The developmental control of size in insects

Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Developmental Biology

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 113-134

  Nijhout, H Frederik ^a   Riddiford, Lynn M ^b   Mirth, Christen ^c   Shingleton, Alexander W ^d   Suzuki, Yuichiro ^e   Callier, Viviane ^f  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HOWARD HUGHES MEDICAL INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c INSTITUTO GULBENKIAN DE CIÊNCIA   (Portugal)

^d MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e WELLESLEY COLLEGE   (United States)

^f ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECDYSONE; HORMONE BINDING PROTEIN; INSULIN; JANUS KINASE INHIBITOR; JUVENILE HORMONE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; PEPTIDE HORMONE; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; PROTEIN KINASE B; PROTHORACICOTROPIC HORMONE; STAT PROTEIN; TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN KINASE; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR FOXO;

BODY GROWTH; BODY SIZE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC REGULATION; GROWTH REGULATION; HEREDITY; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; INSECT DEVELOPMENT; INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; PHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS REGULATION; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; ANIMAL; DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER; GENETICS; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; LARVA; MANDUCA; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

ANIMALS; BODY SIZE; DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER; ECDYSONE; INSULIN; LARVA; MANDUCA; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 84885341025     PISSN: 17597684     EISSN: 17597692     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/wdev.124     Document Type: Review

References (237)

1. Colombani J, Bianchini L, Layalle S, Pondeville E, Dauphin-Villemant C, Antoniewski C, Carre C, Noselli S, Leopold P. Antagonistic actions of ecdysone and insulins determine final size in Drosophila. Science 2005, 310:667-670.
2. Hafen E. Interplay between growth factor and nutrient signaling: lessons from Drosophila TOR. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2003, 279:153-167.
3. Oldham S, Stocker H, Laffargue M, Wittwer F, Wymann M, Hafen E. The Drosophila insulin/IGF receptor controls growth and size by modulating PtdInsP(3) levels. Development 2002, 129:4103-4109.
4. Nijhout HF, Grunert LW. Bombyxin is a growth factor for wing imaginal disks in Lepidoptera. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002, 99:15446-15450.
5. Nijhout HF, Smith WA, Schachar I, Subramanian S, Tobler A, Grunert LW. The control of growth and differentiation of the wing imaginal disks of Manduca sexta. Dev Biol 2007, 302:569-576.
6. Wu Q, Brown M. Signaling and function of insulin-like peptides in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 2006, 51:1-24.
7. Mouillet J-F, Henrich VC, Lezzi M, Vögtli M. Differential control of gene activity by isoforms A, B1 and B2 of the Drosophila ecdysone receptor. Eur J Biochem 2001, 268:1811-1819.
8. Riddiford LM, Cherbas P, Truman JW. Ecdysone receptors and their biological actions. Vitam Horm 2001, 60:1-73.
9. Wolfgang WJ, Riddiford LM. Cuticular morphogenesis during continuous growth of the final instar larva of a moth. Tissue Cell 1981, 13:757-772.
10. Švácha P. What are and what are not imaginal discs: reevaluation of some basic concepts (Insecta, Holometabola). Dev Biol 1992, 154:101-117.
11. Nijhout HF. Insect Hormones. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1994.
12. Riddiford LM. Hormone receptors and the regulation of insect metamorphosis. Receptor 1993, 3:203-209.
13. Riddiford LM, Hiruma K, Zhou X, Nelson CA. Insights into the molecular basis of the hormonal control of molting and metamorphosis from Manduca sexta and Drosophila melanogaster. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2003, 33:1327-1338.
14. Goodman WG, Cusson M. The juvenile hormones. In: Gilbert LI, ed. Insect Endocrinology. London: Academic Press; 2012, 310-365.
15. Riddiford LM. Hormones and Drosophila development. In: Bate M, Martinez-Arias A, eds. The Development of Drosophila melanogaster, vol. 2. Plainview, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Press; 1993, 899-939.
16. Riddiford LM. Cellular and molecular actions of juvenile hormone. I. General considerations and premetamorphic actions. Adv Insect Physiol 1994, 24:213-227.
17. Riddiford LM. How does juvenile hormone control insect metamorphosis and reproduction? Gen Comp Endocrinol 2012, 179:477-484.
18. Truman JW, Riddiford LM. The morphostatic actions of juvenile hormone. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2007, 37:761-770.
19. Dominick OS, Truman JW. The physiology of wandering behaviour in Manduca sexta. II. The endocrine control of wandering behaviour. J Exp Biol 1985, 117:45-68.
20. McBrayer Z, Ono H, Shimell M, Parvy J-P, Beckstead RB, Warren JT, Thummel CS, Dauphin-Villemant C, Gilbert LI, O'Connor MB. Prothoracicotropic hormone regulates developmental timing and body size in Drosophila. Dev Cell 2007, 13:857-871.
21. Nijhout HF, Williams CM. Control of moulting and metamorphosis in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta (L.): cessation of juvenile hormone secretion as a trigger for pupation. J Exp Biol 1974, 61:493-501.
22. Truman JW, Riddiford LM. Physiology of insect rhythms. 3. The temporal organization of the endocrine events underlying pupation of the tobacco hornworm. J Exp Biol 1974, 60:371-382.
23. Riddiford LM. Ecdysone-induced change in cellular commitment of the epidermis of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, at the initiation of metamorphosis. Gen Comp Endocrinol 1978, 34:438-446.
24. Wigglesworth V. The determination of characters at metamorphosis in Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera). J Exp Biol 1940, 17:201-223.
25. Riddiford LM. Hormonal control of insect epidermal cell commitment in vitro. Nature 1976, 259:115-117.
26. Wigglesworth V. Local and general factors in the development of "pattern" in Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera). J Exp Biol 1940, 17:180-200.
27. Truman JW. Hormonal control of the form and function of the nervous system. In: Gilbert LI, Iatrou K, Gill SS, eds. Comprehensive Molecular Insect Science, vol. 2. Oxford: Elsevier; 2005, 135-163.
