Geochemical evolution of organic-rich shales with increasing maturity: A STXM and TEM study of the Posidonia Shale (Lower Toarcian, northern Germany)

Marine and Petroleum Geology

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 70-89

  Bernard, Sylvain ^a,b   Horsfield, Brian ^a   Schulz, Hans Martin ^a   Wirth, Richard ^a   Schreiber, Anja ^a   Sherwood, Neil ^c  

^a GFZ GERMAN RESEARCH CENTRE FOR GEOSCIENCES   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITÉ PIERRE ET MARIE CURIE   (France)

^c CSIRO   (Australia)

Author keywords

Bitumen; FIB; Kerogen; Nanoscale; Porosity; Pyrobitumen; Shale gas; STXM; TEM; XANES NEXAFS

Indexed keywords

BITUMEN; FIB; NANO SCALE; PYROBITUMEN; SHALE GAS; STXM; XANES;

GEOCHEMISTRY; HYDROCARBONS; KEROGEN; PETROLEUM GEOLOGY; POROSITY; SODIUM CHLORIDE; TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY;

SHALE;

ASPHALTENE; GEOCHEMISTRY; HALITE; HYDROCARBON GENERATION; HYDROCARBON RESOURCE; KEROGEN; MINERALOGY; NATURAL GAS; POROSITY; SHALE; THERMAL MATURITY; TOARCIAN; TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; XANES SPECTROSCOPY;

GERMANY;

POSIDONIA;

