Impairment of autophagy: From hereditary disorder to drug intoxication

Toxicology

Volumn 311, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 205-215

  Aki, Toshihiko ^a   Funakoshi, Takeshi ^a   Unuma, Kana ^a   Uemura, Koichi ^a  

^a TOKYO MEDICAL AND DENTAL UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Autophagy; Drug; Hereditary disorder; Toxicology

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; ARSENIC; ARSENIC TRIOXIDE; BAFILOMYCIN A1; CADMIUM; CARBAMAZEPINE; CHLOROQUINE; CYCLOPHILIN D; CYTOCHROME P450 2E1; KELCH LIKE ECH ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 1; METHAMPHETAMINE; NIMODIPINE; PARAQUAT; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR NRF2; VERAPAMIL;

AGGRESOME; ALCOHOL METABOLISM; ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; AUTOPHAGOSOME; AUTOPHAGY; BRAIN TOXICITY; CARDIOTOXICITY; CELL DEATH; CELL ORGANELLE; CELL PROTECTION; CELL VACUOLE; CHAPERONE-MEDIATED AUTOPHAGY; COMPLEX FORMATION; CONJUGATION; CYTOTOXICITY; DOPAMINERGIC NERVE CELL; DRUG INTOXICATION; ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM STRESS; ENDOSOME; GENETIC DISORDER; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL; HUNTINGTON CHOREA; INTOXICATION; LIVER CELL; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER TOXICITY; LOSS OF FUNCTION MUTATION; LUNG TOXICITY; LYSOSOME; LYSOSOME MEMBRANE; MACROAUTOPHAGY; MEMBRANE POTENTIAL; MICROAUTOPHAGY; MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE POTENTIAL; MITOPHAGY; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLE; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY; OLIGOMERIZATION; OUTER MEMBRANE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROMYELOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN DOMAIN; REVIEW; SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE; STARVATION;

AMP-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; AMPK; AUTOPHAGY; BCL2/ADENOVIRUS E1B NINETEEN KDA PROTEIN-INTERACTING PROTEIN 3; BNIP3; CYP2E1; CYTOCHROME P450 2E1; DRUG; FIP200; FK506-BINDING PROTEIN 12; FKBP12; FOCAL ADHESION KINASE FAMILY-INTERACTING PROTEIN OF 200KDA; HEREDITARY DISORDER; KEAP1; KELCH-LIKE ECH ASSOCIATED PROTEIN1; LAMP; LC3; LIVER KINASE B1; LKB1; LYSOSOME-ASSOCIATED MEMBRANE PROTEIN; MAMMALIAN TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN; MICROTUBLE-ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 1 LIGHT CHAIN 3; MITOCHONDRIAL PERMEABILITY TRANSITION; MPT; MTOR; NBR1; NEIGHBOR OF BRCA1 GENE; NIEMANN-PICK TYPE C; NIP3-LIKE PROTEIN X; NIX; NPC; NRF2; NUCLEAR FACTOR-ERYTHROID 2-RELATED FACTOR 2; P62/SEQUESTOSOME1; P62/SQSTM1; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL; PI; PINK1; PML/RARA; PROMYELOCYTIC LEUKEMIA PROTEIN/RETINOIC ACID RECEPTOR Α; PTEN-INDUCIBLE PUTATIVE KINASE PROTEIN1; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; ROS; SOD; SUPEROXIDE ANION DISMUTASE; TFEB; TOXICOLOGY; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR EB; ULK1/2; UNC-51-LIKE KINASE1/2;

ANIMALS; AUTOPHAGY; DRUG TOXICITY; GENETIC DISEASES, INBORN; HUMANS;

EID: 84881228158     PISSN: 0300483X     EISSN: 18793185     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2013.07.001     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Abouhamed M., Wolff N.A., Lee W.K., Smith C.P., Thevenod F. Knockdown of endosomal/lysosomal divalent metal transporter 1 by RNA interference prevents cadmium-metallothionein-1 cytotoxicity in renal proximal tubule cells. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 2007, 293:F705-F712.
2. Aki T., Nara A., Uemura K. Cytoplasmic vacuolization during exposure to drugs and other substances. Cell Biol. Toxicol. 2012, 28:125-131.
3. Al Rawi S., Louvet-Vallee S., Djeddi A., Sachse M., Culetto E., Hajjar C., Boyd L., Legouis R., Galy V. Postfertilization autophagy of sperm organelles prevents paternal mitochondrial DNA transmission. Science 2011, 334:1144-1147.
4. Alers S., Loffler A.S., Wesselborg S., Stork B. Role of AMPK-mTOR-Ulk1/2 in the regulation of autophagy: cross talk, shortcuts, and feedbacks. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2012, 32:2-11.
