161. Pasko, V. P., U. S. Inan, and T. F. Bell (1998a), Spatial structure of sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 2123-2126.
162. Pasko, V. P., U. S. Inan, T. F. Bell, and S. C. Reising (1998b), Mechanism of ELF radiation from sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 3493-3496.
163. Pasko, V. P., U. Inan, and T. Bell (1999a), Large scale modeling of sprites and blue jets, Eos Trans. AGU, 80(46), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract A42E-11.
164. Pasko, V. P., U. S. Inan, and T. F. Bell (1999b), Mesospheric electric field transients due to tropospheric lightning discharges, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1247-1250.
165. Pasko, V. P., U. S. Inan, and T. F. Bell (2000), Fractal structure of sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 497-500, doi:10.1029/1999GL010749.
166. Pasko, V. P., U. S. Inan, and T. F. Bell (2001), Mesosphere-troposphere coupling due to sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3821-3824, doi:10.1029/ 2001GL013222.
167. Pasko, V. P., M. A. Stanley, J. D. Matthews, U. S. Inan, and T. G. Wood (2002), Electrical discharge from a thundercloud top to the lower ionosphere, Nature, 416, 152-154, doi:10.1038/416152a.
168. Petrov, N. I., and G. N. Petrova (1993), Physical mechanisms for intracloud lightning discharges, Tech. Phys., 38(4), 287-290.
169. Petrov, N. I., and G. N. Petrova (1999), Physical mechanisms for the development of lightning discharges between a thundercloud and the ionosphere, Tech. Phys., 44, 472-475.
170. Petrov, N. I., V. R. Avanskii, and N. V. Bombenkova (1994), Measurement of the electric field in the streamer zone and in the sheath of the channel of a leader discharge, Tech. Phys., 39, 546-551.
171. Piper, L. G. (1988), State-to-state N2(A3Su +) energy-pooling reactions. i. the formation of N2(C3Pu) and the Herman infrared system, J. Chem. Phys., 88(1), 231-239.
172. Piper, L. G. (1989), The excitation of N2(B3Pg, v = 1-12) in the reaction between N2(A3Su +) and N2(X, v ? 5), J. Chem. Phys., 91(2), 864-873.
173. Piper, L. G., L. M. Cowles, and W. T. Rawlins (1986), State-to-state excitation of NO(A2S+, v? = 0, 1, 2) by N2(A3Su +, v? = 0, 1, 2), J. Chem. Phys., 85(6), 3369-3378.
174. Raizer, Y. P. (1991), Gas Discharge Physics, Springer, New York.
175. Raizer, Y. P., G. M. Milikh, and M. N. Shneider (2006), On the mechanism of blue jet formation and propagation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33(23), L23801, doi:10.1029/2006GL027697.
176. Raizer, Y. P., G. M. Milikh, and M. N. Shneider (2007), Leader-streamers nature of blue jets, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 69(8), 925-938, doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2007.02.007.
177. Rakov, V. A., and M. A. Uman (2003), Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
178. Rakov, V. A., D. E. Crawford, K. J. Rambo, G. H. Schnetzer, M. T. A. Uman, and R. Thottappillil (2001), M-component mode of charge transfer to ground in lightning discharge, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 22,817-22,831.
179. Riousset, J. A., V. P. Pasko, P. R. Krehbiel, R. J. Thomas, and W. Rison (2007), Three-dimensional fractal modeling of intracloud lightning discharge in a New Mexico thunderstorm and comparison with lightning mapping observations, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D15203, doi:10.1029/ 2006JD007621.
180. Riousset, J. A., V. P. Pasko, P. R. Krehbiel, W. Rison, and M. A. Stanley (2010), Modeling of thundercloud screening charges: Implications for blue and gigantic jets, J. Geophys. Res., 115, A00E10, doi:10.1029/ 2009JA014286.
181. Rocco, A., U. Ebert, and W. Hundsdorfer (2002), Branching of negative streamers in free flight, Phys. Rev. E, 66, 035102(R), doi:10.1103/ PhysRevE.66.035102.