EID: 84856579828     PISSN: 02648172     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.05.010     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. Aagaard P., Egeberg P., Saigal G., Morad S., Bjùrlykke K. Diagenetic albitization of detrital K-feldspars in Jurassic, lower Cretaceous and tertiary clastic reservoir rocks from offshore Norway, II. Formation water chemistry and kinetic considerations. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 1990, 60:575-581.
2. Ahuja R., Bruhwiler P.A., Wills J.M., Johansson B., Martensson N., Eriksson O. Theoretical and experimental study of the graphite 1s X-ray absorption edges. Physical Review B 1996, 54(20):14396-14404.
3. Bakr M.Y., Yokono T., Sanada Y., Akiyama M. Role of pyrite during the thermal degradation of kerogen using in situ high-temperature ESR technique. Energy & Fuels 1991, 5(3):441-444.
4. Bartlett R., Bottrell S.H., Coulson J.P., Lee J., Forbes L. S-34 tracer study of pollutant sulfate behaviour in a lowland peatland. Biogeochemistry 2009, 95(2-3):261-275.
5. Bazin B., Brosse ét., Sommer F. Chemistry of oil-field brines in relation to diagenesis of reservoirs-2. Reconstruction of palaeo-water composition for modelling illite diagenesis in the greater Alwyn area (North Sea). Marine and Petroleum Geology 1997, 14(5):497-511.
6. Behar F., Vandenbroucke M. Chemical modeling of kerogens. Organic Geochemistry 1987, 11(1):15-24.
7. Behar F., Kressmann S., Rudkiewicz J.L., Vandenbroucke M. Experimental simulation in a confined system and kinetic modeling of kerogen and oil cracking. Organic Geochemistry 1992, 19(1-3):173-189.
8. Behar F., Vandenbroucke M., Tang Y., Marquis F., Espitalie J. Thermal cracking of kerogen in open and closed systems: determination of kinetic parameters and stoichiometric coefficients for oil and gas generation. Organic Geochemistry 1997, 26(5/6):321-339.
9. Behar F., Lorant F., Lewan M. Role of NSO compounds during primary cracking of a type II kerogen and a type III lignite. Organic Geochemistry 2008, 39(1):1-22.
10. Behar F., Lorant F., Mazeas L. Elaboration of a new compositional kinetic schema for oil cracking. Organic Geochemistry 2008, 39(6):764-782.
11. Behar F., Roy S., Jarvie D. Artificial maturation of a Type I kerogen in closed system: mass balance and kinetic modelling. Organic Geochemistry 2010, 41(11):1235-1247.
12. Benzerara K., Yoon T.H., Tyliszczak T., Constantz B., Spormann A.M., Brown G.E. Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy study of microbial calcification. Geobiology 2004, 2(4):249-259.
13. Benzerara K., Menguy N., Guyot F., Vanni C., Gillet P. TEM study of a silicate-carbonate-microbe interface prepared by focused ion beam milling. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005, 69(6):1413-1422.
14. Benzerara K., Menguy N., Banerjee N.R., Tyliszczak T., Brown G.E., Guyot F. Alteration of submarine basaltic glass from the Ontong Java Plateau: a STXM and TEM study. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2007, 260(1-2):187-200.
15. Bernard S., Benzerara K., Beyssac O., Menguy N., Guyot F., Brown G.E., Goffe B. Exceptional preservation of plant fossils in high-pressure metamorphic rocks. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2007, 262(1-2):257-272.
16. Bernard S., Benzerara K., Beyssac O., Brown G.E., Stamm L.G., Duringer P. Ultrastructural and chemical study of modern and fossil sporoderms by scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2009, 156(1-2):248-261.
17. Bernard S., Horsfield B., Schulz H.-M., Schreiber A., Wirth R., Vu T.T.A., Perssen F., Könitzer S., Volk H., Sherwood N., Fuentes D. Multi-scale detection of organic and inorganic signatures provides insights into gas shale properties and evolution. Chemie der Erde - Geochemistry 2010, 70(S3):119-133.
18. Bernard S., Benzerara K., Beyssac O., Brown G.E. Multiscale characterization of pyritized plant tissues in blueschist facies metamorphic rocks. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2010, 74:5054-5068.
19. Bernard S., Beyssac O., Benzerara K., Findling N., Brown G.E. XANES, Raman and XRD signatures of anthracene-based cokes and saccharose-based chars submitted to high temperature pyrolysis. Carbon 2010, 48:2506-2516.
20. Berner R.A. Sedimentary pyrite formation: an update. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1984, 48(4):605-615.
