Alternative sources of omega-3 fats: Can we find a sustainable substitute for fish?

Nutrients

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 1301-1315

  Lenihan Geels, Georgia ^a   Bishop, Karen S ^b   Ferguson, Lynnette R ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND   (New Zealand)

^b UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Algae; Dietary fatty acids; Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA); Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA); Fish oils; Inflammation; Omega 3; Stearidonic acid

Indexed keywords

ALGAL OIL; BIODIESEL; DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; FISH OIL; ICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; LINOLENIC ACID; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; PROSTANOID; STEARIDONIC ACID; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VEGETABLE OIL;

ALGA; ANIMAL FOOD; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CROHN DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; ENTERITIS; FATTY ACID DESATURATION; FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS; FOOD AVAILABILITY; FOOD COMPOSITION; HUMAN; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIPID COMPOSITION; LIVESTOCK; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL HEALTH; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; PREVALENCE; PROTEIN LIPID INTERACTION; REVIEW; THERAPY EFFECT;

EID: 84876499393     PISSN: 20726643     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu5041301     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. Calder, P. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1505-1519.
2. Guil-Guerrero, J.L. Stearidonic acid (18:4n-3): Metabolism, nutritional importance, medical uses and natural sources. Eur. J. Lipid. Sci. Technol. 2007, 109, 1226-1236.
3. Simopoulos, A. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2002, 21, 495-505.
4. Strobel, C.; Jahreis, G.; Kuhnt, K. Survey of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish and fish products. Lipids Health Dis. 2012, 11, 144.
5. Dulvy, N.K.; Sadovy, Y.; Reynolds, J.D. Extinction vulnerability in marine populations. Fish Fish. 2003, 4, 25-64.
6. Calder, P. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammatory processes and inflammatory bowel diseases. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2008, 52, 885-897.
7. Burdge, G.; Calder, P. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human adults. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 2005, 45, 581-597.
8. Surette, M.; Edens, M.; Chilton, F.; Tramposch, K. Dietary echium oil increases plasma and neutrophil long-chain (n-3) fatty acids and lowers serum triacylglycerols in hypertriglyceridemic humans. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 1406-1411.
9. Calder, P. Mechanisms of action of (n-3) fatty acids. J. Nutr. 2012, 142, 592-599.
10. Nie, D.; Che, M.; Grignon, D.; Tang, K.; Honn, K. Role of eicosanoids in prostate cancer progression. Cancer Metast. Rev. 2001, 20, 195-206.
11. Berridge, M. Inositol trisphosphate and diacylglycerol as second messengers. Biochem. J. 1984, 220, 345-360.
12. Egert, S. Influence of three rapeseed oil-rich diets, fortified with α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid or docosahexaenoic acid on the composition and oxidizability of low-density lipoproteins: Results of a controlled study in healthy volunteers. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 61, 314-325.
13. Miles, E.A.; Banerjee, T.; Dooper, M.M.B.W.; M'Rabet, L.; Graus, Y.M.F.; Calder, P.C. The influence of different combinations of γ-linolenic acid, stearidonic acid and epa on immune function in healthy young male subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 2004, 91, 893.
14. Vendramini-Costa, D.; Carvalho, J. Molecular link mechanisms between inflammation and cancer. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2012, 18, 3831-3852.
15. Calder, P. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and immunity. Lipids 2001, 36, 1007-1024.
16. Sharma, R.; Zucknick, M.; London, R.; Kacevska, M.; Liddle, C.; Clarke, S. Systemic inflammatory response predicts prognosis in patients with advanced-stage colorectal cancer. Clin. Colorectal Cancer 2008, 7, 331-337.