28. Nijhout HF, Davidowitz G, Roff DA. A quantitative analysis of the mechanism that controls body size in Manduca sexta. J Biol 2006, 5:16.
29. Mirth C, Truman J, Riddiford L. The role of the prothoracic gland in determining critical weight for metamorphosis in Drosophila melanogaster. Curr Biol 2005, 15:1796-1807.
30. de Jong G, Bochdanovits Z. Latitudinal clines in Drosophila melanogaster: body size, allozyme frequencies, inversion frequencies and the insulin-signalling pathway. J Genet 2003, 82:207-223.
31. James AC, Azevedo RB, Partridge L. Genetic and environmental responses to temperature of Drosophila melanogaster from a latitudinal cline. Genetics 1997, 146:881-890.
32. Partridge L, Barrie B, Fowler K, French V. Evolution and development of body size and cell size in Drosophila melanogaster in response to temperature. Evolution 1994, 48:1269-1276.
33. James AC, Partridge L. Thermal evolution of rate of larval development in Drosophila melanogaster in laboratory and field populations. J Evol Biol 1995, 8:315-330.
34. James AC, Azevedo RB, Partridge L. Cellular basis and developmental timing in a size cline of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 1995, 140:659-666.
35. Ray C. The application of Bergmann's and Allen's Rules to the poikilotherms. J Morphol 1960, 106:85-108.
36. Arnett AE, Gotelli NJ. Geographic variation in life-history traits of the ant lion, Myrmeleon immaculatus: evolutionary implications of Bergmann's rule. Evolution 1999, 53:1180-1188.
37. Blanckenhorn WU, Demont M. Bergmann and converse Bergmann latitudinal clines in arthropods: two ends of a continuum? Integr Comp Biol 2004, 44:413-424.
38. Partridge L, Barrie B, Fowler K, French V. Thermal evolution of pre-adult life-history traits in Drosophila melanogaster. J Evol Biol 1994, 7:645-663.
39. Fabian DK, Kapun M, Nolte V, Kofler R, Schmidt PS, Schlötterer C, Flatt T. Genome-wide patterns of latitudinal differentiation among populations of Drosophila melanogaster from North America. Mol Ecol 2012, 21:4748-4769.
40. Gockel J, Kennington WJ, Hoffmann A, Goldstein DB, Partridge L. Nonclinality of molecular variation implicates selection in maintaining a morphological cline of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 2001, 158:319-323.
41. Hoffmann AA, Weeks AR. Climatic selection on genes and traits after a 100-year-old invasion: a critical look at the temperate-tropical clines in Drosophila melanogaster from eastern Australia. Genetica 2007, 129:133-147.
42. Knibb WR, Oakeshott JG, Gibson JB. Chromosome inversion polymorphisms in Drosophila melanogaster. I. latitudinal clines and associations between inversions in Australasian populations. Genetics 1981, 98:833-847.
43. Mettler LE, Voelker RA, Mukai T. Inversion clines in populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 1977, 87:169-176.
44. Weeks AR, McKechnie SW, Hoffmann AA. Dissecting adaptive clinal variation: markers, inversions and size/stress associations in Drosophila melanogaster from a central field population. Ecol Lett 2002, 5:756-763.
45. Lee SF, Chen Y, Varan AK, Wee CW, Rako L, Axford JK, Good RT, Blacket MJ, Reuter C, Partridge L, et al. Molecular basis of adaptive shift in body size in Drosophila melanogaster: functional and sequence analyses of the Dca gene. Mol Biol Evol 2011, 28:2393-2402.
46. McKechnie SW, Blacket MJ, Song SV, Rako L, Carroll X, Johnson TK, Jensen LT, Lee SF, Wee CW, Hoffmann AA. A clinally varying promoter polymorphism associated with adaptive variation in wing size in Drosophila. Mol Ecol 2010, 19:775-784.
47. Beadle GW, Tatum EL, Clancy CW. Food level in relation to rate of development and eye pigmentation in Drosophila melanogaster. Biol Bull 1938, 75:447-462.
48. Robertson FW. The ecological genetics of growth in Drosophila 6. The genetic correlation between the duration of the larval period and body size in relation to larval diet. Genet Res 1963, 4:74-92.
49. French V, Feast M, Partridge L. Body size and cell size in Drosophila: the developmental response to temperature. J Insect Physiol 1998, 44:1081-1089.
50. Robinson SJW, Partridge L. Temperature and clinal variation in larval growth efficiency in Drosophila melanogaster. J Evol Biol 2001, 14:14-21.
51. Santos M, Fowler K, Partridge L. Gene-environment interaction for body size and larval density in Drosophila melanogaster: an investigation of effects on development time, thorax length and adult sex ratio. Heredity 1994, 72:515-521.
52. Nunney L, Cheung W. The effect of temperature on body size and fecundity in female Drosophila melanogaster: evidence for adaptive plasticity. Evolution 1997, 51:1529-1535.
53. DiAngelo JR, Bland ML, Bambina S, Cherry S, Birnbaum MM. The immune response attenuates growth and nutrient storage in Drosophila by reducing insulin signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009, 106:20853-20858.
54. Ikeya T, Broughton S, Alic N, Grandison RC, Partridge L. The endosymbiont Wolbachia increases insulin/IGF-like signalling in Drosophila. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 2009, 276:3799-3807.
55. Storelli G, Defaye A, Erkosar B, Hols P, Royet J, Leulier F. Lactobacillus plantarum promotes Drosophila systemic growth by modulating hormonal signals through TOR-dependent nutrient sensing. Cell Metab 2011, 14:403-414.
56. Simpson P, Berreur P, Berreur-Bonnenfant J. The initiation of pupariation in Drosophila: dependence on growth of the imaginal discs. J Embryol Exp Morphol 1980, 57:155-165.
