Emerging Technologies Used for the Extraction of Phytochemicals from Fruits, Vegetables, and Other Natural Sources

Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals: Chemistry, Nutritional Value, and Stability

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 235-270

  Saldaña, Marleny D A ^a   Gamarra, Felix M C ^a   Siloto, Rodrigo M P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Carotene, and provitamin A activity; Conventional extraction method (CEM); Drying and grinding samples steps prior to extraction; Emerging technologies for extraction of phytochemicals from fruits, vegetables, natural sources; High pressure processing (HPP), ultrasonic extraction (UE), and ohmic heating (OH); Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC); Phytochemical extraction from different sources; Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave extraction (MWE), pulsed electric field (PEF); Supercritical fluid extraction with SC CO2; Ultrasound microwave assisted extraction (UMAE)

Indexed keywords

EID: 84884050155     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780813809397.ch9     Document Type: Chapter

References (115)

1. Bernardo-Gil G, Oneto C, Antunes P, Rodrigues MF and Empis JM. 2001. Extraction of lipids from cherry seed oil using supercritical carbon dioxide. Eur Food Res Technol 212(2):170-174.
2. Bernardo-Gil MG, Grenha J, Santos J and Cardoso P. 2002. Supercritical fluid extraction and characterization of oil from hazelnut. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 104(7):402-409.
3. Beveridge THJ, Girard B, Kopp T and Drover JCG. 2005. Yield and composition of grape seed oils extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and petroleum ether: varietal effects. J Agric Food Chem 53(5):1799-1804.
4. Bouic PJD and Lamprecht JH. 1999. Plant sterols and sterolins: a review of their immune-modulating properties. Altern Med Rev 4(3):170-177.
5. Brachet A, Christen P and Veuthey J. 2002. Focused microwave-assisted extraction of cocaine and benzoylecgonine from coca leaves. Phytochem Anal 13(3):162-169.
6. Bridle P and Timberlake CF. 1997. Anthocyanins as natural food colours-selected aspects. Food Chem 58(1-2):103-109.
7. Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S and Pfander H, editors. 2004. Carotenoids Handbook. Basel: Birkhäuser.
8. Chen L, Jin H, Ding L, Zhang H, Li J, Qu C and Zhang H 2008. Dynamic microwave-assisted extraction of flavonoids from Herba Epimedii. Sep Purif Technol 59(1):50-57.
9. Chiu K-L, Cheng Y-C, Chen J-H, Chang CJ and Yang P-W. 2002. Supercritical fluids extraction of Ginkgo ginkgoloides and flavonoids. J Supercrit Fluids 24:77-87.
10. Choi ES, Noh MJ and Yoo KP. 1998. Solubilities of o-, m- and p-coumaric acid isomers in carbon dioxide at 308.15-323.15K and 8.5-25 MPa. J Chem Eng Data 43(1):6-8.
11. Clinton SK. 1998. Lycopene: chemistry, biology and implication for human health and disease. Nutr Rev 56(2 Pt 1):35-51.
12. Corrales M, Toepfl S, Butz P, Knorr D and Tauscher B. 2008. Extraction of anthocyanins from grape byproducts assisted by ultrasonics, high hydrostatic pressure or pulsed electric fields: a comparison. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 9(1):85-91.
13. Crowe TDand White PJ. 2003. Oxidation, flavor, and texture ofwalnuts reduced in fat content by supercritical carbon dioxide. J Am Oil Chem Soc 80(6):569-574.
14. Danielski L, Zetzl C, Hense H and Brunner G. 2005. A process line for the production of raffinated rice oil from rice bran. J Supercrit Fluids 34(2):133-141.
15. De Franca LF, Reber G, Meireles MAA, Machado NT and Brunner G. 1999. Supercritical extraction of carotenoids and lipids from buriti (Mauriti flexuosa), a fruit from the Amazon region. J Supercrit Fluids 14(3):247-256.
16. Del Valle J M, Bello S, Thiel J, Allen A and Chordia L. 2000. Comparison of conventional and supercritical CO2-extracted rosehip oil. Braz J Chem Eng 17(3):335-348.