21. Bluhm H., Andersson K., Araki T., Benzerara K., Brown G.E., Dynes J.J., Ghosal S., Gilles M.K., Hansen H.C., Hemminger J.C., Hitchcock A.P., Ketteler G., Kilcoyne A.L.D., Kneedler E., Lawrence J.R., Leppard G.G., Majzlam J., Mun B.S., Myneni S.C.B., Nilsson A., Ogasawara H., Ogletree D.F., Pecher K., Salmeron M., Shuh D.K., Tonner B., Tyliszczak T., Warwick T., Yoon T.H. Soft X-ray microscopy and spectroscopy at the molecular environmentalscience beamline at the Advanced Light Source. Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena 2006, 150(2-3):86-104.
22. Bottrell S.H., Mortimer R.J.G., Davies I.M., Harvey S.M., Krom M.D. Sulphur cycling in organic-rich marine sediments from a Scottish fjord. Sedimentology 2009, 56(4):1159-1173.
23. Boyce C.K., Cody G.D., Feser M., Jacobsen C., Knoll A.H., Wirick S. Organic chemical differentiation within fossil plant cell walls detected with X-Ray spectromicroscopy. Geology 2002, 30(11):1039-1042.
24. Boyce C.K., Zwieniecki M.A., Cody G.D., Jacobsen C., Wirick S., Knoll A.H., Holbrook N.M. Evolution of xylem lignification and hydrogel transport regulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2004, 101(50):17555-17558.
25. Brandes J.A., Cody G.D., Rumble D., Haberstroh P., Wirick S., Gelinas Y. Carbon K-edge XANES spectromicroscopy of natural graphite. Carbon 2008, 46(11):1424-1434.
26. Brandes J.A., Wirick S., Jacobsen C. Carbon K-edge spectra of carbonate minerals. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 2010, 17:676-682.
27. Braun A., Huggins F.E., Shah N., Chen Y., Wirick S., Mun S.B., Jacobsen C., Huffman G.P. Advantages of soft X-ray absorption over TEM-EELS for solid carbon studies: a comparative study on diesel soot with EELS and NEXAFS. Carbon 2005, 43(1):117-124.
28. Braun A., Huggins F.E., Kelly K.E., Mun B.S., Ehrlich S.N., Huffman G.P. Impact of ferrocene on the structure of diesel exhaust soot as probed with wide-angle X-ray scattering and C(1s) NEXAFS spectroscopy. Carbon 2006, 44(14):2904-2911.
29. Braun A., Kubatova A., Wirick S., Mun S. Radiation damage from EELS and NEXAFS in diesel soot and diesel soot extracts. Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena 2009, 170(1-3):42-48.
30. Burnham A.K., Braun R.L. Development of a detailed model of petroleum formation, destruction and expulsion from lacustrine source rocks. Organic Geochemistry 1990, 16(1-3):27-39.
31. Carravetta V., Polzonetti G., Iucci G., Russo M.V., Paolucci G., Barnaba M. High resolution NEXAFS spectroscopy study of gas-phase phenylacetylene: experiment and theory. Chemical Physics Letters 1998, 288(1):37-46.
32. Clarkson C.R., Bustin R.M. Variation in micropore capacity and size distribution with composition in bituminous coal of the Western Canadian sedimentary basin - implications for coalbed methane potential. Fuel 1996, 75(13):1483-1498.
33. Clarkson C.R., Bustin R.M. The effect of pore structure and gas pressure upon the transport properties of coal: a laboratory and modeling study. 1. Isotherms and pore volume distributions. Fuel 1999, 78(11):1333-1344.
34. Cody G.D., Botto R.E., Ade H., Wirick S. The application of soft X-ray microscopy to the in-situ analysis of sporinite in coal. International Journal of Coal Geology 1996, 32(1-4):69-86.
35. Cody G.D., Ade H., Wirick S., Mitchell G.D., Davis A. Determination of chemical-structural changes in vitrinite accompanying luminescence alteration using C-NEXAFS analysis. Organic Geochemistry 1998, 28(7-8):441-455.
36. Crampon N. Metamorphisme hydrothermal en facies salins et penesalins sur l'exemple du complexe salifere de l'extreme Nord Tunisien. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 1973, 39:117-140.
37. Curiale J.A. Origin of solid bitumens, with emphasis on biological marker results. Organic Geochemistry 1986, 10(1-3):559-580.
38. Curtis J.B. Fractured shale-gas systems. AAPG Bulletin 2002, 86(11):1921-1938.
39. h (octahedral) symmetry. Physical Review B 1990, 41(2):928-937.
40. Dembicki H.J. Three common source rock evaluation errors made by geologists during prospect or play appraisals. AAPG Bulletin 2009, 93(3):341-356.
41. Dieckmann V., Schenk H.J., Horsfield B., Welte D.H. Kinetics of petroleum generation and cracking by programmed-temperature closed-system pyrolysis of Toarcian Shales. Fuel 1998, 77(1-2):23-31.
42. Drobne D., Milani M., Leser V., Tatti F. Surface damage induced by FIB milling and imaging of biological samples is controllable. Microscopy Research and Technique 2007, 70(10):895-903.
43. Erdmann M., Horsfield B. Enhanced late gas generation potential of petroleum source rocks via recombination reactions: evidence from the Norwegian North Sea. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2006, 70:3943-3956.