5. Alexander A., Walker C.L. The role of LKB1 and AMPK in cellular responses to stress and damage. FEBS Lett. 2011, 585:952-957.
6. Baird L., Dinkova-Kostova A.T. The cytoprotective role of the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway. Arch. Toxicol. 2011, 85:241-272.
7. Bensaad K., Cheung E.C., Vousden K.H. Modulation of intracellular ROS levels by TIGAR controls autophagy. EMBO J. 2009, 28:3015-3026.
8. Bjorkoy G., Lamark T., Brech A., Outzen H., Perander M., Overvatn A., Stenmark H., Johansen T. p62/SQSTM1 forms protein aggregates degraded by autophagy and has a protective effect on huntingtin-induced cell death. J. Cell Biol. 2005, 171:603-614.
9. Blommaart E.F., Krause U., Schellens J.P., Vreeling-Sindelarova H., Meijer A.J. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002 inhibit autophagy in isolated rat hepatocytes. Eur. J. Biochem. 1997, 243:240-246.
10. Carreira R.S., Lee Y., Ghochani M., Gustafsson A.B., Gottlieb R.A. Cyclophilin D is required for mitochondrial removal by autophagy in cardiac cells. Autophagy 2010, 6:462-472.
11. Chargui A., Zekri S., Jacquillet G., Rubera I., Ilie M., Belaid A., Duranton C., Tauc M., Hofman P., Poujeol P., El May M.V., Mograbi B. Cadmium-induced autophagy in rat kidney: an early biomarker of subtoxic exposure. Toxicol. Sci. 2011, 121:31-42.
12. Chauhan S., Goodwin J.G., Manyam G., Wang J., Kamat A.M., Boyd D.D. ZKSCAN3 is a master transcriptional repressor of autophagy. Mol. Cell. 2013, 50:16-28.
13. Chen Y., Azad M.B., Gibson S.B. Superoxide is the major reactive oxygen species regulating autophagy. Cell Death Differ. 2009, 16:1040-1052.
14. Chen Y.W., Yang Y.T., Hung D.Z., Su C.C., Chen K.L. Paraquat induces lung alveolar epithelial cell apoptosis via Nrf-2-regulated mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress. Arch. Toxicol. 2012, 86:1547-1558.
15. Chen G., Ke Z., Xu M., Liao M., Wang X., Qi Y., Zhang T., Frank J.A., Bower K.A., Shi X., Luo J. Autophagy is a protective response to ethanol neurotoxicity. Autophagy 2012, 8:1577-1589.
16. Cubells J.F., Rayport S., Rajendran G., Sulzer D. Methamphetamine neurotoxicity involves vacuolation of endocytic organelles and dopamine-dependent intracellular oxidative stress. J. Neurosci. 1994, 14:2260-2271.
17. Cuervo A.M., Stefanis L., Fredenburg R., Lansbury P.T., Sulzer D. Impaired degradation of mutant alpha-synuclein by chaperone-mediated autophagy. Science 2004, 305:1292-1295.
18. de Duve C., de Barsy T., Poole B., Trouet A., Tulkens P., Van Hoof F. Commentary. Lysosomotropic agents. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1974, 23:2495-2531.
19. Decressac M., Mattsson B., Weikop P., Lundblad M., Jakobsson J., Bjorklund A. TFEB-mediated autophagy rescues midbrain dopamine neurons from alpha-synuclein toxicity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2013, 110:E1817-E1826.
20. Decuypere J.P., Bultynck G., Parys J.B. A dual role for Ca(2+) in autophagy regulation. Cell Calcium 2011, 50:242-250.
21. Dehay B., Bove J., Rodriguez-Muela N., Perier C., Recasens A., Boya P., Vila M. Pathogenic lysosomal depletion in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30:12535-12544.
22. Dennemarker J., Lohmuller T., Muller S., Aguilar S.V., Tobin D.J., Peters C., Reinheckel T. Impaired turnover of autophagolysosomes in cathepsin L deficiency. Biol. Chem. 2010, 391:913-922.
23. Di Gioacchino M., Petrarca C., Perrone A., Farina M., Sabbioni E., Hartung T., Martino S., Esposito D.L., Lotti L.V., Mariani-Costantini R. Autophagy as an ultrastructural marker of heavy metal toxicity in human cord blood hematopoietic stem cells. Sci. Total Environ. 2008, 392:50-58.
24. Ding W.X., Li M., Chen X., Ni H.M., Lin C.W., Gao W., Lu B., Stolz D.B., Clemens D.L., Yin X.M. Autophagy reduces acute ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity and steatosis in mice. Gastroenterology 2010, 139:1740-1752.