17. Delorenzi JC, Attias M, Gattass CR, Andrade M, Rezende C, Pinto AC, Henriques AT, Bou-Habib DC and Saraiva EM. 2001. Antileishmanial activity of indole alkaloid from Peschiera australis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45(5):1349-1354.
18. Duthie GG, Gardner PT and Kyle JAM. 2003. Plant polyphenols: are they the new magic bullet? Rowett Research Institute. Proc Nutr Soc 62(3):599-603.
19. El-Belghiti K, Rabhi Z and Vorobiev E. 2007. Effect of process parameters on solute centrifugal extraction from electropermeabilized carrot gratings. Food Bioprod Process 85(1):24-28.
20. Esquivel MM, Bernardo-Gil MG and King MB. 1999. Mathematical models for supercritical extraction of olive husk oil. J Supercrit Fluids 16(1):43-58.
21. Fincan M, DeVito F and Dejmek P 2004. Pulsed electric field treatment for solid-liquid extraction of red beetroot pigment. J Food Eng 64(3):381-388.
22. Francis FJ. 1989. Food colorants: anthocyanins. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 28 (4): 273-314.
23. Fullmer LA and Shao A 2001. The role of lutein in eye health and nutrition. Am Assoc Cereal Chem 46(9):408-413.
24. Gamarra FM.C, Sakanaka LS, Tambourgi EB and Cabral FA. 2006. Influence on the quality of essential lemon (Citrus aurantifolia) oil by distillation process. Braz J Chem Eng 23(1):147-151.
25. Giovannucci E. 2002. A review of epidemiologic studies of tomatoes, lycopene, and prostate cancer. Exp Biol Med 227(10):852-859.
26. GomezAM, Lopez CP and de la Ossa EM. 1996. Recovery of grape seed oil by liquid and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction: a comparison with conventional solvent extraction. Chem Eng J 61(3):227-231.
27. Gomez-Prieto MS, Caja MM and Santa-Maria G. 2002. Solubility in supercritical carbon dioxide of the predominant carotenes in tomato skin. J Am Oil Chem Soc 79(9):897-902.
28. Gomez-Prieto MS, Caja MM, Herraiz M and Santa-Maria G. 2003. Supercritical fluid extraction of all trans-lycopene from tomato. J Agric Food Chem 51(1):3-7.
29. Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Meyskens FL, Omenn GS, Valanis B and Williams JH. 2004. The β-carotene and retinol efficacy trial: incidence of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality during 6-year follow-up after stopping β-carotene and retinol supplements. J Natl Cancer Inst 96(23):1743-1750.
30. Goto M, Sato M and Hirose T. 1994. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of carotenoids from carrots, in Yano T, Matsuno R and Nakamura K, Eds. Developments in Food Engineering, Proc. Sixth International Congress on Engineering and Food, Blackie Academic & Professional, London, 835-837.
31. Granado F, Olmedilla B and Blanco I. 2003. Nutritional and clinical relevance of lutein in human health. Br J Nutr 90(3):487-502.
32. Güçlü-Üstündag O and Temelli F. 2004. Correlating the solubility behavior of minor lipid components in supercritical carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids 31(3):227-234.
33. Hallikainen MA, Sarkkinen ES and Uusitupa MIJ. 2000. Plant stanol esters affect serum cholesterol concentrations of hypercholesterolemic men and women in a dose-dependent manner. J Nutr 130:767-776.
34. Hasegawa R, Chujo T, Sai-Kato K, Umemura T, Tanimura A and Kurokawa Y. 1995. Preventive effects of green tea against liver oxidative DNA damage and hepatotoxicity in rats treated with 2-nitropropane. Food Chem Toxicol 33(11):961-970.
35. Heinemann T, Axtmann G and Von Bergmann. K 1993. Comparison of intestinal absorption of cholesterol with different plant sterols in man. Eur J Clin Invest 23(12):827-831.
36. Holser RA and Bost G. 2004. Hybrid hibiscus seed oil compositions. J Am Oil Chem Soc 81(8):795-797.
37. Hughes DA. 2001. Dietary carotenoids and human immune function. Nutrition 17(10):823-827.
38. Illés V, Szalai O, Then M, Daood H and Perneczki S. 1997. Extraction of hiprose fruit by supercritical CO2 and propane. J Supercrit Fluids 10(3):209-218.