44. Francis J.T., Hitchcock A.P. Inner-shell spectroscopy of p-benzoquinone, hydroquinone, and phenol: distinguishing quinoid and benzenoid structures. The Journal of Physical Chemistry 1992, 96(16):6598-6610.
45. Guo G.L., Xianming X., Hui T., Zhiguang S. Distinguishing gases derived from oil cracking and kerogen maturation: insights from laboratory pyrolysis experiments. Organic Geochemistry 2009, 40:1074-1084.
46. Heaney P.J., Vicenzi E.P., Giannuzzi L.A., Livi K.J.T. Focused ion beam milling: a method of site-specific sample extraction for microanalysis of Earth and planetary materials. American Mineralogist 2001, 86(9):1094-1099.
47. Hebting Y., Schaeffer P., Behrens A., Adam P., Schmitt G., Schneckenburger P., Bernasconi S.M., Albrecht P. Biomarker evidence for a major preservation pathway of sedimentary organic carbon. Science 2006, 312(5780):1627-1631.
48. Helgeson H.C., Knox A.M., Owens C.E., Shock E.L. Petroleum, oil field waters, and authigenic mineral assemblages are they in metastable equilibrium in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1993, 57(14):3295-3339.
49. Hill R.J., Jenden P.D., Tang Y.C., Teerman S., Kaplan I.R. The influence of pressure on the thermal cracking of oil. Energy and Fuels 1996, 10:873-882.
50. Hill R.J., Tang Y.C., Kaplan I.R. Insights into oil cracking based on laboratory experiments. Organic Geochemistry 2003, 34(12):1651-1672.
51. Hitchcock A. Chemical mapping with soft X-ray spectromicroscopy. American Laboratory 2001, 33(16):30-36.
52. Hitchcock A.P., Li J., Reijerkerk S.R., Foley P., Stover H.D.H., Shirley I. X-ray absorption spectroscopy of polyureas and polyurethanes and their use in characterizing chemical gradients in thin-walled polyuria capsules. Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena 2007, 156:467-471.
53. Hitchcock A.P., Dynes J.J., Johansson G., Wang J., Botton G. Comparison of NEXAFS microscopy and TEM-EELS for studies of soft matter. Micron 2008, 39(3):311-319.
54. Horsfield B. Practical criteria for classifying kerogens: some observations from pyrolysis-gas chromatography. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1989, 53(4):891-901.
55. Horsfield B., Dueppenbecker S.J. The decomposition of Posidonia Shale and green river shale kerogens using microscale sealed vessel (MSSV) pyrolysis. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 1991, 20:107-123.
56. Horsfield B., Schenk H., Mills N., Welte D. An investigation of the in-reservoir conversion of oil to gas: compositional and kinetic findings from closed-system programmed-temperature pyrolysis. Organic Geochemistry 1992, 19(1-3):191-204.
57. Horsfield B. The bulk composition of first-formed petroleum in source rocks. Petroleum and basin Evolution; Insights from Petroleum Geochemistry, Geology and Basin Modeling 1997, 335-402. Springer, Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. D.H. Welte, B. Horsfield, D.R. Baker (Eds.).
58. Hwang R., Teerman S., Carlson R. Geochemical comparison of reservoir solid bitumens with diverse origins. Organic Geochemistry 1998, 29(1-3):505-517.
59. Ishii I., Hitchcook A.P. The oscillator strengths for C1s and O1s excitation of some saturated and unsaturated organic alcohols, acids and esters. Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena 1988, 46(1):55-84.
60. Jarvie D.M., Hill R.J., Ruble T.E., Pollastro R.M. Unconventional shale-gas systems: the Mississippian Barnett Shale of north-central Texas as one model for thermogenic shale-gas assessment. AAPG Bulletin 2007, 91(4):475-499.
61. Jenkins C., Boyer C. Coalbed and shale-gas reservoirs. Journal of Petroleum Technology 2008, 60(2):92-99.
62. Jochum J., Friedrich G., Leythaeuser D., Littke R. Intraformational redistribution of selected trace elements in the Posidonia Shale (Hils Syncline, NW Germany) caused by the thermal influence of the Vlotho Massif. Ore Geology Reviews 1995, 9(5):353-362.
63. Jochum J., Friedrich G., Leythaeuser D., Littke R., Ropertz B. Hydrocarbon-bearing fluid inclusions in calcite-tilled horizontal fractures from mature Posidonia Shale (Hils Syncline, NW Germany). Ore Geology Reviews 1995, 9(5):363-370.
64. Kastner M., Siever R. Low temperature feldspars in sedimentary rocks. American Journal of Science 1979, 279(4):435-479.
65. Katsube T.J., Williamson M.A. Effects of diagenesis on shale nano-pore structure and implications for sealing capacity. Clay Minerals 1994, 29(4):451-461.
66. Kaznatcheev K.V., Karunakaran Ch., Lanke U.D., Urquhart S.G., Obst M., Hitchcock A.P. Soft X-ray spectromicroscopy beamline at the CLS: commissioning results. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 2007, 582:96-99.