17. Robert, G.; Descazeaud, A.; Nicola ew, N.; Terry, S.; Sirab, N.; Vacherot, F.; Maillé, P.; Allory, Y.; de la Taille, A. Inflammation in benign prostatic hyperplasia: A 282 patients' immunohistochemical analysis. Prostate 2009, 69, 1774-1780.
18. Yen, D.; Cheung, J.; Scheerens, H.; Poulet, F.; McClanahan, T.; McKenzie, B.; Kleinschek, M.; Owyang, A.; Mattson, J.; Blumenschein, W. et al. IL-23 is essential for T cell-mediated colitis and promotes inflammation via IL-17 and IL-6. J. Clin. Invest. 2006, 116, 1310-1316.
19. Elson, C.; Cong, Y.; Weaver, C.; Schoeb, T.; McClanahan, T.; Fick, R.; Kastelein, R. Monoclonal anti-interleukin 23 reverses active colitis in a T cell-mediated model in mice. Gastroenterology 2007, 132, 2359-2370.
20. Panayi, G.; Lanchbury, J.; Kingsley, G. The importance of the T cell in initiating and maintaining the chronic synovitis of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1992, 35, 729-735.
21. Krutmann, J.; Grewe, M. Sequential activation of Th1 and Th2 cells in the immunopathogenesis of atopic eczema-The 2-phase model. Allergologie 1996, 19, 449-451.
22. Hansson, G. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352, 1685-1695.
23. Ishihara, K.; Komatsu, W.; Saito, H.; Shinohara, K. Comparison of the effects of dietary alpha-linolenic, stearidonic, and eicosapentaenoic acids on production of inflammatory mediators in mice. Lipids 2002, 37, 481-486.
24. Van Horssen, R.; Ten Hagen, T.; Eggermont, A. TNF-alpha in cancer treatment: Molecular insights, antitumor effects, and clinical utility. Oncologist 2006, 11, 397-408.
25. G12D/+ mice. Neoplasia 2012, 14, 1249-1259.
26. Chua, M.; Sio, M.; Sorongon, M.; Dy, J. Relationship of dietary intake of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids with risk of prostate cancer development: A meta-analysis of prospective studies and review of literature. Prostate Cancer 2012, 2012, 826254.
27. Williams, C.D.; Whitley, B.; Hoyo, C.; Grant, D.; Iraggi, J.; Newman, K.; Gerber, L.; Taylor, L.; McKeever, M.; Freedland, S. A High ratio of dietary n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with increased risk of prostate cancer. Nutr. Res. 2011, 31, 1-8.
28. Oh, K.; Willett, W.; Fuchs, C.; Giovannucci, E. Dietary marine n-3 fatty acids in relation to risk of distal colorectal adenoma in women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2005, 14, 835-841.
29. Daniel, C.; McCullough, M.; Patel, R.; Jacobs, E.; Flanders, W.; Thun, M.; Calle, E. Dietary intake of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids and risk of colorectal cancer in a prospective cohort of U.S. men and women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2009, 18, 516-525.
30. Kobayashi, N.; Barnard, J.; Henning, S.; Elashoff, D.; Reddy, S.; Cohen, P.; Leung, P.; Hong-Gonzalez, J.; Freedland, S.; Said, J. et al. Effect of altering dietary w-6/w-3 fatty acid ratios on prostate cancer membrane composition, cyclooxygenase-2, and prostaglandin E2. Clin. Cancer Res. 2006, 12, 4670.
31. Murff, H.; Shu, X.; Li, H.; Yang, G.; Wu, X.; Cai, H.; Wen, W.; Gao, Y.; Zheng, W. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk in chinese women, a prospective cohort study. Int. J. Cancer Suppl. 2011, 128, 1434-1441.
32. Musa-Veloso, K.; Binns, M.; Kocenas, A.; Chung, C.; Rice, H.; Oppedal-Olsen, H.; Lloyd, H.; Lemke, S. Impact of low v. moderate intakes of long-chain n-3 fatty acids on risk of coronary heart disease. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 106, 1129-1141.
33. Jiang, W.; Oken, H.; Fiuzat, M.; Shaw, L.; Martsberger, C.; Kuchibhatla, M.; Kaddurah-Daouk, R.; Steffens, D.; Baillie, R.; Cuffe, M. et al. Plasma omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and survival in patients with chronic heart failure and major depressive disorder. J. Cardiovasc. Trans. Res. 2012, 5, 92-99.
34. Ibrahim, A.; Mbodji, K.; Hassan, A.; Aziz, M.; Boukhettala, N.; Coeffier, M.; Savoye, G.; Dechelotte, P.; Marion-Letellier, R. Anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic effect of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in intestinal microvascular endothelium. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 30, 678-687.
35. Uchiyama, K.; Nakamura, M.; Odahara, S.; Koido, S.; Katahira, K.; Shiraishi, H.; Ohkusa, T.; Fujise, K.; Tajiri, H. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid diet therapy for patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm. Bowel. Dis. 2010, 16, 1696-1707.