39. Inagake M, Yamane T, Kitao Y, Oya K, Matsumoto H, Kikuoka N, Nakatani H, Takahashi T, Nishimura H and Iwashima A. 1995. Inhibition of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced oxidative DNA damage by green tea extract in rat. Jpn J Cancer Res 86(11):1106-1111.
40. Jones PJH, Ntanios FY, Raeini-Sarjaz M and Vanstone CA. 1999. Cholesterol-lowering efficacy of a sitostanol-containing phytosterol mixture with a prudent diet in hyperlipidemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 69(6):1144-1150.
41. Katz SN. 1998. Decaffeinitation of coffee. In: Clarke RJ, Macrae R, editors. Coffee. Technology, Volume 2. London: Elsevier Applied Science, p. 59.
42. Kim HJ, Lee SB, Park KA and Hong IK. 1999. Characterization of extraction and separation of rice bran oil rich in EFA using SFE process. Sep Purif Technol 15(1):1-8.
43. Kim J and Choi YH. 2000. SPE of ephedrine derivates from Ephedra sinica. Proceedings of 5th International Symposium on Supercritical Fluids, Atlanta, GA, pp. 1-12.
44. Klipstein-Grobusch K, Launer LJ, Geleijnse JM, Boeing H, Hofman A and Witteman JCM. 2000. Serum carotenoids and atherosclerosis: The Rotterdam Study. Atherosclerosis 148:49-56.
45. Kong J-M, Chia L-S, Goh N-K, Chia T-F and Brouillard R. 2003. Review. Analysis and biological activities of anthocyanins. Phytochemistry 64:923-933.
46. Lack A and Seidlitz H. 1993. Commercial scale decaffeination of coffee and tea using supercritical CO2. In: King MB and Bott TR, editors. Extraction of natural products using near-critical solvents. Glasgow: Blackie Academic, p. 101-139.
47. Law M. 2000. Plant sterol and stanol margarines and health. BMJ 320:861-864.
48. Li S and Hartland S. 1992. Influence of cosolvents on solubility and selectivity in extraction of xanthines and cocoa butter from cocoa beans with supercritical carbon CO2. J Supercrit Fluids 5: 7-12.
49. Li S, Varadarajan GS and Stanley H. 1991. Solubilities of theobromine and caffeine in supercritical carbon dioxide: correlation with density-based models. Fluid Phase Equilib 68:263-280.
50. Lianfu Z and Zelong L. 2008. Optimization and comparison of ultrasound/microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) and ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) of lycopene from tomatoes. Ultrason Sonochem 15(5):731-737.
51. Liao Z, Wang G, Liang X, Zhao G and Jiang Q. 2008. Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of active components from Yuanhu Zhitong prescription. Sep Purif Technol 63(2):424-433.
52. Lopes IMG and Bernardo-Gil MG. 2005. Characterization of acorn oils extracted by hexane and by supercritical carbon dioxide. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 107:12-19.
53. Makris DP, Kallithtaka S and Kefalas P. 2006. Flavonols in grapes, grape products and wine: burden, profile and influential parameters. J Food Compos Anal 19: 396-404.
54. Manninen P, Pakarinen J and Kallio H 1997. Large-scale supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and supercritical carbon dioxide countercurrent extraction of cloudberry seed oil. J Agric Food Chem 45(7):2533- 2538.
55. Marrone C, Poletto M, Reverchon E and Stassi A. 1998. Almond oil extraction by supercritical CO2: Experiments and modeling. Chem Eng Sci 53(21):3711-3718.
56. Mazza G and Brouillard R. 1987. Recent developments in the stabilization of anthocyanins in food-products. Food Chem 25:207-225.
57. McHughMAandKrukonisVJ. 1994. Supercritical Fluid Extraction: Practice and Principles, 2nd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 14-16.