57. Stieper BC, Kupershtok M, Driscoll MV, Shingleton AW. Imaginal discs regulate developmental timing in Drosophila melanogaster. Dev Biol 2008, 321:18-26.
58. Halme A, Cheng M, Hariharan IK. Retinoids regulate a developmental checkpoint for tissue regeneration in Drosophila. Curr Biol 2010, 20:458-463.
59. Peck LS, Maddrell SHP. Limitation of size by hypoxia in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. J Exp Zool A Comp Exp Biol 2005, 303A:968-975.
60. Lazebnyi OE, Zakharchuck EV, Imasheva AG. Larval density and variation of body size in laboratory lines of Drosophila melanogaster. Russ J Genet 1996, 32:883-884.
61. Shin SC, Kim S-H, You H, Kim B, Kim AC, Lee K-A, Yoon J-H, Ryu J-H, Lee W-J. Drosophila microbiome modulates host developmental and metabolic homeostasis via insulin signaling. Science 2011, 334:670-674.
62. Ghosh SM, Testa ND, Shingleton AW. Temperature-size rule is mediated by thermal plasticity of critical size in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 2013, 280:20130174.
63. Colombani J, Raisin S, Pantalacci S, Radimerski T, Montagne J, Leopold P. A nutrient sensor mechanism controls Drosophila growth. Cell 2003, 114:739-749.
64. Nobukuni T, Joaquin M, Roccio M, Dann SG, Kim SY, Gulati P, Byfield MP, Backer JM, Natt F, Bos JL, et al. Amino acids mediate mTOR/raptor signaling through activation of class 3 phosphatidylinositol 3OH-kinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005, 102:14238-14243.
65. Zhang H, Stallock JP, Ng JC, Reinhard C, Neufeld TP. Regulation of cellular growth by the Drosophila target of rapamycin dTOR. Genes Dev 2000, 14:2712-2724.
66. Tennessen JM, Thummel CS. Coordinating growth and maturation - insights from Drosophila. Curr Biol 2011, 21:750-757.
67. Britton JS, Lockwood WK, Li L, Cohen SM, Edgar BA. Drosophila's insulin/P13-kinase pathway coordinates cellular metabolism with nutritional conditions. Dev Cell 2002, 2:239-249.
68. Brogiolo W, Stocker H, Ikeya T, Rintelen F, Fernandez R, Hafen E. An evolutionarily conserved function of the Drosophila insulin receptor and insulin-like peptides in growth control. Curr Biol 2001, 11:213-221.
69. Chen C, Jack J, Garofalo RS. The Drosophila insulin receptor is required for normal growth. Endocrinology 1996, 137:846-856.
70. Ikeya T, Galic M, Belawat P, Nairz K, Hafen E. Nutrient-dependent expression of insulin-like peptides from neuroendocrine cells in the CNS contributes to growth regulation in Drosophila. Curr Biol 2002, 12:1293-1300.
71. Oldham S, Hafen E. Insulin/IGF and target of rapamycin signaling: a TOR de force in growth control. Trends Cell Biol 2003, 13:79-85.
72. Puig O, Tjian R. Nutrient availability and growth: regulation of insulin signaling by dFOXO/FOXO1. Cell Cycle 2006, 5:503-505.
73. Kim D-H, Sarbassov DD, Ali SM, King JE, Latek RR, Erdjument-Bromage H, Tempst P, Sabatini DM. mTOR interacts with raptor to form a nutrient-sensitive complex that signals to the cell growth machinery. Cell 2002, 110:163-175.
74. Oldham S, Montagne J, Radimerski T, Thomas G, Hafen E. Genetic and biochemical characterization of dTOR, the Drosophila homolog of the target of rapamycin. Genes Dev 2000, 14:2689-2694.
75. Grewal SS. Insulin/TOR signaling in growth and homeostasis: a view from the fly world. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2009, 41:1006-1010.
76. Masumura M, Satake SI, Saegusa H, Mizoguchi A. Glucose stimulates the release of bombyxin, an insulin-related peptide of the silkworm Bombyx mori. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2000, 118:393-399.
77. Rulifson EJ, Kim SK, Nusse R. Ablation of insulin-producing neurons in flies: growth and diabetic phenotypes. Science 2002, 296:1118-1120.
78. Géminard C, Rulifson EJ, Léopold P. Remote control of insulin secretion by fat cells in Drosophila. Cell Metab 2009, 10:199-207.
79. Bohni R, Riesgo-Escovar J, Oldham S, Brogiolo W, Stocker H, Andruss BF, Beckingham K, Hafen E. Autonomous control of cell and organ size by CHICO, a Drosophila homolog of vertebrate IRS1-4. Cell 1999, 97:865-875.
80. Weinkove D, Neufeld TP, Twardzik T, Waterfield MD, Leevers SJ. Regulation of imaginal disc cell size, cell number and organ size by Drosophila class IA phosphoinositide 3-kinase and its adaptor. Curr Biol 1999, 9:1019-1029.
81. Goberdhan DCI, Paricio N, Goodman EC, Mlodzik M, Wilson C. Drosophila tumor suppressor PTEN controls cell size and number by antagonizing the Chico/PI3-kinase signaling pathway. Genes Dev 1999, 13:3244-3258.
82. Gao X, Neufeld TP, Pan D. Drosophila PTEN regulates cell growth and proliferation through PI3K-dependent and independent pathways. Dev Biol 2000, 221:404-418.
83. Huang H, Potter CJ, Tao W, Li DM, Brogiolo W, Hafen E, Sun H, Xu T. PTEN affects cell size, cell proliferation and apoptosis during Drosophila eye development. Development 1999, 126:5365-5372.
84. Verdu J, Buratovich MA, Wilder EL, Birnbaum MJ. Cell-autonomous regulation of cell and organ growth in Drosophila by Akt/PKB. Nat Cell Biol 1999, 1:500-506.