67. Kelemen S.R., Afeworki M., Gorbaty M.L., Sansone M., Kwiatek P.J., Walters C.C., Freund H., Siskin M., Bence A.E., Curry D.J., Solum M., Pugmire R.J., Vandenbroucke M., Leblond M., Behar F. Direct characterization of kerogen by X-ray and solid-state C-13 nuclear magnetic resonance methods. Energy & Fuels 2007, 21(3):1548-1561.
68. Kelemen S.R., Walters C.C., Kwiatek P.J., Freund H., Afeworki M., Sansone M., Lamberti W.A., Pottrof R.J., Machel H.G., Peters K.E., Bolin T. Characterization of solid bitumens originating from thermal chemical alteration and thermochemical sulfate reduction. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2010, 74:5305-5332.
69. Kilcoyne A.L.D., Tyliszczak T., Steele W.F., Fakra S., Hitchcock P., Franck K., Anderson E., Harteneck B., Rightor E.G., Mitchell G.E., Hitchcock A.P., Yang L., Warwick T., Ade H. Interferometer-controlled scanning transmission X-ray microscopes at the Advanced Light Source. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 2003, 10:125-136.
70. Kim J.W., Bryant W.R., Watkins J.S., Tieh T.T. Electron microscopic observations of shale diagenesis, offshore Louisiana, USA, Gulf of Mexico. Geo-marine Letters 1999, 18(3):234-240.
71. Kruge M.A., Landais P., Bensley D.F., Stankiewicz B.A., Elie M., Ruau O. Separation and artificial maturation of macerals from Type II kerogen. Energy & Fuels 1997, 11(3):503-514.
72. Langford R.M. Focused ion beams techniques for nanomaterials characterization. Microscopy Research and Technique 2006, 69(7):538-549.
73. Larter S.R., Horsfield B. Determination of structural components of kerogen using analytical pyrolysis methods. Organic Geochemistry 1993, 271-287. Plenum Publishing Corporation. M. Engel, S. Macko (Eds.).
74. Leif R.N., Simoneit B.R.T. Ketones in hydrothermal petroleums and sediment extracts from Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. Organic Geochemistry 1995, 23(10):889-904.
75. Lepot K., Benzerara K., Rividi N., Cotte M., Brown G.E., Philippot P. Organic matter heterogeneities in 2.72 Ga stromatolites: alteration versus preservation by sulfur incorporation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2009, 73(21):6579-6599.
76. Lewan M.D., Winters J.C., McDonald J.H. Generation of oil-like pyrolyzates from organic-rich shales. Science 1979, 203(4383):897-899.
77. Lewan M.D. Evaluation of petroleum generation by hydrous pyrolysis experimentation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A 1985, 315:123-134.
78. Lewan M.D. Experiments on the role of water in petroleum formation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1997, 61(17):3691-3723.
79. Lewan M.D. Sulphur-radical control on petroleum formation rates. Nature 1998, 391:164-166.
80. Lewan M.D., Roy S. Role of water in hydrocarbon generation from Type-I kerogen in Mahogany oil shale of the Green River Formation. Organic Geochemistry 2011, 42:31-41.
81. Leythaeuser D., Littke R., Radke M., Schaefer R. Geochemical effects of petroleum migration and expulsion from Toarcian source rocks in the Hils syncline area, NW-Germany. Organic Geochemistry 1988, 13(1-3):489-502.
82. 0 in type-II kerogens from Devonian black shales. Organic Geochemistry 2005, 36(11):1533-1552.
83. Lis G.P., Mastalerz M., Schimmelmann A. Increasing maturity of kerogen type II reflected by alkylbenzene distribution from pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Organic Geochemistry 2008, 39(4):440-449.
84. Littke R., Rullkötter J. Mikroskopische und makroskopische Unterschiede zwischen Profilen unreifen und reifen Posidonienschiefers aus der Hilsmulde. Facies 1987, 17:171-180.
85. Littke R., Baker D., Leythaeuser D. Microscopic and sedimentologic evidence for the generation and migration of hydrocarbons in Toarcian source rocks of different maturities. Organic Geochemistry 1988, 13(1-3):549-559.
86. Littke R., Leythaeuser D., Rullkotter J., Baker D.R. Keys to the depositional history of the Posidonia Shale (Toarcian) in the Hils syncline, northernGermany. Geological Society of London, Special Publications 1991, 58(1):311-333.
87. Littke R., Klussmann U., Krooss B., Leythaeuser D. Quantification of loss of calcite, pyrite, and organic matter due to weathering of Toarcian black shales and effects on kerogen and bitumen characteristics. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1991, 55(11):3369-3378.
88. Liu G.M., Natarajan S., Kim S.H. Photochemical production of oligothiophene and polythiophene micropatternsfrom 2,5-diiodothiophene on Au in UHV. Surface Science 2005, 592(1-3):L305-L309.