58. Middleton E, Kandaswami C and Theoharides TC. 2000. The effects of plant flavonoids on mammalian cells: implications for inflammations, heart disease, and cancer. Pharmacol Rev 52(4):673- 751.
59. Mohamed RS, Saldaña MDA, Zetzl C, Mazzafera P and Brunner G. 2002. Extraction of caffeine, theobromine, and cocoa butter from Brazilian cocoa beans using supercritical CO2 and ethane. Ind Eng Chem Res 41(26):6751-6758.
60. Moreau RA, Whitaker BD and Hicks KB. 2002. Phytosterols, phytostanols, and their conjugates in foods: structural diversity, quantitative analysis, and health-promoting uses. Prog Lipid Res 41: 457- 500.
61. Murga R, Ruiz R, Beltran S and Cabezas JL. 2000. Extraction of natural complex phenols and tannins from grape seeds by using supercritical mixtures of carbon dioxide and alcohol. J Agric Food Chem 48(8):3408-3412.
62. Murga R, Sanz MT, Beltran S and Cabezas JL. 2002. Solubility of some phenolic compounds contained in grape seeds in supercritical carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids 23(2):113-121.
63. Murga R, Sanz MT, Beltran S and Cabezas JL. 2003. Solubility of three hydroxycinnamic acids in supercritical carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids 27(3):239-245.
64. Normen L, Dutta P, Lia A and Andersson H. 2000. Soy sterol esters and β-sitostanol ester as inhibitors of cholesterol absorption in human small bowel. Am J Clin Nutr 71(4):908-913.
65. Oliveira R, Rodrigues MF and Bernardo-Gil MG. 2002. Characterization and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of walnut oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc 79(3):225-230.
66. Ollanketo M, Hartonen K, Riekkola ML, Holm Y and Hiltunen R. 2001. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of lycopene in tomato skins. Eur Food Res Technol 212(5):561-565.
67. Omoni AO and Aluko RE. 2005. The anti-carcinogenic and anti-atherogenic effects of lycopene: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 16(8):344-350.
68. Panfili G, Cinquanta L, Fratianni A and Cubadda R. 2003. Extraction of wheat germ oil by supercritical CO2: oil and defatted cake characterization. J Am Oil Chem Soc 80(2):157-161.
69. Patel SB. 2008. Plant sterols and stanols: their role in health and disease. J Clin Lipidol 2:S11- S19.
70. Pereira CG, Leal PF, Sato DN and Meireles MAA. 2005. Antioxidant and antimycobacterial activities of Tabernaemontana catharinensis extracts obtained by Supercritical CO2 +cosolvent. J Med Food 8(4):533-538.
71. Perretti G, Miniati E, Montanari L and Fantozzi P. 2003. Improving the value of rice by-products by SFE. J Supercrit Fluids 26(1):63-71.
72. Piironen V, Lindsay DG, Miettinen TA, Toivo J and Lampi AM. 2000. Plant sterols: biosynthesis, biological function and their importance to human nutrition. J Sci Food Agric 80(7):939-966.
73. Piironen V, Toivo J, Puupponen-Pimia R and Lampi A-M. 2003. Plant sterols in vegetables, fruits and berries. J Sci Food Agric 83(4):330-337.
74. Plat J and Mensink RP. 2001. Effects of diets enriched with two different plant stanol ester mixtures on plasma ubiquinol-10 and fat-soluble antioxidant concentrations. Metab Clin Exp 50(5): 520-529.
75. Plat J and Mensink RP. 2005. Plant stanol and sterol esters in the control of blood cholesterol levels: mechanism and safety aspects. Am J Cardiol 96(1):15D-22D.
76. Podsedek A. 2007. Natural antioxidant capacity of Brassica vegetables: a review. LWT Food Sci Technol 40(1):1-11.
77. Porrini M, Riso P and Testolin G. 1998. Absorption of lycopene from single or daily portions of raw and processed tomato. Br J Nutr 80(4):353-361.
78. Proestos C and Komaitis M 2008. Application of microwave-assisted extraction to the fast extraction of plant phenolic compounds. LWT Food Sci Technol 41(4):652-659.