36. Miller, M.; Nichols, P.; Carter, C. n-3 oil sources for use in aquaculture-Alternatives to the unsustainable harvest of wild fish. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2008, 21, 85-96.
37. Kuhnt, K.; Degen, C.; Jaudszus, A.; Jahreis, G. Searching for health beneficial n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in plant seeds. Eur. J. Lipid. Sci. Technol. 2012, 114, 153-160.
38. Bell, J.; Tocher, D.; Henderson, R.; Dick, J.; Crampton, V. Altered fatty acid compositions in atlantic salmon (Salmo Salar L.) fed diets containing linseed and rapeseed oils can be partially restored by a subsequent fish oil finishing diet. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 2793-2801.
39. Torstensen, B.E.; Lie, Ø.; Frøyland, L. Lipid metabolism and tissue composition in atlantic salmon (Salmo Salar L.)-Effects of capelin oil, palm oil, and oleic acid-enriched sunflower oil as dietary lipid sources. Lipids 2000, 35, 653-664.
40. Seierstad, S.; Seljeflot, I.; Johansen, O.; Hansen, R.; Haugen, M.; Rosenlund, G.; Froyland, L.; Arnesen, H. Dietary intake of differently fed salmon; the influence on markers of human atherosclerosis. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 35, 52-59.
41. Stulc, T.; Ceska, R. Cholesterol lowering and the vessel wall: New insights and future perspectives. Physiol. Res. 2001, 50, 461-471.
42. Bell, J.G.; Henderson, R.J.; Tocher, D.R.; Sargent, J.R. Replacement of dietary fish oil with increasing levels of linseed oil: Modification of flesh fatty acid compositions in Atlantic salmon (Salmo Salar L.) using a fish oil finishing diet. Lipids 2004, 39, 223-232.
43. Codabaccus, M.; Bridle, A.; Nichols, P.; Carter, C. Restoration of fillet n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid is improved by a modified fish oil finishing diet strategy for Atlantic salmon (Salmo Salar L.) smolts fed palm fatty acid distillate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60, 458-466.
44. James, M.; Ursin, V.; Cleland, L. Metabolism of stearidonic acid in human subjects: Comparison with the metabolism of other n-3 fatty acids. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 77, 1140-1145.
45. Surette, M. Dietary omega-3 PUFA and health: Stearidonic acid-containing seed oils as effective and sustainable alternatives to traditional marine oils. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2013, 57, 748-759.
46. Lemke, S.; Vicini, J.; Su, H.; Goldstein, D.; Nemeth, M.; Krul, E.; Harris, W. Dietary intake of stearidonic acid-enriched soybean oil increases the omega-3 index: Randomized, double-blind clinical study of efficacy and safety. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 92, 766-775.
47. Harris, W.; DiRienzo, M.; Sands, S.; George, C.; Jones, P.; Eapen, A. Stearidonic acid increases the red blood cell and heart eicosapentaenoic acid content in dogs. Lipids 2007, 42, 325-333.
48. Hammond, B.; Lemen, J.; Ahmed, G.; Miller, K.; Kirkpatrick, J.; Fleeman, T. Safety assessment of SDA soybean oil: Results of a 28-day gavage study and a 90-day/one generation reproduction feeding study in rats. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2008, 52, 311-323.
49. Krul, E.; Lemke, S.; Mukherjea, R.; Taylor, M.; Goldstein, D.; Su, H.; Liu, P.; Lawless, A.; Harris, W.; Maki, K. Effects of duration of treatment and dosage of eicosapentaenoic acid and stearidonic acid on red blood cell eicosapentaenoic acid content. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 2012, 86, 51-59.
50. Von Schacky, C. A review of omega-3 ethyl esters for cardiovascular prevention and treatment of increased blood triacylglyceride levels. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 2006, 2, 251-262.
51. Walker, C.; Jebb, S.; Calder, P. Stearidonic acid as a supplemental source of w-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to enhance status for improved human health. Nutrition 2013, 29, 363-369.
52. Forrest, L.; Boudyguina, E.; Wilson, M.; Parks, J. Echium oil reduces atherosclerosis in apoB100-only LDLrKO mice. Atherosclerosis 2012, 220, 118-121.
53. Howard, B.; Robbins, D.; Sievers, M.; Lee, E.; Rhoades, D.; Devereux, R.; Cowan, L.; Gray, R.; Welty, T.; Go, O. et al. LDL cholesterol as a strong predictor of coronary heart disease in diabetic individuals with insulin resistance and low LDL: The strong heart study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2000, 20, 830-835.