85. Kramer J, Davidge J, Lockyer J, Staveley B. Expression of Drosophila FOXO regulates growth and can phenocopy starvation. BMC Dev Biol 2003, 3:5.
86. Puig O, Marr MT, Ruhf ML, Tjian R. Control of cell number by Drosophila FOXO: downstream and feedback regulation of the insulin receptor pathway. Genes Dev 2003, 17:2006-2020.
87. Kim SK, Rulifson EJ. Conserved mechanisms of glucose sensing and regulation by Drosophila corpora cardiaca cells. Nature 2004, 431:316-320.
88. Chell JM, Brand AH. Nutrition-responsive glia control exit of neural stem cells from quiescence. Cell 2010, 143:1161-1173.
89. Sousa-Nunes R, Yee LL, Gould AP. Fat cells reactivate quiescent neuroblasts via TOR and glial insulin relays in Drosophila. Nature 2011, 471:508-512.
90. Rajan A, Perrimon N. Drosophila cytokine unpaired 2 regulates physiological homeostasis by remotely controlling insulin secretion. Cell 2012, 151:123-137.
91. Honegger B, Galic M, Kohler K, Wittwer F, Brogiolo W, Hafen E, Stocker H. Imp-L2, a putative homolog of vertebrate IGF-binding protein 7, counteracts insulin signaling in Drosophila and is essential for starvation resistance. J Biol 2008, 7:10.
92. Osterbur DL, Fristrom DK, Natzle JE, Tojo SJ, Fristrom JW. Genes expressed during imaginal discs morphogenesis: IMP-L2, a gene expressed during imaginal disc and imaginal histoblast morphogenesis. Dev Biol 1988, 129:439-448.
93. Okamoto N, Nakamori R, Murai T, Yamauchi Y, Masuda A, Nishimura T. A secreted decoy of InR antagonizes insulin/IGF signaling to restrict body growth in Drosophila. Genes Dev 2013, 27:87-97.
94. Henrich VC. The ecdysteroid receptor. In: Gilbert LI, ed. Insect Endocrinology. London: Academic Press; 2012, 177-218.
95. Charles J-P, Iwema T, Epa V, Takaki K, Rynes J, Jindra M. Ligand-binding properties of a juvenile hormone receptor, Methoprene-tolerant. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011, 108:21128-21133.
96. Jindra M, Palli SR, Riddiford LM. The juvenile hormone signaling pathway in insect development. Annu Rev Entomol 2013, 58:181-204.
97. Baumann A, Fujiwara Y, Wilson TG. Evolutionary divergence of the paralogs Methoprene tolerant (Met) and germ cell expressed (gce) within the genus Drosophila. J Insect Physiol 2010, 56:1445-1455.
98. Baumann AA, Barry J, Wang S, Fujiwara Y, Wilson TG. Paralogous genes involved in juvenile hormone action in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 2010, 185:1327-1336.
99. Godlewski J, Wang S, Wilson TG. Interaction of bHLH-PAS proteins involved in juvenile hormone reception in Drosophila. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006, 342:1305-1311.
100. Abdou MA, He Q, Wen D, Zyaan O, Wang J, Xu J, Baumann AA, Joseph J, Wilson TG, Li S, et al. Drosophila Met and Gce are partially redundant in transducing juvenile hormone action. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2011, 41:938-945.
101. Liu Y, Sheng Z, Liu H, Wen D, He Q, Wang S, Shao W, Jiang R-J, An S, Sun Y, et al. Juvenile hormone counteracts the bHLH-PAS transcription factors MET and GCE to prevent caspase-dependent programmed cell death in Drosophila. Development 2009, 136:2015-2025.
102. Layalle S, Arquier N, Léopold P. The TOR pathway couples nutrition and developmental timing in Drosophila. Dev Cell 2008, 15:568-577.
103. Caldwell PE, Walkiewicz M, Stern M. Ras activity in the Drosophila prothoracic gland regulates body size and developmental rate via ecdysone release. Curr Biol 2005, 15:1785-1795.
104. Walkiewicz MA, Stern M. Increased insulin/insulin growth factor signaling advances the onset of metamorphosis in Drosophila. PLoS One 2009, 4:e5072.
105. Delanoue R, Slaidina M, Léopold P. The steroid hormone ecdysone controls systemic growth by repressing dMyc function in Drosophila fat cells. Dev Cell 2010, 18:1012-1021.
106. Francis VA, Zorzano A, Teleman AA. dDOR is an EcR coactivator that forms a feed-forward loop connecting insulin and ecdysone signaling. Curr Biol 2010, 20:1799-1808.
107. Mirth CK, Truman JW, Riddiford LM. The ecdysone receptor controls the post-critical weight switch to nutrition-independent differentiation in Drosophila wing imaginal discs. Development 2009, 136:2345-2353.
108. Parker NF, Shingleton AW. The coordination of growth among Drosophila organs in response to localized growth-perturbation. Dev Biol 2011, 357:318-325.
109. Nijhout HF, Grunert LW. The cellular and physiological mechanism of wing-body scaling in Manduca sexta. Science 2010, 330:1693-1695.
110. Kato Y, Riddiford L. The role of 20-hydroxyecdysone in stimulating epidermal mitoses during the larval-pupal transformation of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Development 1987, 100:227-236.
111. Truman JW, Hiruma K, Allee JP, Macwhinnie SG, Champlin DT, Riddiford LM. Juvenile hormone is required to couple imaginal disc formation with nutrition in insects. Science 2006, 312:1385-1388.
112. Riddiford LM, Truman JW, Mirth CK, Shen Y-c. A role for juvenile hormone in the prepupal development of Drosophila melanogaster. Development 2010, 137:1117-1126.
113. Mirth CK, Tang HY, Makhon-Moore S, Salhadar S, Gokhale R, Riddiford LM, Shingleton AW. Submitted.
114. Garelli A, Gontijo AM, Miguela V, Caparros E, Dominguez M. Imaginal discs secrete insulin-like peptide 8 to mediate plasticity of growth and maturation. Science 2012, 336:579-582.