89. Lomando A.J. The influence of solid reservoir bitumen on reservoir quality. AAPG Bulletin 1992, 76:1137-1152.
90. Lorant F., Prinzhofer A., Behar F., Huc A.-Y. Carbon isotopic and molecular constraints on the formation and the expulsion of thermogenic hydrocarbon gases. Chemical Geology 1998, 147:249-264.
91. Lorant F., Behar F. Late generation of methane from mature kerogens. Energy & Fuels 2002, 16:412-427.
92. Loucks R.G., Reed R.M., Ruppel S.C., Jarvie D.M. Morphology, genesis, and distribution of nanometer-scale pores in siliceous mudstones of the Mississippian Barnett shale. Journal of Sedimentary Research 2009, 79(12):848-861.
93. Mann U. Veränderung von Mineralmatrix und Porosität eines Erdömuttergesteins durch einen Intrusivkörper. Facies 1987, 17:181-189.
94. Mann U., Müller P.J. Source rock evaluation by well log analysis (lower Toarcian, Hils syncline). Organic Geochemistry 1988, 13(1-3):109-119.
95. Mann A.L., Patience R.L., Poplett I.J.F. Determination of molecular-structure of kerogens using C-13 NMR-spectroscopy .1. The effects of variation in kerogen type. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1991, 55(8):2259-2268.
96. Mao J., Fang X., Lan Y., Schimmelmann A., Mastalerz M., Xu L., Schmidt-Rohr K. Chemical and nanometer-scale structure of kerogen and its change during thermal maturation investigated by advanced solid-state 13C NMR spectroscopy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2010, 74(7):2110-2127.
97. Mastalerz M., Glikson M. In-situ analysis of solid bitumen in coal: examples from the Bowen basin and the Illinois Basin. International Journal of Coal Geology 2000, 42(2-3):207-220.
98. Mastalerz M., Drobniak A., Strapoc D., Acosta W.S., Rupp J. Variations in pore characteristics in high volatile bituminous coals: implications for coal bed gas content. International Journal of Coal Geology 2008, 76(3):205-216.
99. Michels R., Langlois E., Ruau O., Mansuy L., Elie M., Landais P. Evolution of asphaltenes during artificial maturation: a record of the chemical processes. Energy & Fuels 1996, 10(1):39-48.
100. Montgomery S.L., Jarvie D.M., Bowker K.A., Pollastro R.M. Mississippian Barnett Shale, Fort Worth Basin, north-central Texas: gas-shale play with multi-trillion cubic foot potential. AAPG Bulletin 2005, 89:155-175.
101. Muscio G.P.A., Horsfield B., Welte D.H. Compositional changes in the macromolecular organic matter (kerogens, asphaltenes and resins) of a naturally matured source rock sequence from northern Germany as revealed by pyrolysis methods. Organic Geochemistry Advances and Applications in Energy and the Natural Environment 1991, 447-449. Manchester University Press, Manchester. D. Manning (Ed.).
102. Myneni S.C.B. Soft X-ray spectroscopy and spectromicroscopy studies of organic molecules in the environment. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 2002, 49(1):485-579.
103. Nelson P.H. Pore throat sizes in sandstones, tight sandstones, and shales. AAPG Bulletin 2009, 93:1-13.
104. Obst M., Gasser P., Mavrocordatos D., Dittrich M. TEM-specimen preparation of cell/mineral interfaces by focused ion beam milling. American Mineralogist 2005, 90(8-9):1270-1277.
105. Orr W.L. Changes in sulfur content and isotopic-ratios of sulfur during petroleum maturation - study of big horn basin Paleozoic oils. AAPG Bulletin 1974, 58(11):2295-2318.
106. Orr W.L. Kerogen asphaltene sulfur relationships in sulfur-rich Monterey oils. Organic Geochemistry 1986, 10(1-3):499-516.
107. Pan C.C., Geng A.S., Zhong N.N., Liu J.Z., Yu L.P. Kerogen pyrolysis in the presence and absence of water and minerals: amounts and compositions of bitumen and liquid hydrocarbons. Fuel 2009, 88(5):909-919.
108. Papineau D., de Gregorio B.T., Cody G.D., Fries M.D., Mojzsis S.J., Steele A., Stroud R.M., Fogel M.L. Ancient graphite in the Eoarchean quartz-pyroxene rocks from Akilia in southern West Greenland I: petrographic and spectroscopic characterization. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2010, 74(20):5862-5883.
109. Patience R.L., Mann A.L., Poplett I.J.F. Determination of molecular-structure of kerogens using C-13 NMR-spectroscopy .2. The effects of thermal maturation on kerogens from marine-sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1992, 56(7):2725-2742.
110. Pelet R., Behar F., Monin J.C. Resins and asphaltenes in the generation and migration of petroleum. Organic Geochemistry 1986, 10(1-3):481-498.
111. Petersen H.I., Rosenberg P., Nytoft H.P. Oxygen groups in coals and alginite-rich kerogen revisited. International Journal of Coal Geology 2008, 74(2):93-113.