54. Banz, W.; Davis, J.; Clough, R.; Cheatwood, J. Stearidonic acid: Is there a role in the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes mellitus? J. Nutr. 2012, 142, 635S-640S.
55. Wu, D.; Meydani, M.; Leka, L.; Nightinggale, Z.; Handelman, G.; Blumberg, J.; Meydani, S. Effect of dietary supplementation with black currant seed oil on the immune response of healthy elderly subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 70, 536-543.
56. Whelan, J.; Gouffon, J.; Zhao, Y. Effects of dietary stearidonic acid on biomarkers of lipid metabolism. J. Nutr. 2012, 142, 630S-634S.
57. Horia, E.; Watkins, B. Comparison of stearidonic acid and α-linoleic acid on PGE2 production and COX-2 protein levels in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell cultures. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2005, 16, 184-192.
58. Ferrandina, G.; Legge, F.; Ranelletti, F.; Zannoni, G.; Maggiano, N.; Evangelisti, A.; Mancuso, S.; Scambia, G.; Lauriola, L. Cyclooxygenase-2 expression in endometrial carcinoma: Correlation with clinicopathologic parameters and clinical outcome. Cancer 2002, 95, 801-807.
59. Kelavkar, U.; Hutzley, J.; Dhir, R.; Kim, P.; Allen, K.; McHugh, K. Prostate tumour growth and recurrence can be modulated by the ω-6:ω-3 ratio in diet: Athymic mouse xenograft model simulating radical prostatectomy. Neoplasia 2006, 8, 112-124.
60. Kitessa, S.M.; Young, P. Echium oil is better than rapeseed oil in enriching poultry meat with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, including eicosapentaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid. Br. J. Nutr. 2009, 101, 709.
61. Cleveland, B.; Francis, D.; Turchini, G. Echium oil provides no benefit over linseed oil for (n-3) long-chain PUFA biosynthesis in rainbow trout. J. Nutr. 2012, 142, 1449-1455.
62. Miller, M.; Nichols, P.; Carter, C. Replacement of dietary fish oil for Atlantic salmon parr (Salmo Salar L.) with a stearidonic acid containing oil has no effect on omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2007, 146, 197-206.
63. Kitessa, S.M.; Young, P.; Nattrass, G.; Gardner, G.; Pearce, K.; Pethick, D.W. When balanced for precursor fatty acid supply echium oil is not superior to linseed oil in enriching lamb tissues with long-chain n-3 PUFA. Br. J. Nutr. 2012, 108, 71.
64. Verlengia, R.; Gorjao, R.; Kanunfre, C.; Bordin, S.; de Lima, T.; Martins, E.; Curi, R. Comparative effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on proliferation, cytokine production and pleiotropic gene expression in Jurkat cells. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2004, 15, 657-665.
65. Moore, K.; de Waal Malefyt, R.; Coffman, R.; O-Garra, A. Interleukin-10 and the interleukin-10 receptor. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2001, 19, 683-765.
66. Weldon, S.; Mullen, A.; Loscher, C.; Hurley, L.; Roche, H. Docosahexaenoic acid induces an anti-inflammatory profile in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2007, 18, 250-258.
67. Lewis, A.; Varghese, S.; Xu, H.; Alexander, H. Interleukin-1 and cancer progression: The emerging role of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist as a novel therapeutic agent in cancer treatment. J. Transl. Med. 2006, 4, 48-60.
68. Naugler, W.; Karin, M. The wolf in sheep's clothing: The role of interleukin-6 in immunity, inflammation and cancer. Trends Mol. Med. 2008, 14, 109-119.
69. Adarme-Vega, T.; Lim, D.; Timmins, M.; Vernen, F.; Li, Y.; Schenk, P. Microalgal biofactories: A promising approach towards sustainable omega-3 fatty acid production. Microb. Cell Fact. 2012, 11, doi:10.1186/1475-2859-11-96.
70. Subhadra, B.; Grinson-George. Algal Biorefinery-Based Industry: An Approach to Address Fuel and Food Insecurity for a Carbon-Smart World. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 2011, 91, 2-13.
71. Doughman, D.; Krupanidhi, S.; Sanjeeve, C. Omega-3 fatty acids for nutrition and medicine considering microalgae oil as a vegetarian source of EPA and DHA. Curr. Diabetes Rev. 2007, 3, 198-203.
72. Kyle, D. The large-scale production and use of a single-cell oil highly enriched in docosahexaenoic acid. ACS Symp. Ser. 2001, 788, 92-107.
73. Sijtsma, L.; de Swaaf, M. Biotechnological production and applications of the ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2004, 64, 146-153.