115. Colombani J, Andersen DS, Leopold P. Secreted peptide DILP8 coordinates Drosophila tissue growth with developmental timing. Science 2012, 336:582-585.
116. Sehnal F, Bryant PJ. Delayed pupariation in Drosophila imaginal disc overgrowth mutants is associated with reduced ecdysteroid titer. J Insect Physiol 1993, 39:1051-1059.
117. Atkinson D. Temperature and organism size--a biological law for ectotherms? In: Begon M, Fitter AH, eds. Advances in Ecological Research, vol. 25. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1994, 1-58.
118. Davidowitz G, Nijhout HF. The physiological basis of reaction norms: the interaction among growth rate, the duration of growth and body size. Integr Comp Biol 2004, 44:443-449.
119. Callier V, Nijhout HF. Control of body size by oxygen supply reveals size-dependent and size-independent mechanisms of molting and metamorphosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011, 108:14664-14669.
120. Greenlee KJ, Harrison JF. Respiratory changes throughout ontogeny in the tobacco hornworm caterpillar, Manduca sexta. J Exp Biol 2005, 208:1385-1392.
121. Okamoto N, Yamanaka N, Yagi Y, Nishida Y, Kataoka H, O'Connor MB, Mizoguchi A. A fat body-derived IGF-like peptide regulates postfeeding growth in Drosophila. Dev Cell 2009, 17:885-891.
122. Slaidina M, Delanoue R, Gronke S, Partridge L, Léopold P. A Drosophila insulin-like peptide promotes growth during nonfeeding states. Dev Cell 2009, 17:874-884.
123. Okamoto N, Yamanaka N, Satake H, Saegusa H, Kataoka H, Mizoguchi A. An ecdysteroid-inducible insulin-like growth factor-like peptide regulates adult development of the silkmoth Bombyxmori. FEBS J 2009, 276:1221-1232.
124. Agui N, Granger NA, Gilbert LI, Bollenbacher WE. Cellular localization of the insect prothoracicotropic hormone: in vitro assay of a single neurosecretory cell. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1979, 76:5694-5698.
125. Smith WA, Rybczynski R. Prothoracicotropic hormone. In: Gilbert LI, ed. Insect Endocrinology. London: Academic Press; 2012, 1-62.
126. Rewitz K, Yamanaka N, Gilbert L, O'Connor M. The insect neuropeptide PTTH activates receptor tyrosine kinase Torso to initiate metamorphosis. Science 2009, 326:1403-1405.
127. Wigglesworth V. The physiology of ecdysis in Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera). II. Factors controlling moulting and 'metamorphosis'. Q J Microsc Sci 1934, 77:191-222.
128. Nijhout HF. Abdominal stretch reception in Dipetalogaster maximus (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). J Insect Physiol 1984, 30:629-633.
129. Nijhout HF. Stretch-induced moulting in Oncopeltus fasciatus. J Insect Physiol 1979, 25:277-282.
130. Davidowitz G, D'Amico LJ, Nijhout HF. The effects of environmental variation on a mechanism that controls insect body size. Evol Ecol Res 2004, 6:49-62.
131. Davidowitz G, D'Amico LJ, Nijhout HF. Critical weight in the development of insect body size. Evol Dev 2003, 5:188-197.
132. Nijhout HF, Williams CM. Control of moulting and metamorphosis in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta (L.): growth of the last-instar larva and the decision to pupate. J Exp Biol 1974, 61:481-491.
133. Truman JW. Physiology of insect rhythms. 1, Circadian organization of the endocrine events underlying the molting cycle of larval tobacco hornworms. J Exp Biol 1972, 57:805-820.
134. Rountree D, Bollenbacher W. Juvenile hormone regulates ecdysone secretion through inhibition of PTTH release. Am Zool 1984, 24:A31.
135. Rountree D, Bollenbacher W. The release of the prothoracicotropic hormone in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, is controlled intrinsically by juvenile hormone. J Exp Biol 1986, 120:41-58.
136. Sakurai S, Okuda M, Ohtaki T. Juvenile hormone inhibits ecdysone secretion and responsiveness to prothoracicotropic hormone in prothoracic glands of Bombyx mori. Gen Comp Endocrinol 1989, 75:222-230.
137. Dominick OS, Truman JW. The physiology of wandering behavior in Manduca sexta. 1. Temporal organization and the influence of the internal and external environments. J Exp Biol 1984, 110:35-51.
138. Nijhout HF. Dynamics of juvenile hormone action in larvae of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta (L.). Biol Bull 1975, 149:568-579.
139. Truman JW, Riddiford LM, Safranek L. Temporal patterns of response to ecdysone and juvenile hormone in the epidermis of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Dev Biol 1974, 39:247-262.
140. Cymborowski B, Bogus M, Beckage NE, Williams CM, Riddiford LM. Juvenile-hormone titers and metabolism during starvation-induced supernumerary larval molting of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta L. J Insect Physiol 1982, 28:129-135.
141. Riddiford LM, Ashburner M. Effects of juvenile hormone mimics on larval development and metamorphosis of Drosophila melanogaster. Gen Comp Endocrinol 1991, 82:172-183.
142. Zhou X, Riddiford LM. Broad specifies pupal development and mediates the status quo action of juvenile hormone on the pupal-adult transformation in Drosophila and Manduca. Development 2002, 129:2259-2269.
143. Shafiei M, Moczek AP, Nijhout HF. Food availability controls the onset of metamorphosis in the dung beetle Onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Physiol Entomol 2001, 26:173-180.
144. Fukuda S. The hormonal mechanism of larval molting and metamorphosis in the silkworm. J Fac Sci Tokyo Imp Univ 1944, 4:477-532.
145. Dean RL, Bollenbacher WE, Locke M, Smith SL, Gilbert LI. Haemolymph ecdysteroid levels and cellular events in the intermoult/moult sequence of Calpodes ethlius. J Insect Physiol 1980, 26:267-280.