112. Petmecky S., Meier L., Reiser H., Littke R. High thermal maturity in the lower Saxony basin: intrusion or deep burial?. Tectonophysics 1999, 304(4):317-344.
113. Pepper A.S., Corvi P.J. Simple kinetic models of petroleum formation. Part I: oil and gas generation from kerogen. Marine and Petroleum Geology 1995, 12(3):291-319.
114. Pepper A.S., Dodd T.A. Simple kinetic models of petroleum formation. Part II: oil-gas cracking. Marine and Petroleum Geology 1995, 12(3):291-319.
115. Putschew A., Schaeffer-Reiss C., Schaeffer P., Koopmans M.P., de Leeuw J.W., Lewan M.D., Sinninghe Damste J.S., Maxwell J.R. Release of sulfur- and oxygen-bound components from a sulfur-rich kerogen during simulated maturation by hydrous pyrolysis. Organic Geochemistry 1998, 29(8):1875-1890.
116. Radke M., Willsch H., Welte D.H. Preparative hydrocarbon group type determination by automated medium pressure liquid chromatography. Analytical Chemistry 1980, 52:406-411.
117. Rais P., Louis-Schmid B., Bernasconi S.M., Reusser E., Weissert H. Distribution of authigenic albites in a limestone succession of the Helvetic Domain, eastern Switzerland. Swiss Journal of Geosciences 2008, 101(1):99-106.
118. Ravel B., Newville M. ATHENA, ARTEMIS, HEPHAESTUS: data analysis for X-ray absorption spectroscopy using IFEFFIT. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 2005, 12(4):537-541.
119. Requejo A.G., Gray N.R., Freund H., Thomann H., Melchior M.T., Gebhard L.A., Bernardo M., Pictroski C.F., Hsu C.S. Maturation of petroleum source rocks .1. Changes in kerogen structure and composition associated with hydrocarbon generation. Energy & Fuels 1992, 6(2):203-214.
120. Rightor E.G., Hitchcock A.P., Ade H., Leapman R.D., Urquhart S.G., Smith A.P., Mitchell G., Fischer D., Shin H.J., Warwick T. Spectromicroscopy of poly(ethylene terephthalate): comparison of spectra and radiation damage rates in X-ray absorption and electron energy loss. Journal of Physical Chemistry B 1997, 101(11):1950-1960.
121. Ross D.J., Bustin R.M. The importance of shale composition and pore structure upon gas storage potential of shale gas reservoirs. Marine and Petroleum Geology 2009, 26(6):916-927.
122. Rullkötter J., Marzi R. Natural and artificial maturation of biological markers in a Toarcian shale from northern Germany. Organic Geochemistry 1988, 13(4-6):639-645.
123. Rullkötter J., Leythaeuser D., Horsfield B., Littke R., Mann U., Müller P., Radke M., Schaefer R., Schenk H.-J., Schwochau K., Witte E., Welte D. Organic matter maturation under the influence of a deep intrusive heat source: a natural experiment for quantitation of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from a petroleum source rock (Toarcian shale, northern Germany). Organic Geochemistry 1988, 13(4-6):847-856.
124. Schenk H.J., Witte E.G., Müller P.J., Schwochau K. Infrared estimates of aliphatic kerogen carbon in sedimentary rocks. Organic Geochemistry 1986, 10(4-6):1099-1104.
125. Schenk H.J., Di Primio R., Horsfield B. The conversion of oil into gas in petroleum reservoirs. Part 1: comparative kinetic investigation of gas generation from crude oils of lacustrine, marine and fluviodeltaic origin by programmed-temperature closed-system pyrolysis. Organic Geochemistry 1997, 26(7-8):467-481.
126. Schiffbauer J.D., Xiao S. Novel application of focused ion beam electron microscopy (FIB-EM) in preparation and analysis of microfossil ultrastructures: a new view of complexity in early Eukaryotic organisms. Palaios 2009, 24(9):616-626.
127. Seewald J.S., Benitez-Nelson B.C., Whelan J.K. Laboratory and theoretical constraints on the generation and composition of natural gas. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1998, 62(9):1599-1617.
128. Seewald J.S. Model for the origin of carboxylic acids in basinal brines. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2001, 65(21):3779-3789.
129. Seewald J.S. Aqueous geochemistry of low molecular weight hydrocarbons at elevated temperatures and pressures: constraints from mineral buffered laboratory experiments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2001, 65(10):1641-1664.
130. Shi J.R., Xu Y.J., Zhang J. Study on amorphous carbon nitride film prepared by facing target sputtering. Thin Solid Films 2005, 483(1-2):169-174.
131. Simoneit B.R.T., Leif R.N., Ishiwatari R. Phenols in hydrothermal petroleums and sediment bitumen from Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. Organic Geochemistry 1996, 24(3):377-388.
132. Sinninghe Damsté J.S., de Leeuw J.W. Analysis, structure and geochemical significance of organically-bound sulphur in the geosphere: state of the art and future research. Organic Geochemistry 1990, 16(4-6):1077-1101.