25. Dinkova-Kostova A.T., Holtzclaw W.D., Cole R.N., Itoh K., Wakabayashi N., Katoh Y., Yamamoto M., Talalay P. Direct evidence that sulfhydryl groups of Keap1 are the sensors regulating induction of phase 2 enzymes that protect against carcinogens and oxidants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002, 99:11908-11913.
26. Dolganiuc A., Thomes P.G., Ding W.X., Lemasters J.J., Donohue T.M. Autophagy in alcohol-induced liver diseases. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2012, 36:1301-1308.
27. Duarte F.V., Teodoro J.S., Rolo A.P., Palmeira C.M. Exposure to dibenzofuran triggers autophagy in lung cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2012, 209:35-42.
28. Elmore S.P., Qian T., Grissom S.F., Lemasters J.J. The mitochondrial permeability transition initiates autophagy in rat hepatocytes. FASEB J. 2001, 15:2286-2287.
29. Fiorito F., Ciarcia R., Granato G.E., Marfe G., Iovane V., Florio S., De Martino L., Pagnini U. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin induced autophagy in a bovine kidney cell line. Toxicology 2011, 290:258-270.
30. Fleming A., Noda T., Yoshimori T., Rubinsztein D.C. Chemical modulators of autophagy as biological probes and potential therapeutics. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2011, 7:9-17.
31. Fornai F., Longone P., Cafaro L., Kastsiuchenka O., Ferrucci M., Manca M.L., Lazzeri G., Spalloni A., Bellio N., Lenzi P., Modugno N., Siciliano G., Isidoro C., Murri L., Ruggieri S., Paparelli A. Lithium delays progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2008, 105:2052-2057.
32. Fortunato F., Burgers H., Bergmann F., Rieger P., Buchler M.W., Kroemer G., Werner J. Impaired autolysosome formation correlates with Lamp-2 depletion: role of apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis in pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2009, 137:350-360. 360 e351-355.
33. Fujita N., Itoh T., Omori H., Fukuda M., Noda T., Yoshimori T. The Atg16L complex specifies the site of LC3 lipidation for membrane biogenesis in autophagy. Mol. Biol. Cell 2008, 19:2092-2100.
34. Ganley I.G., Wong P.M., Gammoh N., Jiang X. Distinct autophagosomal-lysosomal fusion mechanism revealed by thapsigargin-induced autophagy arrest. Mol. Cell 2011, 42:731-743.
35. Ge W., Ren J. mTOR-STAT3-notch signalling contributes to ALDH2-induced protection against cardiac contractile dysfunction and autophagy under alcoholism. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 2012, 16:616-626.
36. Ge W., Guo R., Ren J. AMP-dependent kinase and autophagic flux are involved in aldehyde dehydrogenase-2-induced protection against cardiac toxicity of ethanol. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2011, 51:1736-1748.
37. Gonzalez-Polo R.A., Niso-Santano M., Ortiz-Ortiz M.A., Gomez-Martin A., Moran J.M., Garcia-Rubio L., Francisco-Morcillo J., Zaragoza C., Soler G., Fuentes J.M. Inhibition of paraquat-induced autophagy accelerates the apoptotic cell death in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Toxicol. Sci. 2007, 97:448-458.
38. Gonzalez-Polo R., Niso-Santano M., Moran J.M., Ortiz-Ortiz M.A., Bravo-San Pedro J.M., Soler G., Fuentes J.M. Silencing DJ-1 reveals its contribution in paraquat-induced autophagy. J. Neurochem. 2009, 109:889-898.
39. Guo R., Ren J. Deficiency in AMPK attenuates ethanol-induced cardiac contractile dysfunction through inhibition of autophagosome formation. Cardiovasc. Res. 2012, 94:480-491.
40. Guo R., Hu N., Kandadi M.R., Ren J. Facilitated ethanol metabolism promotes cardiomyocyte contractile dysfunction through autophagy in murine hearts. Autophagy 2012, 8:593-608.
41. Gustafsson A.B., Gottlieb R.A. Autophagy in ischemic heart disease. Circ. Res. 2009, 104:150-158.
42. Hamasaki M., Furuta N., Matsuda A., Nezu A., Yamamoto A., Fujita N., Oomori H., Noda T., Haraguchi T., Hiraoka Y., Amano A., Yoshimori T. Autophagosomes form at ER-mitochondria contact sites. Nature 2013, 495:389-393.
43. Hara T., Nakamura K., Matsui M., Yamamoto A., Nakahara Y., Suzuki-Migishima R., Yokoyama M., Mishima K., Saito I., Okano H., Mizushima N. Suppression of basal autophagy in neural cells causes neurodegenerative disease in mice. Nature 2006, 441:885-889.
44. Hernandez-Gea V., Hilscher M., Rozenfeld R., Lim M.P., Nieto N., Werner S., Devi L.A., Friedman S.L. Endoplasmic reticulum stress induces fibrogenic activity in hepatic stellate cells through autophagy. J. Hepatol. 2013, 59:98-104.