182. Rodger, C. J. (1999), Red sprites, upward lightning and VLF perturbations, Rev. Geophys., 37, 317-336.
183. Rodger, C. J., A. Seppala, and M. A. Clilverd (2008), Significance of transient luminous events to neutral chemistry: Experimental measurements, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L07803, doi:10.1029/2008GL033221.
184. Roth, R. J. (1995), Industrial Plasma Engineering, vol.1 Principles, Inst. of Phys. Publ., Bristol, U.K.
185. Roussel-Dupre, R., J. J. Colman, E. Symbalisty, D. Sentman, and V. P. Pasko (2008), Physical processes related to discharges in planetary atmospheres, Space Sci. Rev., 137(1-4), 51-82.
186. Roussel-Dupré, R. A., and A. V. Gurevich (1996), On runaway breakdown and upward propagating discharges, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 2297-2312, doi:10.1029/95JA03278.
187. Rowland, H. L. (1998), Theories and simulations of elves, sprites and blue jets, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 60, 831-844.
188. Rycroft, M. J. (2006), Electrical processes coupling the atmosphere and ionosphere: An overview, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 68, 445-456, doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2005.04.009.
189. Rycroft, M. J., S. Israelsson, and C. Price (2000), The global atmospheric electric circuit, solar activity and climate change, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 62(17-18), 1563-1576.
190. Rycroft, M. J., R. G. Harrison, K. A. Nicoll, and E. A. Mareev (2008), An overview of Earth's global electric circuit and atmospheric electricity, Space Sci. Rev., 137(1-4), 83-105.
191. Segur, P., A. Bourdon, E. Marode, D. Bessieres, and J. H. Paillol (2006), The use of an improved Eddington approximation to facilitate the calculation of photoionization in streamer discharges, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 15, 648-660.
192. Sentman, D. D., and H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen (2009), Chemical effects of weak electric fields in the trailing columns of sprite streamers, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., 18(3), 034012.
193. Sentman, D. D., and E. M. Wescott (1995), Red sprites and blue jets: Thunderstorm-excited optical emissions in the stratosphere, mesosphere, and ionosphere, Phys. Plasmas, 2(6), 2514-2522, doi:10.1063/1.871213.
194. Sentman, D. D., and E. M. Wescott (1996), Red sprites and blue jets: Highaltitude optical emissions linked to lightning, Eos Trans. AGU, 77(1), 1-5.
195. Sentman, D. D., E. M. Wescott, D. L. Osborne, D. L. Hampton, and M. J. Heavner (1995), Preliminary results from the Sprites94 campaign: Red sprites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 1205-1208.
196. Sentman, D. D., H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen, M. G. McHarg, and J. S. Morrill (2008a), Plasma chemistry of sprite streamers, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D11112, doi:10.1029/2007JD008941.
197. Sentman, D. D., H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen, M. G. McHarg, and J. S. Morrill (2008b), Correction to "Plasma chemistry of sprite streamers," J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14399, doi:10.1029/2008JD010634.
198. Shaw, G. E. (1998), Above cloud electrical discharges: The effect of aerosol transport, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 4317-4320.
199. Siefring, C. L., J. S. Morrill, D. D. Sentman, D. R. Moudry, E. M. Wescott, M. J. Heavner, D. L. Osborne, and E. J. Bucsela (1999), Do sprites sometimes connect to the cloud tops?, Eos Trans. AGU, 80(46), Fall Meet. Suppl., F225.
200. Siingh, D., A. K. Singh, R. P. Patel, R. Singh, R. P. Singh, B. Veenadhari, and M. Mukherjee (2008), Thunderstorms, lightning, sprites and magnetospheric whistler-mode radio waves, Surv. Geophys., 29(6), 499-551.
201. Simek, M. (2002), The modelling of streamer-induced emission in atmospheric pressure, pulsed positive corona discharge: N2 second positive and NO-g systems, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 35, 1967-1980.
202. Simek, M., V. Babicky, M. Clupek, S. DeBenedictis, G. Dilecce, and P. Sunka (1998), Excitation of N2(C3Pu) and NO(A2S+) states in a pulsed positive corona discharge in N2, N2-O2 and N2-NO mixtures, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 35, 2591-2602.