133. Smernik R.J., Schwark L., Schmidtc M.W.I. Assessing the quantitative reliability of solid-state C-13 NMR spectra of kerogens across a gradient of thermal maturity. Solid State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 2006, 29(4):312-321.
134. Snowdon L.R. Errors in extrapolation of experimental kinetic parameters to organic geochemical systems. AAPG Bulletin 1979, 63:1128-1138.
135. Solomon D., Lehmann J., Kinyangi J., Liang B.Q., Heymann K., Dathe L., Hanley K., Wirick S., Jacobsen C. Carbon (1s) NEXAFS spectroscopy of Biogeochemically relevant reference organic compounds. Soil Science Society of America Journal 2009, 73(6):1817-1830.
136. Spötl C., Longstaffe F.J., Ramseyer K., Rudinger B. Authigenic albite in carbonate rocks - a tracer for deep-burial brine migration?. Sedimentology 1999, 46(4):649-666.
137. Stasiuk L.D. The origin of pyrobitumens in upper Devonian Leduc formation gas reservoirs, Alberta, Canada: an optical and EDS study of oil to gas transformation. Marine and Petroleum Geology 1997, 14(7-8):915-929.
138. Smith A.J., Munroe P.R., Tran T., Wainwright M.S. FIB preparation of a sensitive porous catalyst for TEM elemental mapping at high magnifications. Journal of Materials Science 2001, 36(14):3519-3524.
139. Strapoc D., Mastalerz M., Schimmelmann A., Drobniak A., Hasenmueller N.R. Geochemical constraints on the origin and volume of gas in the New Albany shale (Devonian-Mississippian), eastern Illinois Basin. AAPG Bulletin 2010, 94(11):1713-1740.
140. Theuerkorn K., Horsfield B., Wilkes H., di Primio R., Lehne E. Areproducible and linear method for separating asphaltenes from crude oil. Organic Geochemistry 2008, 39(8):929-934.
141. Thieme J., Sedlmair J., Gleber S.C., Prietzel J., Coates J., Eusterhues K., Abbt-Braun G., Salome M. X-ray spectromicroscopy in soil and environmental sciences. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 2010, 17:149-157.
142. Thompson L.E., Rice P.M., Delenia E., Lee V.Y., Brock P.J., Magbitang T.P., Dubois G., Volksen W., Miller R.D., Kim H.-C. Imaging thin films of nanoporous low-k dielectrics: comparison between ultramicrotomy and focused ion beam preparations for transmission electron microscopy. Microscopy & Microanalysis 2006, 12:156-159.
143. Tian H., Xiao X., Wilkins R.W.T., Tang Y. New insights into the volume and pressure changes during the thermal cracking of oil to gas in reservoirs: implications for the in-situ accumulation of gas cracked from oils. AAPG Bulletin 2008, 92(2):181-200.
144. Tiem V.T.A., Horsfield B., Sykes R. Influence of in-situ bitumen on the generation of gas and oil in New Zealand coals. Organic Geochemistry 2008, 39(11):1606-1619.
145. Tissot B.P., Welte D.H. Petroleum Formation and Occurrence 1984, Springer-Verlag. Second ed.
146. Vandenbroucke M., Behar F., San Torcuato A., Rullkötter J. Kerogen maturation in a reference kerogen Type II series: the Toarcian shales of the Hils syncline, NW Germany. Organic Geochemistry 1993, 20(7):961-972.
147. Vandenbroucke M., Largeau C. Kerogen origin, evolution and structure. Organic Geochemistry 2007, 38(5):719-833.
148. Wang J., Morin C., Li L., Hitchcock A., Scholl A., Doran A. Radiation damage in soft X-ray microscopy. Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena 2009, 170(1-3):25-36.
149. Waples D.W. The kinetics of in-reservoir oil destruction and gas formation: constraints from experimental and empirical data, and from thermodynamics. Organic Geochemistry 2000, 31(6):553-575.
150. Wei Z.B., Gao X.X., Zhang D.J., Da J. Assessment of thermal evolution of kerogen geopolymers with their structural parameters measured by solid-state C-13 NMR spectroscopy. Energy & Fuels 2005, 19(1):240-250.
151. Wilkes H., Clegg H., Disko U., Willsch H., Horsfield B. Fluoren-9-ones and carbazoles in the Posidonia Shale, Hils syncline, northwest Germany. Fuel 1998, 77(7):657-668.
152. Wilkes H., Disko U., Horsfield B. Aromatic aldehydes and ketones in the Posidonia Shale, Hils syncline, Germany. Organic Geochemistry 1998, 29(1-3):107-117.
153. Wirth R. Focused ion beam (FIB): a novel technology for advanced application of micro- and nanoanalysis in geosciences and applied mineralogy. European Journal of Mineralogy 2004, 16(6):863-876.
154. Wirth R. Focused ion beam (FIB) combined with SEM and TEM: advanced analytical tools for studies of chemical composition, microstructure and crystal structure in geomaterials on a nanometre scale. Chemical Geology 2009, 261(3-4):217-229.