146. Rountree DB, Nijhout HF. Hormonal control of a seasonal polyphenism in Precis coenia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). J Insect Physiol 1995, 41:987-992.
147. Gu S-H, Young S-C, Lin J-L, Lin P-L. Involvement of PI3K/Akt signaling in PTTH-stimulated ecdysteroidogenesis by prothoracic glands of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2011, 41:197-202.
148. Tanaka Y. Recent topics on the regulatory mechanism of ecdysteroidogenesis by the prothoracic gland in insects. Front Endocrinol 2011, 107:1-6.
149. Locke M. Epidermis. In: Harrison FW, Locke M, eds. Microscopic Anatomy of Invertebrates. New York: Wiley Liss & Sons; 1998, 75-138.
150. Locke M. The Wigglesworth Lecture: insects for studying fundamental problems in biology. J Insect Physiol 2001, 47:495-507.
151. Ashburner M, Chihara C, Meltzer P, Richards G. Temporal control of puffing activity in polytene chromosomes. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1974, 38:655-662.
152. Hill RJ, Billas IML, Bonneton F, Graham LD, Lawrence MC. Ecdysone receptors: from the Ashburner model to structural biology. Annu Rev Entomol 2013, 58:251-271.
153. Koelle MR, Talbot WS, Segraves WA, Bender MT, Cherbas P, Hogness DS. The Drosophila EcR gene encodes an ecdysone receptor, a new member of the steroid receptor superfamily. Cell 1991, 67:59-77.
154. Yao TP, Segraves WA, Oro AE, McKeown M, Evans RM. Drosophila Ultraspiracle modulates ecdysone receptor function via heterodimer formation. Cell 1992, 71:63-72.
155. Hiruma K, Riddiford L. Developmental expression of mRNAs for epidermal and fat body proteins and hormonally regulated transcription factors in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. J Insect Physiol 2010, 56:1390-1395.
156. Langelan RE, Fisher JE, Hiruma K, Palli SR, Riddiford LM. Patterns of MHR3 expression in the epidermis during a larval molt of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta. Dev Biol 2000, 227:481-494.
157. Warren J, Yerushalmi Y, Shimell M, O'Connor M, Restifo L, Gilbert L. Discrete pulses of molting hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone, during late larval development of Drosophila melanogaster: correlations with changes in gene activity. Dev Dyn 2006, 235:315-326.
158. Schubiger M, Truman JW. The RXR ortholog USP suppresses early metamorphic processes in Drosophila in the absence of ecdysteroids. Development 2000, 127:1151-1159.
159. Bayer CA, Holley B, Fristrom JW. A switch in Broad-Complex zinc-finger isoform expression is regulated posttranscriptionally during the metamorphosis of Drosophila imaginal discs. Dev Biol 1996, 177:1-14.
160. Zhou B, Hiruma K, Shinoda T, Riddiford L. Juvenile hormone prevents ecdysteroid-induced expression of Broad Complex RNAs in the epidermis of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Dev Biol 1998, 203:233-244.
161. Zhou B, Riddiford LM. Hormonal regulation and patterning of the Broad-Complex in the epidermis and wing discs of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Dev Biol 2001, 231:125-137.
162. Champlin DT, Reiss SE, Truman JW. Hormonal control of ventral diaphragm myogenesis during metamorphosis of the moth, Manduca sexta. Dev Genes Evol 1999, 209:265-274.
163. Champlin DT, Truman JW. Ecdysteroid control of cell proliferation during optic lobe neurogenesis in the moth Manduca sexta. Development 1998, 125:269-277.
164. Talbot WS, Swyryd EA, Hogness DS. Drosophila tissues with different metamorphic responses to ecdysone express different ecdysone receptor isoforms. Cell 1993, 73:1323-1337.
165. Truman JW, Talbot WS, Fahrbach SE, Hogness DS. Ecdysone receptor expression in the CNS correlates with stage-specific responses to ecdysteroids during Drosophila and Manduca development. Development 1994, 120:219-234.
166. Wilson TG, Ashok M. Insecticide resistance resulting from an absence of target-site gene product. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998, 95:14040-14044.
167. Goodman WG, Granger NA. The juvenile hormones. In: Lawrence I, Gilbert LI, Iatrou K, Gill SS, eds. Comprehensive Molecular Insect Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2005, 319-408.
168. Hiruma K, Kaneko Y. Hormonal regulation of insect metamorphosis with special reference to juvenile hormone biosynthesis. Curr Top Dev Biol 2013, 103:73-100.
169. Belles X, Martin D, Piulachs MD. The mevalonate pathway and the synthesis of juvenile hormone in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 2005, 50:181-199.
170. Jones G, Teal P, Henrich VC, Krzywonos A, Sapa A, Wozniak M, Smolka J, Jones D. Ligand binding pocket function of Drosophila USP is necessary for metamorphosis. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2013, 182:73-82.
171. Jones G, Jones D, Teal P, Sapa A, Wozniak M. The retinoid-X receptor ortholog, ultraspiracle, binds with nanomolar affinity to an endogenous morphogenetic ligand. FEBS J 2006, 273:4983-4996.
172. Minakuchi C, Namiki T, Yoshiyama M, Shinoda T. RNAi-mediated knockdown of juvenile hormone acid O-methyltransferase gene causes precocious metamorphosis in the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. FEBS J 2008, 275:2919-2931.
173. Daimon T, Kozaki T, Niwa R, Kobayashi I, Furuta K, Namiki T, Uchino K, Banno Y, Katsuma S, Tamura T, et al. Precocious metamorphosis in the juvenile hormone-deficient mutant of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. PLoS Genet 2012, 8:e1002486.
174. Kataoka H, Toschi A, Li JP, Carney RL, Schooley DA, Kramer SJ. Identification of an allatotropin from adult Manduca sexta. Science 1989, 243:1481-1483.