45. Hosokawa N., Hara T., Kaizuka T., Kishi C., Takamura A., Miura Y., Iemura S., Natsume T., Takehana K., Yamada N., Guan J.L., Oshiro N., Mizushima N. Nutrient-dependent mTORC1 association with the ULK1-Atg13-FIP200 complex required for autophagy. Mol. Biol. Cell 2009, 20:1981-1991.
46. Hoyer-Hansen M., Bastholm L., Szyniarowski P., Campanella M., Szabadkai G., Farkas T., Bianchi K., Fehrenbacher N., Elling F., Rizzuto R., Mathiasen I.S., Jaattela M. Control of macroautophagy by calcium, calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase-beta, and Bcl-2. Mol. Cell 2007, 25:193-205.
47. Ichimura Y., Kirisako T., Takao T., Satomi Y., Shimonishi Y., Ishihara N., Mizushima N., Tanida I., Kominami E., Ohsumi M., Noda T., Ohsumi Y. A ubiquitin-like system mediates protein lipidation. Nature 2000, 408:488-492.
48. Isakson P., Bjoras M., Boe S.O., Simonsen A. Autophagy contributes to therapy-induced degradation of the PML/RARA oncoprotein. Blood 2010, 116:2324-2331.
49. Itakura E., Kishi-Itakura C., Mizushima N. The hairpin-type tail-anchored SNARE syntaxin 17 targets to autophagosomes for fusion with endosomes/lysosomes. Cell 2012, 151:1256-1269.
50. Jager S., Bucci C., Tanida I., Ueno T., Kominami E., Saftig P., Eskelinen E.L. Role for Rab7 in maturation of late autophagic vacuoles. J. Cell Sci. 2004, 117:4837-4848.
51. 3. Cancer Cell 2010, 18:88-98.
52. Jewell J.L., Russell R.C., Guan K.L. Amino acid signalling upstream of mTOR. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2013, 14:133-139.
53. Johansen T., Lamark T. Selective autophagy mediated by autophagic adapter proteins. Autophagy 2011, 7:279-296.
54. Johri N., Jacquillet G., Unwin R. Heavy metal poisoning: the effects of cadmium on the kidney. Biometals 2010, 23:783-792.
55. Jomova K., Valko M. Advances in metal-induced oxidative stress and human disease. Toxicology 2011, 283:65-87.
56. Kabeya Y., Mizushima N., Ueno T., Yamamoto A., Kirisako T., Noda T., Kominami E., Ohsumi Y., Yoshimori T. LC3, a mammalian homologue of yeast Apg8p, is localized in autophagosome membranes after processing. EMBO J. 2000, 19:5720-5728.
57. Kanthasamy A., Anantharam V., Ali S.F., Kanthasamy A.G. Methamphetamine induces autophagy and apoptosis in a mesencephalic dopaminergic neuronal culture model: role of cathepsin-D in methamphetamine-induced apoptotic cell death. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2006, 1074:234-244.
58. Kanzawa T., Kondo Y., Ito H., Kondo S., Germano I. Induction of autophagic cell death in malignant glioma cells by arsenic trioxide. Cancer Res. 2003, 63:2103-2108.
59. Kanzawa T., Zhang L., Xiao L., Germano I.M., Kondo Y., Kondo S. Arsenic trioxide induces autophagic cell death in malignant glioma cells by upregulation of mitochondrial cell death protein BNIP3. Oncogene 2005, 24:980-991.
60. Kihara A., Kabeya Y., Ohsumi Y., Yoshimori T. Beclin-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complex functions at the trans-Golgi network. EMBO Rep. 2001, 2:330-335.
61. Kissova I., Salin B., Schaeffer J., Bhatia S., Manon S., Camougrand N. Selective and non-selective autophagic degradation of mitochondria in yeast. Autophagy 2007, 3:329-336.
62. Kitada T., Asakawa S., Hattori N., Matsumine H., Yamamura Y., Minoshima S., Yokochi M., Mizuno Y., Shimizu N. Mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Nature 1998, 392:605-608.
63. Klionsky D.J., Cregg J.M., Dunn W.A., Emr S.D., Sakai Y., Sandoval I.V., Sibirny A., Subramani S., Thumm M., Veenhuis M., Ohsumi Y. A unified nomenclature for yeast autophagy-related genes. Dev. Cell 2003, 5:539-545.
64. Komatsu M., Waguri S., Ueno T., Iwata J., Murata S., Tanida I., Ezaki J., Mizushima N., Ohsumi Y., Uchiyama Y., Kominami E., Tanaka K., Chiba T. Impairment of starvation-induced and constitutive autophagy in Atg7-deficient mice. J. Cell Biol. 2005, 169:425-434.