203. Simek, M., S. DeBenedictis, G. Dilecce, V. Babicky, M. Clupek, and P. Sunka (2002), Time and space resolved analysis of N2(C3Pu) vibrational distributions in pulsed positive corona discharge, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 35, 1981-1990.
204. Simek, M., M. Clupek, V. Babicky, and P. Sunka (2006), Production of reactive species by atmospheric pressure streamers in N2-O2 mixtures, Pure Appl. Chem., 78(6), 1213-1225, doi:10.1351/pac200678061213.
205. Smith, D. M., L. I. Lopez, R. P. Lin, and C. P. Barrington-Leigh (2005), Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes observed up to 20 MeV, Science, 307, 1085-1088, doi:10.1126/science.1107466.
206. Stanley, M., P. Krehbiel, M. Brook, C. Moore, W. Rison, and B. Abrahams (1999), High speed video of initial sprite development, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3201-3204.
207. Stenbaek-Nielsen, H. C., and M. G. McHarg (2008), High time-resolution sprite imaging: observations and implications, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 41, 234009.
208. Stenbaek-Nielsen, H. C., D. R. Moudry, E. M. Wescott, D. D. Sentman, and F. T. S. Sabbas (2000), Sprites and possible mesospheric effects, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3829-3832.
209. Stenbaek-Nielsen, H. C., M. G. McHarg, T. Kanmae, and D. D. Sentman (2007), Observed emission rates in sprite streamer heads, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L11105, doi:10.1029/2007GL029881.
210. Su, H. T., R. R. Hsu, A. B. Chen, Y. C. Wang, W. S. Hsiao, W. C. Lai, L. C. Lee, M. Sato, and H. Fukunishi (2003), Gigantic jets between a thundercloud and the ionosphere, Nature, 423, 974-976, doi:10.1038/ nature01759.
211. Sukhorukov, A. I., and P. Stubbe (1998), Problems of blue jet theories, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 23(13), 7-9, doi:10.1016/S1364-6826(98) 00021-2.
212. Sukhorukov, A. I., E. V. Mishin, P. Stubbe, and M. J. Rycroft (1996), On blue jet dynamics, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 1625-1628.
213. Takahashi, Y., M. Fujito, Y. Watanabe, H. Fukunishi, and W. A. Lyons (2000), Temporal and spatial variations in the intensity ratio of N2 1st and 2nd positive bands in SPRITES, Adv. Space Res., 26(8), 1205-1208.
214. Taranenko, Y., and R. Roussel-Dupré (1996), High altitude discharges and gamma-ray flashes: A manifestation of runaway air breakdown, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 571-574, doi:10.1029/95GL03502.
215. Tardiveau, P., E. Marode, A. Agneray, and M. Cheaib (2001), Pressure effects on the development of an electric discharge in non-uniform fields, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 34, 1690-1696.
216. Taylor, M. J., et al. (2008), Rare measurements of a sprite with halo event driven by a negative lightning discharge over Argentina, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L14812, doi:10.1029/2008GL033984.
217. Teich, T. H. (1993), Emission spectroscopy of corona discharges, in Non-Thermal Plasma Techniques for Pollution Control, NATO ASI Ser., vol.G34, part A, edited by B. M. Penetrante and S. E. Schultheis, pp. 231-248, Springer, Berlin.
218. Thomas, J. N., R. H. Holzworth, M. P. McCarthy, and O. Pinto Jr. (2005), Predicting lightning-driven quasi-electrostatic fields at sprite altitudes using in situ measurements and a numerical model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L10809, doi:10.1029/2005GL022693.
219. Thomas, J. N., B. H. Barnum, E. Lay, R. H. Holzworth, M. Cho, and M. C. Kelley (2008), Lightning-driven electric fields measured in the lower ionosphere: Implications for transient luminous events, J. Geophys. Res., 113, A12306, doi:10.1029/2008JA013567.
220. Tinsley, B. A. (2008), The global atmospheric electric circuit and its effects on cloud microphysics, Rep. Prog. Phys., 71, 066801, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/71/6/066801.