175. Yamanaka N, Yamamoto S, Zitnan D, Watanabe K, Kawada T, Satake H, Kaneko Y, Hiruma K, Tanaka Y, Shinoda T, et al. Neuropeptide receptor transcriptome reveals unidentified neuroendocrine pathways. PLoS One 2008, 3:e3048.
176. Wang C, Zhang J, Tobe SS, Bendena WG. Defining the contribution of select neuropeptides and their receptors in regulating sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis by Drosophila melanogaster ring gland/corpus allatum through RNAi analysis. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2012, 176:347-353.
177. Chiang AS, Lin WY, Liu HP, Pszczolkowski MA, Fu TF, Chiu SL, Holbrook GL. Insect NMDA receptors mediate juvenile hormone biosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002, 99:37-42.
178. Huang JH, Tian L, Peng C, Abdou M, Wen D, Wang Y, Li S, Wang J. DPP-mediated TGF beta signaling regulates juvenile hormone biosynthesis by activating the expression of juvenile hormone acid methyltransferase. Development 2011, 138:2283-2291.
179. Granger NA, Sturgis SL, Ebersohl R, Geng C, Sparks TC. Dopaminergic control of corpora allata activity in the larval tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 1996, 32:449-466.
180. Hammock BD. Regulation of juvenile hormone titer: degradation. In: Kerkut GA, Gilbert LI, eds. Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry, and Pharmacology. New York: Pergamon Press; 1985, 431-472.
181. Kamita SG, Hinton AC, Wheelock CE, Wogulis MD, Wilson DK, Wolf NM, Stok JE, Hock B, Hammock BD. Juvenile hormone (JH) esterase: why are you so JH specific? Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2003, 33:1261-1273.
182. de Kort CAD, Granger NA. Regulation of JH titers: the relevance of degradative enzymes and binding proteins. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 1996, 33:1-26.
183. Sparks TC, Hammock BD, Riddiford LM. The hemolymph juvenile-hormone esterase of Manduca sexta (L) - inhibition and regulation. Insect Biochem 1983, 13:529-541.
184. Browder MH, D'Amico LJ, Nijhout HF. The role of low levels of juvenile hormone esterase in the metamorphosis of Manduca sexta. J Insect Sci 2001, 1:11.
185. Mitsui T, Riddiford LM, Bellamy G. Metabolism of juvenile hormone by the epidermis of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Insect Biochem 1979, 9:637-643.
186. Sparks TC, Hammock BD. Comparative inhibition of the juvenile hormone esterases from Trichoplusia ni, Tenebrio molitor, and Musca domestica. Pestic Biochem Physiol 1980, 14:290-302.
187. Seino A, Ogura T, Tsubota T, Shimomura M, Nakakura T, Tan A, Mita K, Shinoda T, Nakagawa Y, Shiotsuki T. Characterization of juvenile hormone epoxide hydrolase and related genes in the larval development of the silkworm Bombyx mori. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2010, 74:1421-1429.
188. Goodman W, O'Hern PA, Zaugg RH, Gilbert LI. Purification and characterization of a juvenile hormone binding protein from the hemolymph of the fourth instar tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1978, 11:225-242.
189. Konopova B, Jindra M. Juvenile hormone resistance gene Methoprene-tolerant controls entry into metamorphosis in the beetle Tribolium castaneum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007, 104:10488-10493.
190. Minakuchi C, Namiki T, Shinoda T. Krüppel homolog 1, an early juvenile hormone-response gene downstream of Methoprene-tolerant, mediates its anti-metamorphic action in the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. Dev Biol 2009, 325:341-350.
191. Kayukawa T, Minakuchi C, Namiki T, Togawa T, Yoshiyama M, Kamimura M, Mita K, Imanishi S, Kiuchi M, Ishikawa Y, et al. Transcriptional regulation of juvenile hormone-mediated induction of Krüppel homolog 1, a repressor of insect metamorphosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012, 109:11729-11734.
192. Emlen DJ, Nijhout HF. The development and evolution of exaggerated morphologies in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 2000, 5:661-708.
193. Oldham S, Bohni R, Stocker H, Brogiolo W, Hafen E. Genetic control of size in Drosophila. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2000, 355:945-952.
194. Kawano K. Horn and wing allometry and male dimorphism in giant rhinoceros beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) of tropical Asia and America. Ann Entomol Soc Am 1995, 88:92-99.
195. Nijhout HF, Wheeler DE. Growth models of complex allometries in holometabolous insects. Am Nat 1996, 148:40-56.
196. Wheeler DE. The developmental basis of worker caste polymorphism in ants. Am Nat 1991, 138:1218-1238.
197. Wilson EO. The origin and evolution of polymorphism in ants. Q Rev Biol 1953, 28:136-156.
198. Rintelen F, Stocker H, Thomas G, Hafen E. PDK1 regulates growth through Akt and S6K in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 98:15020-15025.
199. Tang HY, Smith-Caldas MSB, Driscoll MV, Salhadar S, Shingleton AW. FOXO regulates organ-specific phenotypic plasticity in Drosophila. PLoS Genet 2011, 7:e1002373.
200. Montagne J, Stewart MJ, Stocker H, Hafen E, Kozma SC, Thomas G. Drosophila S6 kinase: a regulator of cell size. Science 1999, 285:2126-2129.
201. Brennan CA, Ashburner M, Moses K. Ecdysone pathway is required for furrow progression in the developing Drosophila eye. Development 1998, 125:2653-2664.
202. Brennan CA, Li TR, Bender M, Hsiung F, Moses K. Broad-complex, but not ecdysone receptor, is required for progression of the morphogenetic furrow in the Drosophila eye. Development 2001, 128:1-11.
203. Mou X, Duncan DM, Baehrecke EH, Duncan I. Control of target gene specificity during metamorphosis by the steroid response gene E93. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012, 109:2949-2954.