79. Raicht RF, Cohen BI and Fazzini EP. 1980. Protective effect of plant sterols against chemically induced colon tumors in rats. Cancer Res 40:403-405. Ranalli A, Contento S, Lucera L, Pavone G, Di Giacomo G, Aloisio L, Di Gregorio C, Mucci A and Kourtikakis I. 2004. Characterization of carrot root oil arising from supercritical fluid carbon dioxide extraction. J Agric Food Chem 52(15):4795-4801.
80. Rao AV and Agarwal S. 2000. Role of antioxidant lycopene in cancer and heart disease. J Am Coll Nutr 19(5):563-569.
81. Rao AV and Shen H. 2002. Effect of low dose lycopene intake on lycopene bioavailability and oxidative stress. Nutr Res 22(10):1125-1131.
82. Rates SMK, Schapoval EES, Souza IA and Henriques AT. 1993. Chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Peschiera australis. Int J Pharmacogn 31(4):288-294.
83. Reid RC, Prausnitz JM and Poling BE. 1987. The Properties of Gases and Liquids. New York:McGraw-Hill.
84. Revilla E and Ryan JM. 2000. Analysis of several phenolic compounds with potential antioxidant properties in grape extracts and wines by high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection without sample preparation. J Chromatogr 881(1-2):461-469.
85. Rice-Evans CA, Miller NJ and Paganga G. 1996. Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radic Biol Med 20(7):933-956.
86. Rissanen TH, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, Salonen R, Kaplan GA and Salonen JT. 2003. Serum lycopene concentrations and carotid atherosclerosis: The Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Am J Clin Nutr 77(1):133-138.
87. Rozzi NL, Singh RK, Vierling RA and Watkins BA. 2002. Supercritical fluid extraction of lycopene from tomato processing byproducts. J Agric Food Chem 50(9):2638-2643.
88. Ruiz del Castillo ML, Gomez-Prieto MS, Herraiz M and Santa-Maria G. 2003. Lipid composition in tomato skin supercritical fluid extracts with high lycopene content. J Am Oil Chem Soc 80(3):271- 274.
89. Saldaña MDA. 1997. Extraction of caffeine, trigonelline and chlorogenic acid from Brazilian coffee beans using supercritical CO2 MSc. Thesis, UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil.
90. Saldaña MDA, Mazzafera P and Mohamed RS. 1999. Extraction of purine alkaloids from maté (Ilex paraguariensis) using supercritical CO2. J Agric Food Chem 47:3804-3808.
91. Saldaña MDA, Mohamed RS and Mazzafera P. 2000. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of methylxanthines from maté tea leaves. Braz J Chem Eng 17:251-259.
92. Saldaña MDA, Zetzl C, Mohamed RS and Brunner G. 2002a. Decaffeination of guaraná seeds in a microextraction column using water-saturated CO2. J Supercrit Fluids 22:119-127.
93. Saldaña MDA, Zetzl C, Mohamed RS and Brunner G. 2002b. Extraction of methylxanthines from guaraná seeds, maté leaves, and cocoa beans using supercritical carbon dioxide and ethanol. J Agric Food Chem 50:4820-4826.
94. Saldaña MDA, Mohamed RS and Mazzafera P. 2002c. Extraction of cocoa butter from Brazilian cocoa beans using supercritical CO2 and ethane. Fluid Phase Equilib 194-197:885-894.
95. Saldaña MDA, Li S, Guigard SE and Temelli F. 2006. Comparison of the solubility of β-carotene in supercritical CO2 based on a binary and a multicomponent complex system. J Supercrit Fluids 37(3):342- 349.
96. Saldaña MDA, Tomberli B, Guigard SE, Goldman S, Gray CG and Temelli F. 2007. Determination of vapor pressure and solubility correlation of phenolic compounds in supercritical CO2. J Supercrit Fluids 40(1):7-19.
97. Sanders N. 1993. Food legislation and the scope for increased use of near-critical fluid extraction operations in food, flavoring and pharmaceutical industries. In: King MB and Bott TR, editors. Extraction of Natural Products Using Near-Critical Solvents. Glasgow: Blackie Academic, pp. 34-49.