65. Komatsu M., Waguri S., Chiba T., Murata S., Iwata J., Tanida I., Ueno T., Koike M., Uchiyama Y., Kominami E., Tanaka K. Loss of autophagy in the central nervous system causes neurodegeneration in mice. Nature 2006, 441:880-884.
66. Komatsu M., Kurokawa H., Waguri S., Taguchi K., Kobayashi A., Ichimura Y., Sou Y.S., Ueno I., Sakamoto A., Tong K.I., Kim M., Nishito Y., Iemura S., Natsume T., Ueno T., Kominami E., Motohashi H., Tanaka K., Yamamoto M. The selective autophagy substrate p62 activates the stress responsive transcription factor Nrf2 through inactivation of Keap1. Nat. Cell Biol. 2010, 12:213-223.
67. Kroemer G., Levine B. Autophagic cell death: the story of a misnomer. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2008, 9:1004-1010.
68. Larsen K.E., Fon E.A., Hastings T.G., Edwards R.H., Sulzer D. Methamphetamine-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons involves autophagy and upregulation of dopamine synthesis. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22:8951-8960.
69. Lau A., Wang X.J., Zhao F., Villeneuve N.F., Wu T., Jiang T., Sun Z., White E., Zhang D.D. A noncanonical mechanism of Nrf2 activation by autophagy deficiency: direct interaction between Keap1 and p62. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2010, 30:3275-3285.
70. Lindmo K., Stenmark H. Regulation of membrane traffic by phosphoinositide 3-kinases. J. Cell Sci. 2006, 119:605-614.
71. Liu K., Czaja M.J. Regulation of lipid stores and metabolism by lipophagy. Cell Death Differ. 2013, 20:3-11.
72. Lu Y., Zhuge J., Wang X., Bai J., Cederbaum A.I. Cytochrome P450 2E1 contributes to ethanol-induced fatty liver in mice. Hepatology 2008, 47:1483-1494.
73. Lu Y., Wu D., Wang X., Ward S.C., Cederbaum A.I. Chronic alcohol-induced liver injury and oxidant stress are decreased in cytochrome P4502E1 knockout mice and restored in humanized cytochrome P4502E1 knock-in mice. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2010, 49:1406-1416.
74. Ma X., Liu H., Foyil S.R., Godar R.J., Weinheimer C.J., Hill J.A., Diwan A. Impaired autophagosome clearance contributes to cardiomyocyte death in ischemia/reperfusion injury. Circulation 2012, 125:3170-3181.
75. Malicdan M.C., Noguchi S., Nonaka I., Saftig P., Nishino I. Lysosomal myopathies: an excessive build-up in autophagosomes is too much to handle. Neuromuscul. Disord. 2008, 18:521-529.
76. Marceau F., Bawolak M.T., Lodge R., Bouthillier J., Gagne-Henley A., Gaudreault R.C., Morissette G. Cation trapping by cellular acidic compartments: beyond the concept of lysosomotropic drugs. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2012, 259:1-12.
77. Matsuda N., Sato S., Shiba K., Okatsu K., Saisho K., Gautier C.A., Sou Y.S., Saiki S., Kawajiri S., Sato F., Kimura M., Komatsu M., Hattori N., Tanaka K. PINK1 stabilized by mitochondrial depolarization recruits Parkin to damaged mitochondria and activates latent Parkin for mitophagy. J. Cell Biol. 2010, 189:211-221.
78. Messner B., Ploner C., Laufer G., Bernhard D. Cadmium activates a programmed, lysosomal membrane permeabilization-dependent necrosis pathway. Toxicol. Lett. 2012, 212:268-275.
79. Mijaljica D., Prescott M., Devenish R.J. Microautophagy in mammalian cells: revisiting a 40-year-old conundrum. Autophagy 2011, 7:673-682.
80. Miller W.H., Schipper H.M., Lee J.S., Singer J., Waxman S. Mechanisms of action of arsenic trioxide. Cancer Res. 2002, 62:3893-3903.
81. Mizushima N., Yoshimori T. How to interpret LC3 immunoblotting. Autophagy 2007, 3:542-545.
82. Mizushima N., Levine B., Cuervo A.M., Klionsky D.J. Autophagy fights disease through cellular self-digestion. Nature 2008, 451:1069-1075.
83. Mostafalou S., Abdollahi M. Pesticides and human chronic diseases: evidences, mechanisms, and perspectives. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2013, 268:157-177.
84. Moszczynska A., Yamamoto B.K. Methamphetamine oxidatively damages parkin and decreases the activity of 26S proteasome in vivo. J. Neurochem. 2011, 116:1005-1017.
85. Nasr R., de The H. Eradication of acute promyelocytic leukemia-initiating cells by PML/RARA-targeting. Int. J. Hematol. 2010, 91:742-747.