204. Schubiger M, Carré C, Antoniewski C, Truman JW. Ligand-dependent de-repression via EcR/USP acts as a gate to coordinate the differentiation of sensory neurons in the Drosophila wing. Development 2005, 132:5239-5248.
205. Martin P, Shearn A. Development of Drosophila imaginal discs in vitro: effects of ecdysone concentration and insulin. J Exp Zool 1980, 211:291-301.
206. Tobler A, Nijhout HF. A switch in the control of growth of the wing imaginal disks of Manduca sexta. PLoS One 2010, 5:e10723.
207. Berreur P, Bougues R. Effects of ecdysone on the in vivo growth of wing disks of Calliphora erythrocephala. J Insect Physiol 1975, 21:915-919.
208. Shingleton AW, Mirth CK, Bates PW. Developmental model of static allometry in holometabolous insects. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 2008, 275:1875-1885.
209. MacWhinnie SGB, Allee JP, Nelson CA, Riddiford LM, Truman JW, Champlin DT. The role of nutrition in creation of the eye imaginal disc and initiation of metamorphosis in Manduca sexta. Dev Biol 2005, 285:285-297.
210. Koyama T, Syropyatova M, Riddiford L. Insulin/IGF signaling regulates the change in commitment in imaginal discs and primordia by overriding the effect of juvenile hormone. Dev Biol 2008, 324:258-265.
211. Rusten TE, Lindmo K, Juhasz G, Sass M, Seglen PO, Brech A, Stenmark H. Programmed autophagy in the Drosophila fat body is induced by ecdysone through regulation of the PI3K pathway. Dev Cell 2004, 7:179-192.
212. Shingleton AW, Das J, Vinicius L, Stern DL. The temporal requirements for insulin signaling during development in Drosophila. PLoS Biol 2005, 3:e289.
213. Erezyilmaz DF, Riddiford LM, Truman JW. The pupal specifier broad directs progressive morphogenesis in a direct-developing insect. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006, 103:6925-6930.
214. Hutchinson J, McNamara J, Houston A, Vollrath F. Dyar's Rule and the Investment Principle: optimal moulting strategies if feeding rate is size-dependent and growth is discontinuous. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1997, 352:113-138.
215. Klingenberg CP, Zimmermann M. Dyar's rule and multivariate allometric growth in nine species of waterstriders (Heteroptera: Gerridae). J Zool 1992, 227:453-464.
216. Erezyilmaz D, Riddiford L, Truman J. Juvenile hormone acts at embryonic molts and induces the nymphal cuticle in the direct-developing cricket. Dev Genes Evol 2004, 214:313-323.
217. Konopova B, Smykal V, Jindra M. Common and distinct roles of juvenile hormone signaling genes in metamorphosis of holometabolous and hemimetabolous insects. PLoS One 2011, 6:e28728.
218. Huang J-H, Lozano J, Belles X. Broad-complex functions in postembryonic development of the cockroach Blattella germanica shed new light on the evolution of insect metamorphosis. Biochim Biophys Acta 1830, 2013:2178-2187.
219. Bowers WS. How anti-juvenile hormones work. Am Zool 1981, 21:737-742.
220. Bowers WS, Martinez-Pardo R. Antiallatotropins: inhibition of corpus allatum development. Science 1977, 197:1369-1371.
221. Mahfooz N, Turchyn N, Mihajlovic M, Hrycaj S, Popadić A. Ubx regulates differential enlargement and diversification of insect hind legs. PLoS One 2007, 2:e866.
222. Mahfooz NS, Li H, Popadić A. Differential expression patterns of the hox gene are associated with differential growth of insect hind legs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004, 101:4877-4882.
223. Gabriel JM. The development of the locust jumping mechanism: I. Allometric growth and its effect on jumping performance. J Exp Biol 1985, 118:313-326.
224. Moczek AP, Nagy LM. Diverse developmental mechanisms contribute to different levels of diversity in horned beetles. Evol Dev 2005, 7:175-185.
225. Moczek AP, Rose DJ. Differential recruitment of limb patterning genes during development and diversification of beetle horns. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009, 106:8992-8997.
226. Tanaka K, Truman J. Development of the adult leg epidermis in Manduca sexta: contribution of different larval cell populations. Dev Genes Evol 2005, 215:78-89.
227. Tanaka K, Truman JW. Molecular patterning mechanism underlying metamorphosis of the thoracic leg in Manduca sexta. Dev Biol 2007, 305:539-550.
228. Emlen DJ, Allen CE. Genotype to phenotype: physiological control of trait size and scaling in insects. Integr Comp Biol 2003, 43:617-634.
229. Emlen DJ, Nijhout HF. Hormonal control of male horn length dimorphism in Onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae): a second critical period of sensitivity to juvenile hormone. J Insect Physiol 2001, 47:1045-1054.
230. Emlen DJ, Warren IA, Johns A, Dworkin I, Lavine LC. A mechanism of extreme growth and reliable signaling in sexually selected ornaments and weapons. Science 2012, 337:860-864.
231. Moczek AP, Emlen DJ. Male horn dimorphism in the scarab beetle, Onthophagus taurus: do alternative reproductive tactics favour alternative phenotypes? Anim Behav 2000, 59:459-466.
232. Moczek AP. Allometric plasticity in a polyphenic beetle. Ecol Entomol 2002, 27:58-67.
233. Emlen DJ. Environmental control of horn length dimorphism in the beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 1994, 256:131-136.
234. Emlen DJ. Artificial selection on horn length-body size allometry in the horned beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Evolution 1996, 50:1219-1230.
235. Emlen DJ. Diet alters male horn allometry in the beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 1997, 264:567-574.
236. Shingleton AW, Tang HY. Plastic flies: the regulation and evolution of trait variability in Drosophila. Fly 2012, 6:147-152.
237. Tobler A, Nijhout HF. Developmental constraints on the evolution of wing-body allometry in Manduca sexta. Evol Dev 2010, 12:592-600.