221. Tochikubo, F., and T. H. Teich (2000), Optical emission from a pulsed corona discharge and its associated reactions, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 39, 1343-1350.
222. Tong, L. Z., K. Nanbu, and H. Fukunishi (2004), Numerical analysis of initiation of gigantic jets connecting thunderclouds to the ionosphere, Earth Planets Space, 56(11), 1059-1065.
223. Tong, L. Z., K. Nanbu, and H. Fukunishi (2005), Simulation of gigantic jets propagating from the top of thunderclouds to the ionosphere, Earth Planets Space, 57(7), 613-617.
224. van der Velde, O. A., A. Mika, S. Soula, C. Haldoupis, T. Neubert, and U. S. Inan (2006), Observations of the relationship between sprite morphology and in-cloud lightning processes, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D15203, doi:10.1029/2005JD006879.
225. van der Velde, O. A., W. A. Lyons, T. E. Nelson, S. A. Cummer, J. Li, and J. Bunnell (2007), Analysis of the first gigantic jet recorded over continental North America, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D20104, doi:10.1029/ 2007JD008575.
226. van Veldhuizen, E. M. (Ed.) (2000), Electrical Discharges for Environmental Purposes: Fundamentals and Applications, 432 pp., Nova Sci., New York.
227. van Veldhuizen, E. M., and W. R. Rutgers (2002), Pulsed positive corona streamer propagation and branching, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 35, 2169-2179.
228. Vitello, P. A., B. M. Penetrante, and J. N. Bardsley (1994), Simulation of negative-streamer dynamics in nitrogen, Phys. Rev. E, 49, 5574-5598.
229. Wescott, E. M., D. Sentman, D. Osborne, D. Hampton, and M. Heavner (1995), Preliminary results from the Sprites94 aircraft campaign: 2. Blue jets, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 1209-1212.
230. Wescott, E. M., D. D. Sentman, M. J. Heavner, D. L. Hampton, D. Osborne, and O. H. Vaughan Jr. (1996), Blue starters: Brief upward discharges from an intense Arkansas thunderstorm, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 2153-2156, doi:10.1029/96GL01969.
231. Wescott, E. M., D. D. Sentman, M. J. Heavner, D. L. Hampton, and O. H. Vaughan Jr. (1998), Blue jets: their relationship to lightning and very large hailfall, and their physical mechanisms for their production, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 60, 713-724.
232. Wescott, E. M., D. Sentman, H. C. Stenbaek-Nielsen, P. Huet, M. J. Heavner, and D. R. Moudry (2001), New evidence for the brightness and ionization of blue jets and blue starters, J. Geophys. Res., 106(A10), 21,549-21,554, doi:10.1029/2000JA000429.
233. Williams, E. R. (1989), The tripolar structure of thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 13,151-13,167.
234. Wilson, C. T. R. (1925), The electric field of a thundercloud and some of its effects, Proc. Phys. Soc. London, 37, 32D-37D.
235. Yashunin, S. A., E. A. Mareev, and V. A. Rakov (2007), Are lightning M components capable of initiating sprites and sprite halos?, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D10109, doi:10.1029/2006JD007631.
236. Yi, W. J., and P. F. Williams (2002), Experimental study of streamer in pure N2 and N2/O2 mixtures and a ?13 cm gap, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 35, 205-218.
237. Yukhimuk, V., R. Roussel-Dupré, and E. Symbalisty (1998), Optical characteristics of blue jets produced by runaway air breakdown, simulation results, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 3289-3292.
238. Zabotin, N. A., and J. W. Wright (2001), Role of meteoric dust in sprite formation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2593-2596, doi:10.1029/ 2000GL012699.
239. Zhao, G. B., S. V. B. Garikipati, X. D. Hu, M. D. Argyle, and M. Radosz (2005), Effect of oxygen on nonthermal plasma reactions of nitrogen oxides in nitrogen, AIChE J., 51(6), 1800-1812, doi:10.1002/aic.10452.
240. Zheleznyak, M. B., A. K. Mnatsakanyan, and S. V. Sizykh (1982), Photoionization of nitrogen and oxygen mixtures by radiation from a gas discharge, High Temp., 20, 357-362.