86. Nishino I., Fu J., Tanji K., Yamada T., Shimojo S., Koori T., Mora M., Riggs J.E., Oh S.J., Koga Y., Sue C.M., Yamamoto A., Murakami N., Shanske S., Byrne E., Bonilla E., Nonaka I., DiMauro S., Hirano M. Primary LAMP-2 deficiency causes X-linked vacuolar cardiomyopathy and myopathy (Danon disease). Nature 2000, 406:906-910.
87. Niso-Santano M., Bravo-San Pedro J.M., Gomez-Sanchez R., Climent V., Soler G., Fuentes J.M., Gonzalez-Polo R.A. ASK1 overexpression accelerates paraquat-induced autophagy via endoplasmic reticulum stress. Toxicol. Sci. 2011, 119:156-168.
88. Nixon R.A. Autophagy, amyloidogenesis and Alzheimer disease. J. Cell Sci. 2007, 120:4081-4091.
89. Noda T., Ohsumi Y. Tor, a phosphatidylinositol kinase homologue, controls autophagy in yeast. J. Biol. Chem. 1998, 273:3963-3966.
90. Novak I., Kirkin V., McEwan D.G., Zhang J., Wild P., Rozenknop A., Rogov V., Lohr F., Popovic D., Occhipinti A., Reichert A.S., Terzic J., Dotsch V., Ney P.A., Dikic I. Nix is a selective autophagy receptor for mitochondrial clearance. EMBO Rep. 2010, 11:45-51.
91. Nunnari J., Suomalainen A. Mitochondria: in sickness and in health. Cell 2012, 148:1145-1159.
92. O'Keefe J.H., Bybee K.A., Lavie C.J. Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the razor-sharp double-edged sword. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2007, 50:1009-1014.
93. Oda M.N., Scott S.V., Hefner-Gravink A., Caffarelli A.D., Klionsky D.J. Identification of a cytoplasm to vacuole targeting determinant in aminopeptidase I. J. Cell Biol. 1996, 132:999-1010.
94. Ogata M., Hino S., Saito A., Morikawa K., Kondo S., Kanemoto S., Murakami T., Taniguchi M., Tanii I., Yoshinaga K., Shiosaka S., Hammarback J.A., Urano F., Imaizumi K. Autophagy is activated for cell survival after endoplasmic reticulum stress. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2006, 26:9220-9231.
95. Ohsumi Y. Molecular dissection of autophagy: two ubiquitin-like systems. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2001, 2:211-216.
96. Ohsumi Y., Mizushima N. Two ubiquitin-like conjugation systems essential for autophagy. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2004, 15:231-236.
97. Omura T., Asari M., Yamamoto J., Oka K., Hoshina C., Maseda C., Awaya T., Tasaki Y., Shiono H., Yonezawa A., Masuda S., Matsubara K., Shimizu K. Sodium tauroursodeoxycholate prevents paraquat-induced cell death by suppressing endoplasmic reticulum stress responses in human lung epithelial A549 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2013, 432:689-694.
98. Orenstein S.J., Cuervo A.M. Chaperone-mediated autophagy: molecular mechanisms and physiological relevance. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2010, 21:719-726.
99. Pacheco C.D., Lieberman A.P. The pathogenesis of Niemann-Pick type C disease: a role for autophagy?. Expert Rev. Mol. Med. 2008, 10:e26.
100. Park J.H., Lee J.E., Shin I.C., Koh H.C. Autophagy regulates chlorpyrifos-induced apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2013, 268:55-67.
101. Pasquali L., Lazzeri G., Isidoro C., Ruggieri S., Paparelli A., Fornai F. Role of autophagy during methamphetamine neurotoxicity. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2008, 1139:191-196.
102. Pastore N., Ballabio A., Brunetti-Pierri N. Autophagy master regulator TFEB induces clearance of toxic SERPINA1/alpha-1-antitrypsin polymers. Autophagy 2013, 9:1094-1096.
103. Peake K.B., Vance J.E. Defective cholesterol trafficking in Niemann-Pick C-deficient cells. FEBS Lett. 2010, 584:2731-2739.
104. Rubinsztein D.C., Shpilka T., Elazar Z. Mechanisms of autophagosome biogenesis. Curr. Biol. 2012, 22:R29-R34.
105. Salazar M., Carracedo A., Salanueva I.J., Hernandez-Tiedra S., Lorente M., Egia A., Vazquez P., Blazquez C., Torres S., Garcia S., Nowak J., Fimia G.M., Piacentini M., Cecconi F., Pandolfi P.P., Gonzalez-Feria L., Iovanna J.L., Guzman M., Boya P., Velasco G. Cannabinoid action induces autophagy-mediated cell death through stimulation of ER stress in human glioma cells. J. Clin. Invest. 2009, 119:1359-1372.