98. Scientific Committee on Food. 2002. General View of the Scientific Committee on Food on the Long-term Effects of the Intake of Elevated Levels of Phytosterols from Multiple Dietary Sources, with Particular Attention to the Effects on β-carotene. SCF/CS/NF/DOS/20 ADD 1 Final, European Commission, Brussels, Belgium.
99. Shen Z, Palmer MV, Ting SST and Fairclough RJ. 1996. Pilot scale extraction of rice bran oil with dense carbon dioxide. J Agric Food Chem 44(10):3033-3039.
100. Shen Z, Palmer MV, Ting SST and Fairclough RJ. 1997. Pilot scale extraction and fractionation of rice bran oil using supercritical carbon dioxide. J Agric Food Chem 45(12):4540-4544.
101. Shi J. 2001. European Patent Appl.WO2001CA00478 20010406. European PatentWO0179355. Separation of carotenoids from fruits and vegetables.
102. Shi J and Le Maguer M 2000. Lycopene in tomatoes: chemical and physical properties affected by food processing. Crit Rev Food Sci 40(1):1-42.
103. Simándi B, Kristo SzT, Kéry A, Selmeczi LK, Kmecz I and Kemény S. 2002. Supercritical fluid extraction of dandelion leaves. J Supercrit Fluids 23:135-142.
104. Sotelo A and Alvarez RG. 1991. Chemical composition of wild Theobroma species and their comparison to the cacao bean. J Agric Food Chem 39:1940-1943.
105. Sovova H, Kucera J and Jez J. 1994. Rate of the vegetable oil extraction with supercritical CO2-II. Extraction of grape oil. Chem Eng Sci 49(3):415-420.
106. Subra P, Castellani S, Jestin P and Aoufi A. 1998. Extraction of β-carotene with supercritical fluids: experiments and modeling. J Supercrit Fluids 12:261-269.
107. Sun M and Temelli F. 2006. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of carotenoids from carrot using canola oil as a continuous co-solvent. J Supercrit Fluids 37(3):397-408.
108. Szentmihalyi K, Vinkler P, Lakatos B, Illes V and Then M. 2002. Rose hip (Rosa canina L.) oil obtained from waste hip seeds by different extraction methods. Bioresour Technol 82(2):195- 201.
109. Uquiche E, Jeréz M and Ortíz J. 2008. Effect of pretreatment with microwaves on mechanical extraction yield and quality of vegetable oil from Chilean hazelnuts (Gevuina avellana Mol). Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 9(4):495-500.
110. Van Het Hof KH, de Boer BCJ, Tijburg LBM, Lucius BRHM, Zijp I, West CE, Hautvast JGAJ and Weststrate JA. 2000. Carotenoid bioavailability in humans from tomatoes processed in different ways determined from the carotenoid response in the triglyceride-rich lipoprotein fraction of plasma after a single consumption and in plasma after four days of consumption. J Nutr 130: 1189- 1196.
111. Vasapollo G, Longo L, Rescio L and Ciurlia L 2004. Innovative supercritical CO2 extraction of lycopene from tomato in the presence of vegetable oil as co-solvent. J Supercrit Fluids 29(1-2): 87-96.
112. Vatai T, Škerget M and Eljko Knez Z. 2009. Extraction of phenolic compounds from elder berry and different grape marc varieties using organic solvents and/or supercritical carbon dioxide. J Food Eng 90(2):246-254.
113. Wang J, Xiao X and Li G. 2008. Study of vacuum microwave-assisted extraction of polyphenolic compounds and pigment from Chinese herbs. J Chromatogr A 1198-1199:45-53.
114. Wang ZY, Huang M, Lou Y, Xie J, Reuhl K, Newmark H, Ho C, Yang C and Conney A. 1994. Inhibitory effects of black tea, green tea, decaffeinated black tea, and decaffeinated green tea on ultraviolet B light-induced skin carcinogenesis in 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-initiated SKH-1 mice. Cancer Res 54(13):3428-3435.
115. Zhang C, Brusewitz GH, Maness NO and Gasem KAM. 1995. Feasibility of using supercritical carbon dioxide for extracting oil from whole pecans. Trans ASAE 38(6):1763-1767.