106. Sandoval H., Thiagarajan P., Dasgupta S.K., Schumacher A., Prchal J.T., Chen M., Wang J. Essential role for Nix in autophagic maturation of erythroid cells. Nature 2008, 454:232-235.
107. Sardiello M., Palmieri M., di Ronza A., Medina D.L., Valenza M., Gennarino V.A., Di Malta C., Donaudy F., Embrione V., Polishchuk R.S., Banfi S., Parenti G., Cattaneo E., Ballabio A. A gene network regulating lysosomal biogenesis and function. Science 2009, 325:473-477.
108. Sarkar S., Floto R.A., Berger Z., Imarisio S., Cordenier A., Pasco M., Cook L.J., Rubinsztein D.C. Lithium induces autophagy by inhibiting inositol monophosphatase. J. Cell Biol. 2005, 170:1101-1111.
109. Sarkar S., Davies J.E., Huang Z., Tunnacliffe A., Rubinsztein D.C. Trehalose, a novel mTOR-independent autophagy enhancer, accelerates the clearance of mutant huntingtin and alpha-synuclein. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282:5641-5652.
110. Sato M., Sato K. Degradation of paternal mitochondria by fertilization-triggered autophagy in C. elegans embryos. Science 2011, 334:1141-1144.
111. Scherz-Shouval R., Shvets E., Fass E., Shorer H., Gil L., Elazar Z. Reactive oxygen species are essential for autophagy and specifically regulate the activity of Atg4. EMBO J. 2007, 26:1749-1760.
112. Schweers R.L., Zhang J., Randall M.S., Loyd M.R., Li W., Dorsey F.C., Kundu M., Opferman J.T., Cleveland J.L., Miller J.L., Ney P.A. NIX is required for programmed mitochondrial clearance during reticulocyte maturation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2007, 104:19500-19505.
113. Seglen P.O., Gordon P.B. 3-Methyladenine: specific inhibitor of autophagic/lysosomal protein degradation in isolated rat hepatocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1982, 79:1889-1892.
114. Sena L.A., Chandel N.S. Physiological roles of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. Mol. Cell 2012, 48:158-167.
115. Settembre C., Di Malta C., Polito V.A., Garcia Arencibia M., Vetrini F., Erdin S., Erdin S.U., Huynh T., Medina D., Colella P., Sardiello M., Rubinsztein D.C., Ballabio A. TFEB links autophagy to lysosomal biogenesis. Science 2011, 332:1429-1433.
116. Shen S., Kepp O., Kroemer G. The end of autophagic cell death?. Autophagy 2012, 8:1-3.
117. Suzuki K., Ohsumi Y. Current knowledge of the pre-autophagosomal structure (PAS). FEBS Lett. 2010, 584:1280-1286.
118. Talloczy Z., Martinez J., Joset D., Ray Y., Gacser A., Toussi S., Mizushima N., Nosanchuk J.D., Goldstein H., Loike J., Sulzer D., Santambrogio L. Methamphetamine inhibits antigen processing, presentation, and phagocytosis. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4:e28.
119. Tanaka Y., Guhde G., Suter A., Eskelinen E.L., Hartmann D., Lullmann-Rauch R., Janssen P.M., Blanz J., von Figura K., Saftig P. Accumulation of autophagic vacuoles and cardiomyopathy in LAMP-2-deficient mice. Nature 2000, 406:902-906.
120. Thomes P.G., Ehlers R.A., Trambly C.S., Clemens D.L., Fox H.S., Tuma D.J., Donohue T.M. Multilevel regulation of autophagosome content by ethanol oxidation in HepG2 cells. Autophagy 2013, 9:63-73.
121. Tsukada M., Ohsumi Y. Isolation and characterization of autophagy-defective mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEBS Lett. 1993, 333:169-174.
122. Valente E.M., Abou-Sleiman P.M., Caputo V., Muqit M.M., Harvey K., Gispert S., Ali Z., Del Turco D., Bentivoglio A.R., Healy D.G., Albanese A., Nussbaum R., Gonzalez-Maldonado R., Deller T., Salvi S., Cortelli P., Gilks W.P., Latchman D.S., Harvey R.J., Dallapiccola B., Auburger G., Wood N.W. Hereditary early-onset Parkinson's disease caused by mutations in PINK1. Science 2004, 304:1158-1160.
123. Vives-Bauza C., Zhou C., Huang Y., Cui M., de Vries R.L., Kim J., May J., Tocilescu M.A., Liu W., Ko H.S., Magrane J., Moore D.J., Dawson V.L., Grailhe R., Dawson T.M., Li C., Tieu K., Przedborski S. PINK1-dependent recruitment of Parkin to mitochondria in mitophagy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2010, 107:378-383.
124. von Haefen C., Sifringer M., Menk M., Spies C.D. Ethanol enhances susceptibility to apoptotic cell death via down-regulation of autophagy-related proteins. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2011, 35:1381-1391.
125. Wang S.H., Shih Y.L., Kuo T.C., Ko W.C., Shih C.M. Cadmium toxicity toward autophagy through ROS-activated GSK-3beta in mesangial cells. Toxicol. Sci. 2009, 108:124-131.
126. Wang T., Ming Z., Xiaochun W., Hong W. Rab7: role of its protein interaction cascades in endo-lysosomal traffic. Cell. Signal. 2011, 23:516-521.
127. Webb J.L., Ravikumar B., Atkins J., Skepper J.N., Rubinsztein D.C. Alpha-synuclein is degraded by both autophagy and the proteasome. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278:25009-25013.
128. Williams A., Sarkar S., Cuddon P., Ttofi E.K., Saiki S., Siddiqi F.H., Jahreiss L., Fleming A., Pask D., Goldsmith P., O'Kane C.J., Floto R.A., Rubinsztein D.C. Novel targets for Huntington's disease in an mTOR-independent autophagy pathway. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2008, 4:295-305.
129. Wu D., Wang X., Zhou R., Cederbaum A. CYP2E1 enhances ethanol-induced lipid accumulation but impairs autophagy in HepG2 E47 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2010, 402:116-122.
130. Wu D., Wang X., Zhou R., Yang L., Cederbaum A.I. Alcohol steatosis and cytotoxicity: the role of cytochrome P4502E1 and autophagy. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2012, 53:1346-1357.
131. Xiong N., Jia M., Chen C., Xiong J., Zhang Z., Huang J., Hou L., Yang H., Cao X., Liang Z., Sun S., Lin Z., Wang T. Potential autophagy enhancers attenuate rotenone-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y. Neuroscience 2011, 199:292-302.
132. Xiong N., Xiong J., Jia M., Liu L., Zhang X., Chen Z., Huang J., Zhang Z., Hou L., Luo Z., Ghoorah D., Lin Z., Wang T. The role of autophagy in Parkinson's disease: rotenone-based modeling. Behav Brain Func. 2013, 9:13.
133. Yamamoto A., Tagawa Y., Yoshimori T., Moriyama Y., Masaki R., Tashiro Y. Bafilomycin A1 prevents maturation of autophagic vacuoles by inhibiting fusion between autophagosomes and lysosomes in rat hepatoma cell line, H-4-II-E cells. Cell Struct. Funct. 1998, 23:33-42.
134. Yang W., Tiffany-Castiglioni E., Koh H.C., Son I.H. Paraquat activates the IRE1/ASK1/JNK cascade associated with apoptosis in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2009, 191:203-210.
135. Yang Z.J., Chee C.E., Huang S., Sinicrope F.A. The role of autophagy in cancer: therapeutic implications. Mol. Cancer Ther. 2011, 10:1533-1541.
136. Zahr N.M., Kaufman K.L., Harper C.G. Clinical and pathological features of alcohol-related brain damage. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 2011, 7:284-294.
137. Zatloukal K., Stumptner C., Fuchsbichler A., Heid H., Schnoelzer M., Kenner L., Kleinert R., Prinz M., Aguzzi A., Denk H. p62 Is a common component of cytoplasmic inclusions in protein aggregation diseases. Am. J. Pathol. 2002, 160:255-263.
138. Zhang J., Ney P.A. Role of BNIP3 and NIX in cell death, autophagy, and mitophagy. Cell Death Differ. 2009, 16:939-946.
139. Zhang X.W., Yan X.J., Zhou Z.R., Yang F.F., Wu Z.Y., Sun H.B., Liang W.X., Song A.X., Lallemand-Breitenbach V., Jeanne M., Zhang Q.Y., Yang H.Y., Huang Q.H., Zhou G.B., Tong J.H., Zhang Y., Wu J.H., Hu H.Y., de The H., Chen S.J., Chen Z. Arsenic trioxide controls the fate of the PML-RARalpha oncoprotein by directly binding PML. Science 2010, 328:240-243.
140. Zhang J., Loyd M.R., Randall M.S., Waddell M.B., Kriwacki R.W., Ney P.A. A short linear motif in BNIP3L (NIX) mediates mitochondrial clearance in reticulocytes. Autophagy 2012, 8:1325-1332.
141. Zhao L., Zhu Y., Wang D., Chen M., Gao P., Xiao W., Rao G., Wang X., Jin H., Xu L., Sui N., Chen Q. Morphine induces Beclin 1- and ATG5-dependent autophagy in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and in the rat hippocampus. Autophagy 2010, 6:386-394.